Environmental Science Study Guide

Introduction to Environment: Environmental science is the interdisciplinary study of living organisms and
their interactions with the Earth’s physical components (air, water, soil, climate, etc.) 1 . It seeks to
understand how human activities affect natural systems and to find sustainable solutions. In this field,
“environment” encompasses all external factors (biotic and abiotic) that influence life. Environmental
studies raise awareness of the critical need to conserve our planet and the harms of pollution and
degradation 2 . Its scope includes everything from chemical cycles and ecosystem services to socio-
economic policies. Key goals are to preserve ecosystem function and resources and to maintain
environmental quality for human well-being. For example, by studying how water, air, land, and organisms
interrelate, we learn to manage resources wisely, prevent pollution, and ensure sustainable development
1 2 .

• Definition: Environment = all living and non-living surroundings that affect organisms;
Environmental science = study of these interactions across biology, chemistry, sociology, economics,
etc. 1 .
• Scope: Includes ecosystems, resources (soil, water, energy), pollution, human impact, and
environmental policy.
• Importance: Helps us understand resource limits, human impacts (climate change, loss of
biodiversity), and ways to protect nature (conservation laws, sustainable practices) 1 2 .

Natural Resources
Natural resources are the components of the environment used by humans for survival and development.
Major categories include forest, water, mineral, and land resources. Each resource has useful services
but is vulnerable to overuse and degradation.

Forest Resources

Forests are rich ecosystems providing timber, fuelwood, medicines, fruits, and habitat for wildlife 3 . They
also supply ecological services like carbon storage, soil conservation, and water regulation. However, forests
are overexploited by logging and land clearing. For example, timber extraction (for lumber and paper)
and agricultural expansion (clearing land for crops like palm oil or soy) destroy large areas 3 . The
satellite image below illustrates deforested patches (light brown fields) amid Amazon forest (dark green)
near Yurimaguas, Peru:

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Figure: Landsat image of Yurimaguas, Peru (Amazon). The pale fields and roads radiating from the town show
deforested land (2001) compared to intact rainforest 3 4 .

• Uses: Timber, pulp, fuelwood, fruits, latex (rubber), medicines. Non-timber products (resins, honey).
Livelihoods for tribal and rural communities.
• Over-exploitation: Logging (often unsustainable), clearing for agriculture and cattle ranching, road-
building, mining, and dam construction 3 4 .
• Effects: Habitat loss and fragmentation cause loss of biodiversity. Soil exposed after clearing erodes
easily. Watersheds are disrupted (affecting water supply). Forest removal contributes to climate
change (less CO₂ uptake).
• Dams: Large hydroelectric dams flood forests and displace people. For instance, hydro reservoirs
“destroy forest, wildlife habitat, agricultural land” and force relocation of communities 4 . The
Three Gorges Dam (China) and others have shown such impacts.
• Impact on Tribal Peoples: Indigenous communities depend on forests. Deforestation and projects
like mining or dams often displace tribal villages, undermining their culture and food security.
Conservation and rights movements (e.g. Chipko in India) have arisen to protect forests and local
peoples.

Water Resources

Water is essential for life, agriculture, industry and ecosystems. Surface water (rivers, lakes) and
groundwater are both heavily used:

• Uses: Drinking, irrigation, sanitation, industry, hydropower, recreation.

• Overuse: Excessive withdrawal for irrigation and cities lowers water tables and river flows. Over-
extraction of groundwater causes wells to dry up, land subsidence, and saltwater intrusion in
coastal areas 5 6 .
• Floods and Droughts: Mismanagement (deforestation, poor drainage) and climate variability lead to
floods in monsoon or rainy seasons, and drought in dry years. Floods can wash away crops and

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 infrastructure, while droughts reduce water supply, cause crop failures, and heighten conflict over
scarce water 5 .
• Water Conflicts: Shared rivers (Indus, Ganges, Nile, Mekong, Colorado, etc.) often cause disputes.
For example, the Indus Waters Treaty and tensions over the Brahmaputra in Asia illustrate conflicts
of water allocation.
• Dams: Dams provide benefits such as hydroelectric power, irrigation, water storage, and flood
control 7 . They allow dry-season irrigation and can generate clean energy. However, they also have
problems: they inundate land, disrupt river ecosystems, block fish migration, and require
relocation of people downstream or on the reservoir site. As noted by the US Dept. of Energy, dams
“provide flood control, irrigation support, and reservoirs for recreation,” but constructing them also
causes large-scale environmental changes 7 4 .

Water Conservation Measures: Rainwater harvesting (collecting roof runoff to recharge aquifers) and
wastewater reuse reduce pressure on fresh sources 8 . Fixing leaks, efficient irrigation (drip/sprinkler), and
watershed management (contour farming, check dams) help maintain supply.

Mineral Resources

Mineral and fossil fuel extraction (coal, oil, natural gas, ores, sand, gravel) powers industry and
infrastructure. Uses: energy production, metals for construction and manufacturing, minerals for
electronics, etc. Exploitation effects include:

• Environmental Effects: Mining disturbs land and vegetation, creating pits and waste heaps. It often
causes deforestation and erosion 9 . Exposure of rock to air/water can produce acid mine
drainage (toxic runoff) that contaminates streams with heavy metals. Crushing and processing ore
releases dust and can pollute air and water.
• Waste: Large volumes of mine tailings (rock left after mineral extraction) create long-term
contamination risks. E.g., tailings ponds can leak toxic elements (arsenic, mercury, cyanide).
• Health and Ecology: Mine sites can degrade wildlife habitat. Some mines release radioactivity
(uranium) or asbestos. Workers may face occupational hazards (silicosis, chemical exposure).

Agricultural Land and Food Resources

Land is a key resource for agriculture and forestry. Food production depends on fertile soil and stable land.
Human activities lead to land degradation:

• Soil Erosion: Removing vegetation (e.g. deforestation, overgrazing, poor tillage) causes topsoil to
wash or blow away. As WWF notes, clearing forests leaves topsoil “easily eroded by wind and rain,”
leading to loss of fertile land 10 . Soil erosion reduces crop yields, leads to siltation of rivers, and can
form new desert-like areas 11 .
• Landslides: In hilly areas, deforestation and road cuts destabilize slopes. Man-induced landslides
occur when trees are removed or slopes are over-farmed, triggering mudslides that destroy
farmland and villages.
• Salinization/Waterlogging: Excessive irrigation without drainage can raise the water table, bringing
salts to the surface and turning productive land barren (as happened in parts of Central Asia).
• Desertification: Overuse of fragile lands (overgrazing, deforestation, drought) transforms semiarid
lands into desert. This process, driven partly by climate change, leads to loss of biodiversity and

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 farmland 11 . According to WWF, desertification threatens food production by degrading soils and
shrinking arable area 12 13 .
• Over-fertilization/Pesticides: Intensive agriculture adds chemicals that can degrade soils and
pollute water.

Conservation: Practices like crop rotation, terracing, agroforestry, and reforestation can restore soil fertility.
Contour plowing and check dams in watersheds help reduce runoff. Protecting vegetation cover (grasses,
forests) is crucial to prevent landslides and erosion.

Ecosystems and Biodiversity

Ecosystems

An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of living organisms (plants, animals, microbes) and their physical
environment interacting as a functional unit 14 . Every ecosystem (forest, lake, grassland, desert, urban
park, etc.) has two key aspects:

• Structure: Includes all organisms (the biotic community) and non-living (abiotic) factors such as
sunlight, temperature, water, and soil. Organisms are grouped by how they get energy: producers
(autotrophs like plants/algae that make organic matter from sunlight), consumers (heterotrophs:
herbivores, carnivores, omnivores), and decomposers (fungi, bacteria that recycle nutrients).
• Function: Energy flows through an ecosystem and nutrients cycle within it 15 . Ecosystems absorb
solar energy via producers and transfer it through food chains, with much of the energy lost as heat
at each level. Nutrients (carbon, nitrogen, water) continually recycle between organisms and the
environment.

Food Chains & Webs: A food chain is a linear sequence of who-eats-whom. For example, grass →
grasshopper → frog → snake → hawk. However, most organisms have diverse diets, so real interactions
form a food web – an interconnected network of many food chains. In a food chain, energy moves from
producers up through herbivores to predators 16 .

• Ecological Pyramids: These illustrate energy or biomass distribution across trophic levels. The 10%
rule governs energy flow: only about 10% of energy at one level passes to the next 17 . Thus each
successive level supports fewer organisms. For example, a large mass of plants (producers) is
needed to support a smaller mass of herbivores, which in turn supports even smaller carnivore
populations.

• Succession: Ecosystems change over time through ecological succession. After a disturbance
(volcano, flood, fire), a sterile environment gradually develops a mature community. Primary
succession starts on bare substrate (like new lava or exposed rock); pioneer species (lichens,
mosses) create soil, then grasses, shrubs, and eventually a forest appear 18 . Secondary succession
happens when soil remains (e.g. after a fire or farming), allowing faster recovery of vegetation 19 .
Eventually a stable climax community may form, though climate or new disturbances mean
ecosystems are always evolving.

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Biodiversity and Conservation

Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth at all levels – genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity 20 . A
biodiverse region has many different genes, species, and habitats. High biodiversity boosts resilience: for
example, genetic diversity in crops ensures food security against pests or climate change.

• Genetic Diversity: Variations within a species (different varieties of crops, livestock). It allows
adaptation and breeding of improved strains. For instance, wild rice relatives provide genes for
drought tolerance in cultivated rice.
• Species Diversity: The number of different species in a region. Tropical rainforests and coral reefs
are extremely species-rich. Loss of a single species (pollinator, predator) can disrupt ecosystem
function.
• Ecosystem Diversity: Variety of habitats (forests, wetlands, grasslands, oceans) on Earth. Different
ecosystems offer distinct services (e.g. wetlands purify water; forests regulate climate).

Value of Biodiversity: Biodiversity provides multiple values: - Consumptive (direct use): Food, fuel, medicine,
materials that people harvest and consume (fruits, timber, fish) 21 .
- Productive (indirect economic): Industries (pharmaceuticals, agriculture, biotechnology) rely on biological
resources. Genetic resources drive drug discovery and crop improvement 22 .
- Social/Cultural: Traditions, recreation and tourism depend on nature (wilderness parks, cultural beliefs tied
to species).
- Ethical: Many argue species have an intrinsic right to exist.
- Aesthetic: Natural beauty (landscapes, wildlife) enriches human life.
- Option (future): Genes and species might have future uses yet unknown (e.g. potential medicines from
rainforest plants).

Biodiversity Hotspots and India: Biodiversity varies globally. Only ~17 countries (e.g. Brazil, Indonesia,
India) contain ~70% of all species (“mega-diverse” nations). India is one of these megadiverse countries –
home to ~7–8% of world’s recorded species and four of the Earth’s 34 biodiversity hotspots (Western Ghats,
Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Sundaland) 23 . India has 91,200 animal and 45,500 plant species documented,
many of which are endemic (found nowhere else) 23 . Conservation of habitats (national parks, biosphere
reserves) is essential to protect this richness. Globally, recognizing these hotspots helps prioritize areas for
conservation, since they often face the most severe threats.

Environmental Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of harmful substances or energy into the environment, degrading its quality.
Types include air, water, soil, noise, thermal, and radioactive pollution. Each has distinct causes, effects,
and controls:

• Air Pollution: Major pollutants include particulate matter (soot, dust), sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and greenhouse gases (CO₂, methane).
Sources: Vehicle exhaust, coal/gas combustion, industrial emissions, burning of biomass, etc.
Effects: Respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (WHO reports ~4.2 million premature deaths
annually from ambient air pollution 24 ), acid rain (from SO₂/NOₓ) that damages forests and acidifies
lakes, smog that reduces visibility, and global warming from greenhouse gases. For example, the
1952 London Smog (coal soot) caused thousands of deaths, highlighting health risks. Control:

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 Emission regulations (catalytic converters, scrubbers), transition to clean energy, emission standards
(e.g. CAFE for cars), improving fuel quality. Planting urban greenery and promoting public transit
also help.
• Illustration: The pathway for acid rain is shown below. SO₂ and NOₓ from burning fossil fuels convert
to acids in clouds and fall as acid precipitation, harming soils, forests and aquatic life 25 :

Figure: Acid Rain Pathway. Industrial SO₂ and NOₓ emissions transform into sulfuric/nitric acids in the atmosphere,
then deposit as acid rain, affecting soil, forests, rivers and lakes 25 .

• Water Pollution: Contamination of water bodies by chemicals, wastes or pathogens. Sources:

Untreated sewage, industrial effluents (chemicals, heavy metals, oil spills), agricultural runoff
(fertilizers, pesticides), and plastics. Effects: Waterborne diseases (cholera, dysentery) kill about
829,000 people annually (mostly young children) due to unsafe drinking water and sanitation 26 .
Aquatic life suffers: toxic runoff can cause fish kills (e.g. Minamata mercury poisoning in Japan) and
algal blooms/dead zones from nutrient runoff. Groundwater pollution (e.g. arsenic in India/
Bangladesh wells) poisons drinking sources. Control: Sewage and industrial wastewater treatment,
buffer zones along rivers, banning harmful chemicals, and clean-up of oil spills (e.g. the Exxon Valdez
and Deepwater Horizon cases). Raising awareness (e.g. not dumping plastics) and safe drinking
programs (water filters, chlorination) are critical.

• Soil Pollution: Soil becomes contaminated by agrochemicals (pesticides, herbicides), heavy metals
(from mining or industry), and waste dumping. Effects: Crops take up toxins, entering food chains;
soil fertility declines. Contaminated soils can also leach poisons into groundwater. Pesticide overuse,
for instance, has led to residues in food and killed beneficial insects (e.g. bees). Control: Organic
farming, proper disposal of hazardous waste, and remediation techniques (bioremediation using
plants/microbes) can restore soil health.

• Marine Pollution: Ocean contamination by oil, plastics, and chemicals. Oil Spills: Catastrophic
events (e.g. 2010 Deepwater Horizon spill) release millions of gallons of oil, smothering marine life,
fouling coasts, and causing long-term ecosystem damage. Plastic Waste: Millions of tons of plastic

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 enter oceans yearly, forming garbage patches and entangling wildlife. Microplastics have entered
the marine food chain, affecting fish and potentially humans. Other: Chemical runoff (PCBs, heavy
metals) and untreated sewage also pollute coasts. Effects: Coral bleaching (from chemical stress and
warming), decline of fish stocks, economic losses for tourism and fishing. Control: International
regulations on dumping (MARPOL), cleanup efforts, and reducing plastic use.

• Noise Pollution: Excessive noise from traffic, airplanes, construction, and industrial machines.
Effects: Hearing loss, sleep disturbance, stress, and elevated blood pressure are common. Noise
also affects wildlife (e.g. marine mammal navigation). Control: Zoning (quiet residential areas),
enforcing noise limits, using silencers on engines, and encouraging electric vehicles reduce noise.

• Thermal Pollution: Often from power plants that discharge heated water into rivers or lakes.
Effects: Raises water temperature, lowering dissolved oxygen and harming aquatic species (fish kills,
altered breeding cycles). Control: Cooling towers, cooling ponds, and wastewater cooling before
discharge help mitigate effects.

• Nuclear Pollution (Radiation Hazards): Radioactive contamination from nuclear power plants,
medical waste, or weapons. Effects: Radiation can damage living cells, cause cancers, and genetic
mutations 27 . Major accidents (Chernobyl 1986, Fukushima 2011) released radionuclides
(iodine-131, cesium-137) that contaminated land for decades, leading to long-term health and
ecological impacts. Nuclear waste remains hazardous for thousands of years if not stored safely.
Control: Strict safety regulations, secure containment of radioactive waste (deep geological storage),
and emergency planning. Public awareness about radon (a natural radioactive gas) and limiting
exposure are also important.

• Solid Waste (Municipal/Industrial): Everyday garbage (paper, plastic, food waste) and industrial
waste. Issues: Landfills produce methane (a potent GHG) and toxic leachate; uncontrolled dumping
pollutes soil and water. Incineration (without filters) emits dioxins. Electronic waste and hazardous
industrial waste pose special risks. Control: “Reduce, Reuse, Recycle” campaigns; segregation of
waste at source; composting organic waste; sanitary landfills with liners and gas capture; and strict
industrial waste regulations. Urban waste management (collection, recycling programs) is a key
societal challenge.

Pollution Case Studies (Examples): The London Smog (1952) and Beijing air crises illustrate deadly smog
events. The Love Canal (USA, 1970s) and Bhopal (India, 1984) highlight toxic waste and industrial disaster.
Minamata Disease (Japan, 1950s) showed mercury poisoning from factory effluent. Exxon Valdez (1989)
and Deepwater Horizon (2010) exemplify oil spill disasters. These cases emphasize why regulation and
emergency planning are vital.

Environment and Society

Human society and behavior play a crucial role in environmental health:

• Individual Responsibility: Every person can reduce pollution by conserving resources and choosing
sustainable practices. For example, minimizing use of plastics, recycling, using public transport or
carpooling, saving electricity (LED lights, energy-efficient appliances), and planting trees all help. In

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 agriculture, farmers can adopt organic methods. Public awareness and education (eco-clubs,
community clean-ups) empower individuals to reduce ecological footprints.

• Consumerism and Waste: Modern consumer culture (“throw-away society”) leads to

overconsumption and waste. Fast fashion, single-use products, and planned obsolescence generate
mountains of garbage and resource depletion. Societal shifts toward sustainable consumption are
needed – e.g. buying durable goods, supporting eco-friendly products, and sharing economy models
(car sharing, repair cafes).

• From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development: The Brundtland definition is instructive:

“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” 28 . Achieving this balance requires
integrating economic progress with environmental protection and social equity 28 . Policies like
Green Building standards, renewable energy incentives, and sustainable agriculture guide this
transition. For individuals, it means choosing products and lifestyles that use fewer resources and
generate less pollution.

• Water Conservation: Techniques such as rainwater harvesting (collecting roof runoff in tanks or
percolation pits) and recycling greywater reduce demand on freshwater supplies. For example,
households can capture monsoon rain to irrigate gardens. Drip irrigation and soil moisture
conservation help farmers use water more efficiently. The use of rainwater harvesting, wastewater
reuse and proper water pricing can help prevent overuse of surface and groundwater 8 .

• Watershed Management: This holistic approach manages water and land use in an entire drainage
basin. Measures include building check dams and contour trenches on slopes to capture runoff,
reforestation to stabilize soil, and regulating land use to prevent erosion. Integrated watershed
projects in many regions aim to enhance groundwater recharge and reduce floods/drought impacts.

Environmental Protection Acts and Population

Key Environmental Laws

Many countries have enacted laws to protect the environment. (Below are examples from India and general
principles from international law.)

• The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (India): An umbrella legislation empowering the
government to regulate all forms of pollution. It authorizes setting pollution standards, inspecting
facilities, and penalizing violators 29 .
• Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (India): Regulates emissions of air pollutants,
establishes air quality boards.
• Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (India): Similar framework for water bodies
and effluents.
• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Safeguards animals and plants by creating protected areas (national
parks, sanctuaries) and regulating hunting.
• Forest Conservation Act, 1980: Requires central approval for clearing forests for non-forest use.

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 • Biodiversity Act, 2002: Implements the Convention on Biological Diversity; conserves biodiversity
and regulates access to biological resources.
• Municipal Waste Management Rules, Hazardous Waste Rules, etc.: Regulate solid and industrial
waste disposal.

Internationally, instruments like the Paris Agreement (2015) (on climate), Montreal Protocol (on ozone-
depleting substances), and conventions (Ramsar on wetlands, CITES on trade of endangered species) set
standards. For example, the Paris Agreement (2015) is binding worldwide to limit global warming. The UN’s
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (17 SDGs) provides a global framework linking environment,
society, and economy.

Population and Environment

Human population growth amplifies environmental pressures. World population surpassed 7 billion in 2011
and reached 8 billion in 2022 30 , largely because more people are living to reproductive age. The UN
projects nearly 10 billion by mid-21st century 31 . However, growth rates vary widely among countries 32 :
many African and South Asian countries still have rapid population expansion (doubling or more by 2050),
whereas numerous high-income countries (e.g. Japan, parts of Europe) face declining or aging populations
32 .

Population size (and density) affects resource use and waste. More people mean higher demand for food,
water, energy and land, often leading to deforestation, habitat loss, pollution, and climate emissions.
Concepts like IPAT (Impact = Population × Affluence × Technology) capture how population magnifies
environmental impact. In summary, managing population growth (through education, health care, and
family planning) is a critical component of sustainability.

Environment and Human Health

The environment has a profound impact on human health. Pollution, ecosystem change, and climate affect
disease and well-being:

• Air Pollution & Health: As noted by WHO, outdoor air pollution causes millions of premature deaths
(4.2 million in 2019) from heart disease, stroke, lung diseases and cancers 24 . Indoor air pollution
(from cooking fires) also kills and sickens especially in developing regions. Poor air quality
aggravates asthma and chronic bronchitis.

• Water Quality & Disease: Contaminated water transmits diseases. Unsafe drinking water and
sanitation cause diarrheal illnesses that kill hundreds of thousands of children yearly (829,000
deaths from diarrheal diseases due to unsafe water/sanitation 26 ). Chemicals like arsenic or lead in
water cause long-term health problems (e.g. cancer, neurological damage). Clean water and proper
sewage disposal are thus vital public health measures.

• Vector-Borne Diseases: Environmental change alters disease patterns. Stagnant water from
irrigation or flooding can expand mosquito habitats, increasing malaria, dengue and Zika risks.
Deforestation can bring humans into contact with new disease vectors (e.g. Lyme disease, Ebola).

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 • Nutrition and Health: Soil and water quality affect food safety and nutrition. Pesticide residues,
heavy metals (e.g. mercury in fish) or soil depletion impact food chain health. Land degradation
(desertification) can lead to malnutrition and famine in vulnerable regions.

• Climate Change: Altered climate is a “threat multiplier” for health 33 . The WHO projects that
between 2030–2050, climate change will cause ~250,000 extra deaths per year (from heat stress,
malaria, malnutrition and diarrheal disease) 34 . Extreme weather events (heatwaves, floods,
hurricanes) cause injuries, deaths, and displacement. Heat stress and air pollution (from fires) will
worsen health in tropical regions.

• Epidemics and Pandemics: Environmental factors can influence outbreaks. For instance, the
COVID-19 pandemic was linked to wildlife trade and zoonotic spillover, highlighting the link between
ecosystem disruption and human disease. Urban crowding without sanitation can spread diseases
rapidly.

• Role of Information Technology: Modern IT tools are increasingly used in environmental health.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and satellite remote sensing map disease outbreaks,
pollution hotspots and environmental changes. For example, mobile phone data and social media
analytics have been used to detect disease outbreaks: one study used Twitter posts to identify a
dengue fever spike, and smartphone apps allowed citizens to upload images of mosquitoes by
location 35 . Remote sensors and health informatics systems enable real-time monitoring of air
quality or radiation levels, linking environmental data to health outcomes. Telemedicine and
electronic health records (EHR) improve healthcare reach while reducing travel emissions. Overall,
information technology enhances surveillance, modeling and response for both environment and
public health.

In summary, maintaining a healthy environment is fundamental to public health. Clean air and water, safe
food, and stable climates reduce disease burdens. Conversely, pollution and ecosystem damage increase
health risks, making environmental protection a key health priority 24 26 .

Sources: Authoritative texts and recent publications have informed this guide 1 2 3 23 24 26 28

29 35 , among others. This guide integrates global and regional examples to aid exam preparation on
environmental science topics.

1 2 Scope and Importance of Environmental Studies

https://lawbhoomi.com/scope-and-importance-of-environmental-studies/

3 Forest resources, Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, Timber extraction, mining, dams and
their effects on forest and tribal people, case studies
https://theintactone.com/2023/03/08/forest-resources-use-and-over-exploitation-deforestation-timber-extraction-mining-
dams-and-their-effects-on-forest-and-tribal-people-case-studies/

4 Environmental Impacts of Hydroelectric Power | Union of Concerned Scientists

https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/environmental-impacts-hydroelectric-power

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5 6 Water Resources: Use and over-utilization of surface and ground water, floods, drought,
8 Conflicts over water
https://theintactone.com/2023/03/08/water-resources-use-and-over-utilization-of-surface-and-ground-water-floods-
drought-conflicts-over-water/

7 Benefits of Hydropower | Department of Energy

https://www.energy.gov/eere/water/benefits-hydropower

9 The global impact of mining: Challenges and consequences

https://www.globalsociety.earth/post/the-global-impact-of-mining-challenges-and-consequences

10 11 12 What is Erosion? Effects of Soil Erosion and Land Degradation

13 https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-and-degradation

14 15 Ecosystem | Definition, Components, Examples, Structure, & Facts | Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/science/ecosystem

16 Food chain | Definition, Types, & Facts | Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/science/food-chain

17 Energy Flow and the 10 Percent Rule

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/energy-flow-and-10-percent-rule/

18 19 Ecological succession | Definition & Facts | Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/science/ecological-succession

20 21 Values of Biodiversity: Consumptive use, Productive use, Social, Ethical, Aesthetic and
22 Option Values
https://theintactone.com/2023/03/08/value-of-biodiversity-consumptive-uses-productive-social-ethical-aesthetic-and-
option-values/

23 Main Details
https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=in

24 Ambient (outdoor) air pollution

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health

25 What is Acid Rain? | US EPA

https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain

26 Frontiers | Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health and Disease Heterogeneity: A Review
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/environmental-science/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2022.880246/full

27 Nuclear Pollution (Radiation Pollution)

https://www.nextias.com/blog/nuclear-pollution/

28 Sustainable development - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_development

29 CPCB | Central Pollution Control Board

https://cpcb.nic.in/env-protection-act/

30 31 32 World population trends

https://www.unfpa.org/world-population-trends

33 34 Climate change
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/climate-change-and-health

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35 Digital health for climate change mitigation and response: a scoping review - PMC
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9667157/

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