MODULE- 5

Architecture- Origins and Indian Perspective

 Architecture is not a modern phenomenon. It began as soon as the early cave man
began to build his own shelter to live in. Man first began to create and fix his own
shelter when he stepped out from the natural habitat of dense jungle covers.
 Architecture accommodated the local and regional cultural traditions and social
requirements, economic prosperity, religious practice of different times.
 Indian Architecture evolved in various ages in different parts and regions of the
country. Apart from this architecture was generally affected by many great and
important historic developments.
 India has seen a variety of architectural styles emerge over the course of its history.
Some examples include temple architecture, Mughal architecture, Dravidian
architecture and cave architecture. Many early Indian buildings were made of wood,
which was often decayed, burned, or brick that has been removed for reuse.
 Naturally, the emergence and decay of great empires and dynasties in the sub-
continent, each in their way influenced the growth and shaped the evolution of
Indian architecture.

Harappan Period

 The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and several other sites of the Indus
Valley Civilisation revealed the existence of a very modern urban civilisation with
expert town planning and engineering skills.
 The very advanced drainage system along with well-planned roads and houses show
that a sophisticated and highly evolves culture existed in India before the coming of
the Aryans.
 The sites of the Indus Valley Civilization were excavates under the Archaeological
Survey of India established by the British. The Harappan people had constructed
mainly three types of buildings Dwelling houses Pillared halls Public baths
 The most important features of Harappan architecture are their superior town
planning skills and cities that have been built on a clear geometric pattern or grid
layout.. The Harappa’s had the knowledge and skill of sculpting and craft. The world’s
first bronze sculpture of a dancing girl has been found in Mohenjo-Daro.

Early Historic Period

 Megasthenes, who visited the Mauryan court described Chandragupta Maurya՚ s

palace as an excellent architectural achievement.
  In the Mauryan Period especially under Ashoka architecture saw a great
advancement.
 Mauryan art and architecture depicted the influence of Persians and Greeks. During
the reign of Ashoka many monolithic stone pillars were erected on which teachings
of ‘Dharma’ were inscribed.
 The lion capital of the Sarnath pillar has been accepted as the emblem of the Indian
Republic. The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath are symbols of the achievement of
Mauryan architecture.
 The Gupta Period marks the beginning of the construction of free-standing Hindu
temples.
Cave Architecture
 The development of cave architecture is another unique feature and marks an
important phase in the history of Indian architecture. More than thousand caves
have been excavated between second century BC and tenth century AD. Famous
among these were Ajanta and Ellora caves of Maharashtra, and Udaigiri cave of
Orissa.

 The cave architecture in India is believed to have started in the third century BC. Such
structures were used by the Jain monks and the Buddhist typically as a place of
residence and worship. Some examples of this type of cave structure are Chaityas
and Viharas of Buddhists. Caves in India are usually linked with three different
religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism; hence they reflect the
architectural difference in accordance with respective religions.

Rock-Cut Temples

 Temples were cut out of huge rocks. The earliest rock-cut temples were excavated in
western Deccan in the early years of the Christian era.
 The chaitya at Karle with fine high halls and polished decorative wall is a remarkable
example of rock-cut architecture.
 The Kailash temple at Ellora built by the Rashtrakuta and the ratha temples of
Mahabalipuram built by the Pallavas are other examples of rock-cut temples.
 Rock-cut architecture is the art of creating a structure by carving it out of a solid
natural rock. Most of the rock-cut structures in our country were related to different
religious communities.

Free-Standing Temples

 Temple architecture in India developed in almost all the regions during the ancient
India. Across the country distinct architectural styles in temple construction can be
 seen, this differentiation is mainly caused due to the geographical, climatic, racial,
ethnic, linguistic, and historical diversities. Ancient Indian temples are classified into
three broad categories, i.e. Nagara or the Northern style, Vesara or Mixed style, and
Dravida or the Southern style. Apart from the broad classification, Kerala, Bengal,
and the Himalayan areas also display their regional styles in temple architecture
which are equally unique.
 The temple building activities that began during the Gupta rule continued to flourish
in later periods. In southern India the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Hoyshalas and later
the rulers of the Vijayanagar kingdom were great builders of temples.
 The Pallava rulers built the shore temple at Mahabalipuram. The Cholas built many
temples most famous being the Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore. The Cholas
developed a typical style of temple architecture of south India called the Dravida
style, complete with, high walls and the gateway topped by gopuram.
 The Sun temple at Konark was built in thirteenth century by the eastern Ganga rules
Narsimha Deva.
 The Mughal architectural style is a unique blend of Islamic, Persian and Indian styles.
Humayun’s Tomb, Akbar’s Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort at Delhi, Jami Masjid Delhi
and the Taj Mahal at Agra are few examples of such structures.

COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE AND THE MODERN PERIOD

 The colonial influence can be seen in office buildings. Europeans who started coming from
sixteenth century AD constructed many churches and other buildings.
 Portuguese built many churches at Goa.The British also built administrative and
residential buildings which reflect their imperial glory.
 Parliament House and Connaught Place in Delhi are good examples. The architect
Lutyens, designed Rashtrapati Bhavan, formerly the Viceroy՚ s residence.
 The Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, the former capital of British India, is a huge edifice
in marble. It now houses a museum full of colonial artifacts.
 The British also left behind impressive railway terminals like the Victoria Terminus in
Mumbai. In the past few decades, there have been many talented Indian architects,
some trained in premier schools of architecture like the School of planning and
Architecture (SPA) in Delhi.

Towns and Cities in India

 Harappan civilization has had a very history of town planning, which can be traced
back to 2350 B. C. The most well-known two cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
had an elaborate drainage system, roads which cut each other at right angles, a
 citadel which was built on a high ground and in the lower parts lived the rest of the
population.
 Kalibangam in Rajasthan and Surkotda in kutch had similar city structure. From 600 B.
C. onwards, we as Dravidian civilization. These were Rajgir, Varanasi, Ayodhya,
Hastinapur, Ujjain, Sravasthi, Kapilvastu and Kausambhi besides many others.
 later, during the 16th century, the Europeans came to India through the sea route
and thus began the establishment of new port towns like Panaji in Goa (1510),
Bombay in Maharashtra (1532), Machilipatnam (1605), Nagapattnam (1658), Madras
(1639) in the south and Calcutta (1690) in the east.
 After 1853, railway lines were also laid out by the British to carry goods from the
interiors to the ports or connecting areas which were supplying raw materials or
receiving finished goods.
 New residential areas like Civil Lines and Cantonments came up in towns. The area
where civilian administrative Officers lived was called Civil Lines, while cantonments
were areas meant for the British Army Officers.
 By the beginning of the 20th century, Bombay (now Mumbai), Calcutta (now Kolkata)
and Madras (now Chennai) had become well known important cities for
administration, commerce as well as industries.

Indian Sculptures, Seals, Coins &Pottery

 Indus Civilization Sculptures: The forms of art excavated include various sculptures,
seals, pottery, gold jewellery, terracotta figures, and other interesting works of art.

 Metal Sculptures
• The Harappan artisans were skilled in the sphere of bronze casting and employed the
lost wax process while sculpting figurines. Lost-wax process, a method of metal
casting in which a molten metal is poured into a mold that has been created by
means of a wax model.
• The bronze humped bull and a buffalo are the other metal sculptures made during

this period.

 Stone Sculptures
• Several specimens of stone sculptures which were crafted during the civilization have
been excavated. Out of these, two statues deserve a special mention and consist of
the statue of the ‘Bearded Man’ and ‘Human Torso’.
 • One will derive the idea of a high priest or a king.
• Another impressive stone sculpted statue is that of a human male torso, made in red
stone. The arms and head of this idol have been created separately. It was found in
Harappa.

 Terracotta Sculpture
• Terracotta art was also practised by the people of Indus Valley.
• The figure of the Mother Goddess crafted in terracotta, discovered in Mohen-jo-Daro
is one of the significant terracotta sculptures of this age.
• Mohenjo-Daro, belonging to the same period i.e. 2500 BCE, is one of the most
interesting objects found during the excavations.

 Beads and Ornaments

• The Harappan men and women decorated themselves with a large variety of
ornaments produced from every conceivable material ranging from precious metals
and gemstones to bone and baked clay.
• The bead industry seems to have been well developed as evident from the factories
discovered at Chanhudaro and Lothal.
• Metals like copper, bronze and gold, and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay
were also used for manufacturing beads. The beads are in varying shapes—disc-

shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented.

 Mauryan Empire Sculptures

• Mauryan sculpture introduced new things in Indian sculpture like the introduction of
stone and brick sculptures in place of wooden sculptures.
• Most of the Mauryan sculptures are related to Buddhism. This can be attributed to
Emperor Ashoka. After converting to Buddhism, Emperor Ashoka had built several
Buddhist buildings and sculptures.
• Some of Ashoka’s edicts carved on pillars and rocks made out of shafts of sandstone,
represent the earliest known stone sculptures in our country.

 Stupa Sculpture of Mauryan Empire

 • The ‘stupas’ are solid dome like structures built with bricks and stones and they were
initially created as symbols of artistic tradition in Mauryan Dynasty.
• The greatest instances of the architecture of the Mauryan period are the great Sanchi
Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, surrounded by exquisitely carved stone railings around it.

• It is also famous and notable due to the four gateways called Toranas, since before
this there was no such tradition of carving gateways. These gateways are elaborately
carved and depict the various scenes from the life of Buddha and also about the
lifestyle of people in that era.

 Pillar Sculptures of Mauryan Empire

• The Pillars were one of the major works accomplished by Emperor Ashoka.
• The most famous Lion Capital (pillar showing four-lions) erected by Ashoka at Sarnath
in sandstone realistically represents the artistic achievements of Indian artists and
patronage of their masters.
• Two kinds of stone had been employed in the creation of the pillars which consisted
of fine grained hard sandstone of Chunar region close to Varanasi as well as spotted
white and red sandstone belonging to Mathura.
• Inscriptions containing principles of ‘Dharma’ or righteousness were embedded on all

these pillars.

 SEALS

• Terracotta seals were also manufactured. These seals included the carvings of peepal
leaves, female figurine with forms of deities and animals.
• Large number of seals made of steatite, terracotta and copper of various shapes and
sizes have also been discovered.
• The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, usually made
from the soft river stone, steatite.
• Seals have a great variety of motifs, most often of animals including those of the bull,
with or without the hump, the elephant, tiger, goat etc. Sometimes trees or human
 figures were also depicted. The most remarkable seal is the one depicted with a
figure in the centre and animals around. This seal is identified as the Pashupati Seal.

 COINS
• The study of coins is known as numismatics. It not only includes visual elements such
as script and images on the coins but also metallurgical analysis.
• Ancient coins were mostly minted in metals such as copper, silver, gold and lead.
• The earliest coins found in India contained certain symbols and were called punch-
marked coins. They were made of silver and copper (c. sixth century BC onwards).
• The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-
Greeks, who established control over the northwestern part of the subcontinent (c.
second century BC).
• The first gold coins were issued by the Kushanas in c. first century AD. Some of the
most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. Their earliest issues are
remarkable for their purity of gold content.
• Coins provide useful information regarding economic history as they were used as a
medium of exchange. Some coins were issued by guilds or associations of the
merchants and craftsmen with the permission of the rulers.
• This shows the influence of craft and commerce. Coins also portray kings and gods,
and contain religious symbols, all to which throw light on the art and religion of the
time.

 Pottery
 INTRODUCTION
• A large quantity of pottery excavated from the sites, enable us to understand the
gradual evolution of various design motifs as employed in different shapes, and
styles.
• The Indus Valley pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheel made wares, very few
being hand-made.
• Plain pottery is more common than painted ware. Plain pottery is generally of red
clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. It includes knobbed ware, ornamented
with rows of knobs.
 • The black painted ware has a fine coating of red slip on which geometric and animal
designs are executed in glossy black paint.
• Polychrome pottery is rare and mainly comprises small vases decorated with
geometric patterns in red, black, and green, rarely white and yellow. Incised ware is
also rare and the incised decoration was confined to the bases of the pans, always
inside and to the dishes of offering stands.
• Perforated pottery includes a large hole at the bottom and small holes all over the
wall, and was probably used for straining beverages.
• Pottery for household purposes is found in as many shapes and sizes as could be
conceived of for daily practical use. Straight and angular shapes are an exception,
while graceful curves are the rule. Miniature vessels, mostly less than half an inch in
height are, particularly, so marvelously crafted as to evoke admiration,
• POTTERY IN MATURE HARAPPA: ---Burial Pottery of Harappa. Burnished and painted
pottery. Burial pottery was specially and distinctly made. It reveals the Harappan
belief in life after death Presence or absence of this pottery in the grave goods
reflected social stratification.
• LATE HARAPPA: ---Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) – As we know the late Harappan
cultures (1900B.C. – 1200B.C.) was primarily chalcolithic. Some specific chalcolithic
sites show the elements of late Harappan(like use of burnt bricks,etc). These sites
have OCP. Black-grey burnished ware produced on slow wheel – Found in Swat
Valley. This resembles the pottery from north Iranian plateau.
• BLACK-ON-RED painted and wheel turned pottery – Also found in Swat Valley.

• GREY-WARE AND PAINTED GREY WARE, generally associated with Vedic people has
been found in conjunction with some late Harappan pottery.

 VEDIC ERA: ----- PGW (painted grey ware) The Vedic Era saw the emergence of
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture. The Rig Vedic sites have PGW but iron objects are
 absent. Hence it is considered a pre-iron phase of PGW. On the other hand, the Later
Vedic sites are considered iron-phase of PGW.

This pottery is an Iron Age pottery found in Gangetic plain and Ghaggar – Hakra
valley, lasting from roughly 1200 BC – 600 BC. Mathura was the largest PGW site.
Characterized by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with geometric patterns in
black. Are confined to few geographical locations, namely – Punjab, Haryana and
upper Ganga Valley. This culture is associated with village and town settlements (but
without large cities)

 LATER VEDIC ERA – (NBPW):-- The later Vedic people were acquainted with 4-types
of pottery – 1.Black-and-red ware,
2. black-slipped ware,
3.painted grey ware and
4.red ware.

END OF LATER VEDIC ERA – (NBPW):----Towards the very end of Later Vedic Age around 6th
century BC, we see the emergence of 2nd phase of urbanization(1st being Indus Valley
Civilization). This era marked the beginning of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
Map showing areas where NBPW pottery was found Glossy, shining type pottery.

Made of fine fabric and served as tableware for richer class. Considered deluxe
pottery only found with the elites revealing societal stratification which was a result
of Brahmanical hegemony.
This pottery continued to exist during the Mahajanapada era.Found in Hastinapur (in
UP), Navdatoli (Madhya Pradesh)
 MONOCHROME POTTERY has a fine and thin fabric. Potted on fast wheel and have a
strikingly lustrous surface. 90% of this type is jet black, brownish black and bluish
black and 10% have colours like pink, golden, brown among others.
Bichrome pottery is found less. It shows all the features of monochrome except that
 it shows combination of two colours.

A BICHROME POTTERY WITH TWO COLOURS

MEGALITHIC ERA:---

● MEGALITHIC SITE VIEW

This culture is placed between- 3rd Century BC to 1st Century AD.Megaliths refers to
monuments constructed of big (mega) stones (lith).

●MEGALITHIC POTTERY
This culture is particularly known for its large stone graves. In the South this age is
characterized by the use of iron.

MEGALITHIC POTTERY found in Kerala, Well baked and durable. Wheel thrown Bulk
of these are plain however, a sherd from Koldihawa reveals black painting on the
surface.

It has been excavated throughout India but majorly from the South. Mostly in
Vindhyas. They were used as grave goods revealing belief in life after death.

 PAINTINGS IN ANCIENT PERIOD: ORIGIN

Around the 1st century BCE the Shadanga or Six Limbs of Indian Painting, were
evolved, a series of canons laying down the main principles of the art. These 'Six
Limbs' have been translated as follows:
1. Rupabheda: The knowledge of appearances.
2. Pramanam: Correct perception, measure and structure.
3. Bhava: Action of feelings on forms.
4. Lavanya Yojanam: Infusion of grace, artistic representation.
5. Sadrisyam: Similitude.
 6. Varnikabhanga: Artistic manner of using the brush and colours.

 Painting as an art form has flourished in India from very early times as is evident from
the remains that have been discovered in the caves, and the literary sources.

 The history of art and painting in India begins with the pre-historic rock paintings.
Pre-historic paintings were generally executed on rocks and these rock engravings
were called Petrogylps.

 Indian Cave Paintings are regarded as the earliest evidences of Indian paintings that
are made on cave walls. Bhimbetka is a place in the state of Madhya Pradesh where
pre-historic paintings are discovered in numerous caves.

Figure: Bhimbetka Paintings

 The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer left
drying. Thousands of years ago, paintings and drawings had already appeared on the
seals of Harappan civilization.

 Both Hindu and Buddhist literature refer to paintings of various types and techniques
for example, the representation of folklore, line drawing and painting on textile and
other painting on the floor.

 Archaeology and literature proves flourishing of painting in India from pre-historic

times. The best specimens of Gupta paintings are the ones at Ajanta. Their subject
was animals and birds, trees, flowers, human figures and stories from the Jataka.

 Mural paintings are done on walls and rock surfaces like roofs and sides. One of the
Cave depicts the Buddhist monks going towards a stupa. But the best paintings were
done in the 5th – 6th centuries AD during the Gupta age. The murals chiefly depict
religious scenes from the life of the Buddha and the Buddhist Jataka stories.

 There were more paintings in pre historic era with linear representations, in green
and dark red, of huge animal figures, such as, Tigers, Elephants, Rhinos and Boars
beside stick-like human figures.
 Mostly they are filled with geometric patterns.

 Green paintings are of dances and red ones of hunters.

 

Materials used in the paintings

 Different materials were used in different types of paintings. Mention of chitra shalas
(art gallery) and Shilpasashtra (technical treatises on art) have been made in literary
sources.
 The principal colours used were red ochre (dhaturaga), vivid red (kum kum or
sindura), yellow ochre (haritala), indigo (blue), lampblack (kajjala), chalk white (Khadi
Mitti) terra verte (geru mati) and green. Use of colours were decided by the theme
and local atmosphere.

 Despite having a very traditionally secular design and theme the paintings of these
times started showing the impact of medieval influences i.e. flat and abstract
surfaces on the one hand and linear and somewhat angular designs on the other.

PAINTINGS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

 During the period of Delhi Sultanate mural painting has been reported from the
royal palaces and royal bed-chambers and mosques. These chiefly depict flowers,
leaves and plants.
 During this period, we have paintings from other regional states. The decorative
paintings of the palace of the Gwalior king Man Singh Tomar impressed both
Babur and Akbar.
 During 14th – 15th centuries A.D. miniature painting emerged as a powerful
movement in Gujarat and Rajasthan and spread to Central, North and Eastern
India because of the patronage of rich Jain merchants.
 The miniature, were small works which were made on perishable materials. In
this category, Buddhist, Jain and Hindu manuscripts were illustrated, on palm
leaves. They resemble the Ajanta style, but on a miniature scale. These were
made on the request of the merchants, who donated them to the temples and
monasteries.
 The art of painting reached its climax during the period of Jahangir who himself
was a great painter and connoisseur of art. Artists began to use vibrant colours
such as peacock blue and red and were able to give three dimensional effects to
paintings. Mansur, Bishan Das and Manohar were the most gifted painters of
Jahangir’s time.
  The rise of the Bhakti movement in India in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
also inspired illustrative texts on the themes of Vaishnava devotional cults. In the
pre-Mughal era mural paintings on the walls of temples gained prominence in the
northern part of India.

PAINTINGS IN THE MODERN PERIOD

 In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries paintings comprised semi
westernised local styles which were patronised by British residents and visitors.
Themes were generally drawn from Indian social life, popular festivals, and
Mughal monuments.
 In the later nineteenth century art schools on the European model were
established in major Indian cities like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
 Rabindranath Tagore, Abanindranath Tagore, E.B. Havell and Ananda Kehtish
Coomaraswamy played an important role in the emergence of the Bengal school
of Art. The Bengal School had a great flowering at Shantiniketan where
Rabindranath Tagore set up the Kala Bhavan.
 Another significant development was the formation of the Progressive Artists
Group in Bombay in 1948 under Francis Newton Souza. The group also included S
.H. Raza, M.F. Hussain, K.M. Ara, S.K. Bakre and H.A. Gode. This group broke away
from Bengal School of Art and represented the modern forceful art of
independent India.
 The Madras School of Art under Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury and K.C.S Paniker
emerged as an important art centre in post-independence period and influenced
a new generation of modern artists.
 Two government institutions have been set up to promote art, music etc in India.
The National Gallery of Modern Art has the largest collection of modern art under
one roof. The second one is the Lalit Kala Akademi which recognises and
patronizes artists in all fields.
PERFORMING ARTS: MUSIC, DANCE AND DRAMA
INTRODUCTION

India is a land of rich culture and heritage. Since the beginning of our civilization, music,
dance and drama have been an integral aspect of our culture. Initially, these art forms
were used as medium of propagation for religion and social reforms in which music and
dance were incorporated to gain popularity.

From the Vedic era to the medieval period, the performing arts remained an important
source of educating the masses. The Vedas laid down precise rules for the chanting of
 Vedic hymns. Presently, these art forms have become means of entertainment for
people all over the world.

 MUSIC
In ancient texts references have been made to flutes, drums, veena, and cymbals. Many
rulers such as Samudragupta, King Bhoja of Dhara and King Someshavra of Kalyana
patronised music. The Gupta monarch Samudra Gupta was himself an accompolished
musician. In some of his coins, he is shown playing on the Veena. Music was also
associated with the worship of Gods and Goddess in the temples.

Similarly in the medieval period the Sufi and Bhakti saints encouraged music. Qawwalis
were sung in Sufi khanqahs and devotional music like kirtan and bhajan became popular
with the Bhakti saints. Names of Kabir, Mirabai, Surdasa, Chandidasa, Tulsidasa,
Vidyapati are closely associated with religious music. Great scholars like Amir Khusrau
contributed equally to the promotion of music.

The most famous musician of Akbar’s court was Tansen and there was nobody to match
him, even though there were all kinds of singers. Baiju Bawra was also a well known
musician during Akbar’s time. The patronage given to these artists by the ancient and
medieval rulers have been instrumental in keeping the traditions alive. In fact the
Mughal rulers were great patrons of music. Hindustani Music was also enriched by
devotional songs sung by Mira Bai, Tulsidas and Surdas.

Broadly music can be divided into three forms: (1) Hindustani (2) Carnataka (3) Folk
Music

Hindustani classical music may be traced back to the period of the Delhi Sultanate
and to Amir Khusrau (AD 1253-1325) who encouraged the practice of musical
performance with particular instruments.

He is believed to have invented the sitar and the tabla and is said to have introduced
new ragas. Most of the Hindustani musicians trace their descent to Tansen. Different
styles of Hindustani music are Dhrupad, Dhamar, Thumri, Khayal and Tappa. It is said
that Tansen’s music had the effect of magic. Some of Akbar’s courtiers patronised
Musicians like Baiju Bawra, Surdas etc.

India also has a rich variety of musical instruments of different types. Amongst the
stringed instruments the most famous are sitar, sarod, santoor and sarangi. Pakhawaj,
tabla and Mridangam are precussion or tal giving instruments. Likewise, flute, shehnai
and nadaswaram are some of the chief wind instruments .
The musicians of Hindustani classical music are usually associated to a gharana or a particular
style of music. Devotional music like kirtan, bhajan, ragas contained in the Adi Grantha and
singing in the Majlis during Muharram,Gurbani in gurudwara etc. also deserve a special place in
Indian music.

Carnatic music has its own history of development in the world of music.
Basically music in South India is associated with devotion to God. The three forms of
performing arts (1) Music (2) Dance (3) Singing, go together to please God. Thus these
performing arts are also related with the Devdas’ is, known as servants of God. South
Indian music popularly known as Carnatic music is identified with Bhakti Saints, who
sang in praise of God and associated themselves with the temple rituals from the 8th
century. Thus grew a culture of Guru-Sishya tradition and through rigorous practice
South Indian music has achieved a prime position in musicology.

Martial Music was one of the important music varieties. It was played to raise the
paean(a song of praise or triumph). at the time of battle. In the important military expeditions,
musicians accompanied the army. The known martial musicians, who were in the
campaigns of Akbar’s time, were Hapa Charan (Rajasthan) and Mian Lal Khan Kalawant
(Gwalior). We also come across the names of the sazindas (singers) of Kashmir employed
by the Kachwaha Rajput chiefs of Jaipur. In western Rajasthan there is a community
known as Dadis. Their profession was to accompany the rulers in the battlefield and to
encourage soldiers to fight against the enemy. Their style of music was known as Sindhu
singing. Thus army was also an employment sector for the singers. However, in leisure
time the singers were the source of entertainment for the army men.

FOLK MUSIC
Besides classical music India has a rich legacy of folk or popular music. This music
represents the emotion of the masses. The simple songs are composed to mark every
event in life. They may be festivals, advent of a new season, marriage or birth of a child.
Rajasthani folk songs such as Mand and Bhatiali of Bengal are popular all over India.
Ragini is a popular form of folk songs of Haryana. Folk songs have their special meanings
or messages. They often describe historical events and important rituals.

MODERN INDIAN MUSIC

With the British rule came Western music. Indians adopted some of their instruments
such as violin and clarinet to suit the demands of Indian music. Orchestration of music
 on stage is a new development. Use of cassettes replaced oral transmission of tunes and
ragas. Performance which was earlier limited to a privileged few have now been thrown
open to the public and can be viewed by thousands of music lovers throughout the
country.

Modern music is also known as 20th Century Music. It has been one of great changes.
For example, science, technology and our growing understanding of the world around us
have inspired people to write music that reflects what they see in the world around
them, and how they feel about what they see.

During the Modern period, art experimented with new forms, techniques, and styles.
Music composers did the same thing. They explored different ways to produce sound.
Music education no longer depends on the master-disciple system but can be imparted
through institutions teaching music.

 Dance
Like music, Indian dance has also developed a rich classical tradition. It has a great power
of expression and emotions while telling a story. In India, the art of dancing may be
traced back to the Harappan culture. The discovery of the bronze statue of a dancing girl
testifies to the fact that some women in Harappa performed dances. The figure of Lord
Shiva as Nataraja represents the creation and destruction of the cosmic cycle. The
popular image of Shiva in the form of Nataraja clearly shows the popularity of dance
form on the Indian people. In fact classical dance forms like Kathakali, Bharatnatyam,
Kathak, Manipuri, Kuchi pudi and Odishi are an important part of our cultural heritage.

We can divide the art of dance in two categories. (1) Classical dances (2) Folk dances.

The classical form of dance was performed in temples as well as in royal courts. The
dance in temples had a religious objective whereas in courts it was used purely for
entertainment. In both cases for the artists devoted to this art form, it was no less than
praying to God.

In southern India Bharatanatyam and Mohiniattam developed as an important aspect of

the rituals in temples. Yakshagana, a form of Kathakali in Kerala, tells us stories of
Ramayana and Mahabharata whereas Kathak and Manipuri are mostly related to the
stories of Krishna and his leela (exploits). Performance of Odissi is related to the worship
of Lord Jagannath. Though the Krishna leela and the stories related to Lord Shiva was the
theme of Kathak, this dance came to be performed in royal courts in medieval times.
Manipuri dance was also performed for religious purposes.
 Folk dances evolved from the lives of common people and were performed in unison.
In Assam people celebrate most of the harvesting season through Bihu. Similarly Garba
of Gujarat, Bhangra and Gidda of Punjab, bamboo dance of Mizoram, Koli, the
fisherman’s dance of Maharashtra, Dhumal of Kashmir, and Chhau of Bengal are
unique examples of performing arts that gave expression to the joys and sorrows of the
masses.

In most of the regions the local dance form became very popular. Manipuri dance,
Santhal dance, Rabindranath’s dance, drama, chhau, ras, gidda, bhangra, garba are some
of the folk dances that have flourished in India. They are equally popular and have
extreme acumen and innovation. Practically every region of our country has developed
their own rich tradition of folk dances. For example, the Bihu dance of Assam, Mask
dance of Ladakh, Wangla of Meghalaya, Bhutia or Lepcha dance of Sikkim. Similarly we
also have some dances which are called martial dances like Chholia of Uttranchal, Kalari
paittu of Kerala, Thang-taa of Manipur among the more famous ones.

 DRAMA AND THEATRE

The tradition of theatre is quite old and it is linked to the Vedas. The theatre signifies the
drama and drama comprises three main elements i.e dialogues, music, and dance. In
Sanskrit the words for drama are used Nata, Nataka, Natya (actor and drama). Further it
is also known that is comes from the sanskrit root Nrit meaning ‘to dance’. Thus drama
originated from dancing. To beautify drama music was added to it. Dramas can be
divided into following categories.

1. Stage Performance

The stage is technically known as Jarjara. The oldest and the most reliable treatise on
Indian drama is Bharata’s ‘Natyashastra.’ Natyashastra is one of the greatest texts
written in the field of drama and other performing arts.

The next is that of the great Bhasa who wrote plays based on the stories of Udayana, the
Ramayana and Mahabharata, being his masterpiece. While referring to drama, Bharata
has mentioned nat (male artists), and nati (female artist), music, dance, musical
instruments, dialogues, themes and stage. Thus we find that drama achieved a great
level of perfection during the age of Bharata. For Bharata, drama is a perfect means of
communication. He also started the concept of an enclosed area for drama.

During the age of the Buddha and Mahavira, drama was a means of communicating the
principles of their respective religions. Short skits and long plays were enacted to preach and
educate the masses. Music and dance also played a vital role in increasing the appeal of drama.
In the ancient period till the tenth century, the language of the educated, was Sanskrit. So
dramas were performed mostly in this language.

2. Street Theatre

Street theatre is basically performed in locales like street corners, the village square, in front of
factories, car parks, shopping centres etc. They are mostly Socio-cultural and political in nature.

Street theatre also includes other performances on the road side like magical shows, Tamasha,
mimickery etc. These street shows are very old in nature and even during the medieval Indian
society the traces of these street shows can be seen.

3. Nukkad Natak

Nukkad Natak is one of the forms of the Street Plays. The motive behind the Nukkad Natak is to
create awareness in the people about the contemporary issues. These are so popular among the
masses that several academies have been established by the different names such as Jan Natya
Manch, Aatish and Yog Jyoti India Foundation to propogate the Nukkad Natak.

SOME IMPORTANT DRAMAS AND THEIR WRITERS

Drama is an art form which has a long historical background in India but its analytical review and
grammatical study was presented by Bharata in Natyashastra. In this text, it has been mentioned
that music and dance are essential parts of drama. Ramayana, Mahabharata and the plays,
written by Kalidasa, Bana Bhatta and Bhasa are examples of the combination of all the three art
forms- music, dance and drama. Some of the popular dramas are:

NAME WRITER

1. Meghadutam Kalidasa

2. Abhijnan Shakuntalam Kalidasa

3. Padmavati Madhusudan

4. Harshacharitam Bana Bhatta

5. Chandraval Jai Shankar Prasad

9. Ajatshatru Jai Shankar Prasad

DIFFERENT FORMS OF TRADITIONAL THEATRE

Bhand Pather, the traditional theatre form of Kashmir, is a unique combination of dance,
music and acting. In this theatre form, music is provided with surnai, nagaara and dhol. Since
the actors of Bhand Pather are mainly from the farming community, the impact of their way of

living, ideals and sensitivity is noticeable.

Koodiyaattam, one of the oldest traditional theatre forms of Kerala, is based on Sanskrit
theatre traditions. The characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar or actor,
Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists and Naangyaar, those taking on women's roles.

Dashavatar is the most developed theatre form of the Konkan and Goa regions. The
performers personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation and
creativity. Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood
and papier mache.

Tamaasha is a traditional folk theatre form of Maharashtra. It has evolved from the folk
forms such as Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan. Unlike other theatre forms, in Tamaasha the
female actress is the chief exponent of dance movements in the play. She is known as
Murki. Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and vivid gestures make it possible
to portray all the emotions through dance.

PRESENT SCENARIO OF THE PERFORMING ARTS

Presently, all the three art forms i.e. dance; music and drama are flourishing in the
country. Several music institutions like Gandharva Mahavidyalaya and Prayag Sangeet
Samiiti have been imparting training in classical music and dance for more than fifty
years. A number of schools, colleges and universities in India have adopted these art
forms as a part of their curriculum. Indira Kala Sangeet Vishwa Vidyalaya of Khairagarh
is a university of music. Kathak Kendra, National School of Drama, Bharatiya Kala
Kendra and many institutes are all propagating music in their own ways.

At the international level musicians have made significant contribution. Different

institutions of music started by Pt. Ravi Shankar, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan and Ustad Alla
Rakkha Khan teach Indian music to foreigners. Many foreign universities have
departments of Indian performing arts and they award degrees and diplomas to
students. All over the world Indian artists are invited to perform and participate in
various festivals. Various agencies like Indian Council of Cultural Relations (ICCR) and
the Ministry of Education continuously propagate all these art forms by giving grants,
scholarships and fellowships to renowned artists as well as to young artists and by
arranging exchange programmes in the field of Indian music, dance and drama.

 PUPPETRY
Puppet is one of the most outstanding and remarkable inventions of Indian people. The
origin of Puppet is traced to the 2nd century BC. The root of the word puppet is derived
from the Latin word Pupa means ‘doll’. The themes of puppet shows are generally
taken from the epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It contains all the creative
arts like painting, sculpture, drama, music and dance etc.

Almost all types of puppets are found in India. Puppets from different parts of the
country have their own identity. Regional styles of painting and sculpture are reflected in
them.
Puppetry has been successfully used to motivate emotionally and physically
handicapped students to develop their mental and physical faculties.

String Puppet-

This form of Puppet is used to provide flexibility to puppets. They have jointed limbs controlled
by strings. This form of Puppet theatre is more prevalent in Rajasthan, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and
Karnata.
 Kathputli, Rajasthan Kundhei, Odisha

Shadow Puppets- Shadow puppets are flat figures carved out of leather. They are pressed
against the screen and light is put behind the screen to create colorful shadows for the audience
sitting in front of the screen. This form of Puppet theatre is popular in Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka.

Karnataka Andhra Pradesh

Glove Puppet – Glove puppets are also known as hand or palm puppets. These are controlled
by the hand of the puppeteer. The first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and the
thumb are the two arms of the puppet. The movement, through these fingers makes the puppet
alive.

The tradition of glove puppets in India is popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and
Kerala. In Uttar Pradesh, glove puppet plays usually present social themes, whereas in Orissa
such plays are based on stories of Radha and Krishna. In Orissa, the puppeteer plays on
the dholak with one hand and manipulates the puppet with the other.

Kerala

Uttar Pradesh

Rod Puppet – This puppet form is controlled by the rods from below. It is like a glove puppet
but is much larger in size. This form of puppetry is found in West Bengal and Odisha.
 The traditional Rod puppet of Bihar is known as Yampuri. These puppets are made of wood.
Unlike the traditional Rod puppets of West Bengal and Orissa, these puppets are in one piece
and have no joints.

West Bengal Bihar

 Martial Arts in India

India is a land of diverse culture and ethnicities and so is famous for its martial arts that
have developed since ancient times. Nowadays these art forms are used in rituals,
celebrations, in sports, means of physical fitness, as a self defence but earlier it is used for
warfare. Many of the Arts are related to dance, Yoga etc.

• Famous and prevalent Martial Arts are :

1. Kalaripayattu (Oldest Martial Art in India)

Originated: In the state of Kerala in 4th century A.D.

About it:
• Kalari is a Malayalam word which means School/gymnasium/training hall where
Martial arts are practiced or taught.
• Kalaripayattu was introduced as martial art by a legend, sage Parasurama, who built
temples.
• This art is used as a means of unarmed self-defence and a way to achieve physical
fitness today. Also used in traditional rituals and ceremonies.
• It includes mock duels (armed and unarmed combat) and physical exercises,
important aspect is the style of fighting but not accompanied by any drumming or
song.
 • It’s important key is footwork which includes kicks, strikes and weapon based
practice.
• Its popularity also increases with the movie Ashoka and the Myth.
• Women also practiced this art, Unniyarcha; a legendary heroine won many battles
using this martial art.
2. Silambam (is a kind of Staff Fencing)

Originated: In Tamil Nadu, a modern and scientific martial art.

About it:
• Silambam is promoted in Tamil Nadu by the rulers Pandya, Chola and Chera and the
reference to the sale of Silambam staves, pearls, swords and armours can be seen in
a Tamil literature ‘Silapaddigaram’.
• This art also travelled to Malaysia, where it is a famous sport apart from a self
defence technique.
• For mock fighting and self-defence the long-staff technique is used. Infact, Lord
Muruga (in Tamil Mythology) and sage Agasthya are credited with the creation of
Silambam. Even during Vedic age, training was imparted to young men as a ritual and
for an emergency.
3. Thoda
Originated: Himachal Pradesh

Technique: Wooden bows, arrows are used.

About it:
• Thoda name is derived from the round wooden piece attached to the head of an
arrow to minimise its lethal potential.
• It is a mixture of martial art, sport and culture.
• It takes place during Baisakhi every year.
• This martial art relies on a player’s of skill of archery and can be dated back at the
time of Mahabharata where bows and arrows were used in the valleys of Kullu and
Manali.
• In the game, there are 2 groups of 500 people each. All of them are not archers but
dancers also who came with them to boost the morale of their respective teams.
 • The two teams are called Pashis and Saathis, who believed to be the descendants of
Pandavas and Kauravas of Mahabharata.

4. Gatka

Originated: Punjab
About it:
• Gatka is a weapon based martial art form performed by Sikhs of Punjab.
• Gatka means whose freedom belongs to grace. Others say that ‘Gatka’ comes from a
Sanskrit word ‘Gadha’ means mace.
• This art uses weapons like Kirpan, Talwar and Kataar.
• It is displayed in various occasions, celebrations in the state including fairs.

5. Lathi

Originated: Majorly practiced in Punjab and Bengal.

About it:
• Lathi is one of the oldest weapon used in martial arts.
• Lathi refers to a ‘stick’ mainly cane sticks which is generally 6 to 8 feet in length and
sometimes metal tipped.
• It is also a common sport in various villages of the country.

6. Inbuan Wrestling

Originated: Mizoram, beleived to have its genesis in 1750 A.D. in Duntland village.
About it:
• This art consists of very strict rules that prohobit stepping out the circle, kicking and
knee bending.
• It also involves catching of the belt worn around their waist by the wrestlers.
• When people migrated from Burma to Lushai hills then this art form was regarded as
a sport.
7. Pari-Khanda

Originated: Bihar, created by Rajputs.

About it:
• ‘Pari’ means shield while ‘khanda’ refers to sword. Therefore, both shield and sword
are used in this art.
• It involves fighting using Sword and Shield.
• Its steps and techniques are used in Chhau dance of Bihar.

8. Musti Yuddha

Originated: Varanasi
Techniques: Kicks, punches, knee and elbow strikes are the techniques used by this
martial art.
About it:
• It is an unarmed martial art form.
• Since 1960 it is a popular art.
• It incorporates the development of all three aspects physical, mental and spiritual.
• The fights in this art are named on the Hindu God and divided into four categories.
The first is known as Jambuvanti that refers to the forcing the opponent into
submission through locking and holding. Second is Hanumanti, which is for technical
superiority. Third refers to Bhimaseni, which focusses on sheer strength and fourth is
called Jarasandhi that concentrates on limb and joint breaking.

 Fairs and Festivals of India

India is a land of festivals and fairs. Virtually celebrating each day of the year, there are
more festivals celebrated in India than anywhere else in the world. Each festival pertains
to different occasions, some welcome the seasons of the year, the harvest, the rains, or
the full moon. A number of these festivals are common to most parts of India. However,
they may be called by different names in various parts of the country or may be
celebrated in a different fashion. Some of the festivals celebrated all over India are
mentioned below

1. Modhera Dance Festival, Gujarat

This dance festival of India, celebrated in the beautiful backdrop of the Modhera
Sun Temple is an effort on part of the Tourism Department of Gujarat to bring back to
life the ways of our medieval past. Today, this cultural festival held in January every
year gets together the finest classical dancing talent of the country to celebrate the art
and the place.

2. Tarnetar Mela, Gujarat

One of the most fascinating tribal fairs of India, Tarnetar Mela is a tribal fair held every
year in the village of Tarnetar in Gujarat. This festival is fascinating for the simple reason
that it is one of the largest “marriage marts” or swayamvars in India where tribal men
come to the fair dressed eloquently carrying the most elaborately and beautifully
embroidered umbrellas in the world.

3. Konark Dance Festival, Odisha

The India’s biggest dance festival, Konark Dance Festival is the epitome of our Classical
dancing heritage. The festival organized in the month of February is one of the biggest
cultural festivals in the country as it witnesses the coming together of country’s best
dance artists to celebrate the storied past of the temple and its traditions.

4. Jaisalmer Desert Festival, Rajasthan

The desert festival held in the month of February in the Red Sandstone city of Jaisalmer
is a fascinating celebration of Rajasthan’s desert life for three days. It is a festival that
brings to life the folk culture, the music, the clothes and the traditions of the nomadic
life of the Indian desert.
 5.Nehru Trophy Boat Race, Kerala

An event which is part of Kerala’s cultural identity, the Nehru Trophy Boat Race is
among best cultural an eventin India. Celebrated every year on the second Saturday of
the month of August, the boat race in Kerala is a famous festival celebrated in the
backwater town of Allapuzha in the Punnamada Lake.

6.Hornbill Festival, Nagaland

The Hornbill Festival is a unique folk festival celebrated in the North-eastern state of
Nagaland. The festival celebrated every year from 1st to 7th December, is an amazing
exhibition of Naga way of life attracting thousands of tourists to its doors.

7.Poush Mela, Shantiniketan

A unique festival which signifies the end of the harvesting season in Bengal, Poush Mela,
is the celebration of the farmer’s life and Bengal’s rural lifestyle. The mela which sees
the celebration of Bengali culture through Bengali folk music especially Boul Sangeet as
well folk dances, is a place for peace and love

8.Sonpur Mela, Bihar

The largest cattle fair in Asia, Sonepur Mela has been a festival which has continued for
over two thousand years since the times of the Mauryan Empire. The fair is essentially
meant for the sale and purchase of various kinds of livestock such as birds, dogs, goats,
buffaloes, donkeys and horses.

9.Elephant Festival, Jaipur

A royal festival for a royal animal, Elephant Festival held on the occasion of Holi in Jaipur
is a special festival loved by the people of Jaipur. The festival which is dedicated to the
Elephants sees them decorated in the most lavish ways from head till toe. The event
begins with a procession of beautifully decorated elephants, horses and camels.

10. Float Festival, Madurai

Held every year in the last week of January or first week of February, the floats festival
of Madurai is a very old festival which has been celebrated in the city for a long time.
The festival sees the god and goddesses of the Madurai temple being taken for a boat
ride in the lake of the city, a tradition started by a 17th century Tamil king.

Indian’s Cultural Contribution to the outside World

 • People have started travelling a lot today But people travelled long distances even
in those days when there were no trains or airplanes in India.

• They had been in contact with the outside world commercially right from about
the middle of the third millennium B.C. Even though India is surrounded by sea on
three sides and the Himalayan in the north but that did not stop Indians from
interacting with the rest of the world.In return they also brought home ideas,
impressions, customs and traditions from these distant lands.

• However, the most remarkable aspect of this contact has been the spread of
Indian culture and civilization in various parts of the world, especially Central Asia,
South East Asia, China, Japan, and Korea etc.

• In ancient times, traders from India went to distant lands in search of new opportunities in
business. They went to Rome in the west and China in the east. As early as the first
century BC, they travelled to countries like Indonesia and Cambodia in search of gold.

• These traders travelled from many flourishing cities like Kashi, Mathura, Ujjain, Prayag and
Pataliputra and from port cities on the east coast like Mamallapuram, Tamralipti, Puri, and
Kaveripattanam.

• The kingdom of Kalinga had trade relations with Sri Lanka during the time of Emperor
Ashoka. Wherever the traders went, they established cultural links with those places. In
this way, the traders served as cultural ambassadors and established trade relations with
the outside world.

 INDIAN CULTURE IN EAST ASIA

China

 The contact between India and China began around the 2nd Century B.C. Indian
culture first entered China with two monk scholars—Kashyapa Martanga and
Dharmarakshita who went to China in AD 67 on the invitation of the Chinese
Emperor Ming Ti.

 After Kashyapa Martanga and Dharmarakshita, there was a continuous flow of

scholars from India to China and from China to India.

 Prominent teachers from the Indian Universities and monasteries became

famous in China. For example, a scholar named Bodhidharma went to China from
Kanchipuram. He went to Nalanda, studied there and left for China. He carried
 the philosophy of Yoga with him and popularized the practice of ‘dhyana’,
(meditation), which was later known in China as ch’an.

 In the fourth century AD Wei Dynasty came to power in China. Its first Emperor
declared Buddhism as the state religion. With the spread of Buddhism, China
began to build cave temples and monastic complexes on a large scale. Colossal
images were carved on the rocks and caves were beautifully painted from the
inside.

Korea

• Korea is situated on the Northeast of China. Korea received Indian cultural

elements through China. Sundo was the first Buddhist Monk who entered Korea,
carrying a Buddha image and sutras in AD 352. He was followed by Acharya
Mallananda, who reached there in AD 384. In AD 404, an Indian monk built two
temples in the Pyongyang city in Korea.

Japan

• The story of Indian culture in Japan is believed to go back to more than fïfteen
hundred years. But the earliest historical evidence of Indian culture going to
Japan is from AD 552. At that time, the Korean Emperor sent a Buddhist statue,
sutras, instruments for worship, artists, sculptors, painters and architects as gifts
for the Japanese Emperor.

• Sanskrit was accepted as the sacred language in Japan. Monks were given special
training to write the Sanskrit syllables and mantras. The script in which all these
are written is known as ‘Shittan’. Shittan is believed to be Siddham, the script
that gives ‘siddhi’ (accomplishment)

Tibet
• Tibet is situated on a plateau to the north of the Himalayas. The people of Tibet are
Buddhists. The Tibetan king Naradeva is believed to have sent his minister Thonmi
Sambhot accompanied by sixteen outstanding scholars to Magadha where they studied
under Indian teachers.

• Thonmi Sambhot carried with him a number of books from India. On going back to Tibet,
he wrote a new grammar for the Tibetans which is said to be based on the Sanskrit
grammar written by Panini.

INDIAN CULTURE IN SRI LANKA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA

Sri Lanka
• King Ashoka made great efforts to propagate Buddhism outside India. He sent his son
Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka to spread the message of the Buddha.
A number of other scholars also joined them.

• It is said that they carried a cutting of the Bodhi tree from Bodhgaya which was planted
there. At that time Devanampiya Tissa was the king of Sri Lanka. The teachings of the
Buddha were transmitted orally by the people who had gone from India.

• For around two hundred years, the people of Sri Lanka preserved the recitation of
Buddhist scriptures as transmitted by Mahendra. The first monasteries built there are
Mahavihar and Abhayagiri.

• Pali became their literary language. Buddhism played an important role in shaping Sri
Lankan culture. The Dipavansa and Mahavamsa are well known Sri Lankan Buddhist
sources.

Vietnam (Champa)

• Indian culture was carried to the distant land of Vietnam by a number of

enterprising traders and princes who migrated and established themselves as
pioneers in the field of politics and economics.

• They named the cities there as Indrapura, Amaravati, Vijaya, Kauthara and
Panduranga. The people of Champa are called Cham. They built a large number
of Hindu and Buddhist temples.

• The Cham people worshipped Shiva, Ganesha, Saraswati, Lakshmi, Parvati,

Buddha and Lokeswara. Images of these deities and Shivalingas were housed in
the temples. Most of the temples are in ruin now.

Thailand
• Till the year 1939, Thailand was called Siam, its original name. Indian cultural
influences began to reach there in the first century AD. . The Thai kingdoms were
given Sanskrit names such as Dwaravati, Shrivijay, Sukhodaya and Ayutthiya.

• Brahminical images and Buddhist temples began to be constructed in third and

fourth century AD. The earliest images found from Thailand are those of Lord
Vishnu.
 • At different points of time, the Thai kingdom was shifted from one place to
another. At every place a number of temples were built. Ayutthiya (Ayodhya) is
one such place where large number of temples still stands though today most of
the temples there are in ruins. There are four hundred temples in Bangkok, the
present capital of Thailand.

Indonesia

• In the field of religious architecture, the largest Shiva temple in Indonesia is

situated in the island of Java. It is called Prambanan. It was built in the ninth
century. It has a Shiva temple flanked by Vishnu and Brahma temples. Opposite
these three temples are temples constructed for their vahanas. They are Nandi
(Bull) for Shiva, Garuda for Vishnu and Goose for Brahma.

• In between the two rows are the temples dedicated to Durga and Ganesh,
numbering eight in all, surrounded by 240 small temples. It is an example of
wonderful architecture.

• The stories of Ramayana and Krishna, carved on the walls of the temple, are the
oldest representations in the world. Sanskrit hymns are recited at the time of
puja.

• Over five hundred hymns, stotras dedicated to Shiva, Brahma, Durga, Ganesha,
Buddha, and many other deities have been discovered from Bali.

• In fact Bali is the only country where Hindu culture flourished and survived.
Today, while the entire Archipelago has accepted Islam, Bali still follows Hindu
culture and religion.

• A large number of scriptural works have been found from Java. They are mostly
written on palm leaves in their ancient script called Kawi. Kawi script was devised
on the basis of Brahmi.

Indian Cinema
India has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world. It was in early 1913
that an Indian film received a public screening. The film was Raja Harischandra. Its
director, Dadasaheb Phalke is now remembered through a life-time achievement award
bestowed by the film industry in his name.

While a number of other film-makers, working in several Indian languages, pioneered the
growth and development of Indian cinema, the studio system began to emerge in the
early 1930s. Its most successful early film was Devdas (1935), whose director, P.C. Barua
also appeared in the lead role. The Prabhat Film Company, established by V. G. Damle,
Shantaram, S. Fatehlal, and two other men in 1929, also achieved its first success around
this time. Damle and Fatehlal's Sant Tukaram (1936), made in Marathi was the first Indian
film to gain international recognition.

Some of the social problems received their most unequivocal expression in Achhut Kanya
("Untouchable Girl", 1936), a film directed by Himanshu Rai of Bombay Talkies. The film
portrays the travails of a Harijan girl, played by Devika Rani, and a Brahmin boy, played by
Ashok Kumar.

The next noteworthy phase of Hindi cinema is associated with personalities such as Raj
Kapoor, Bimal Roy, and Guru Dutt. The son of Prithviraj Kapoor, Raj Kapoor created some
of the most admired and memorable films in Hindi cinema.

In the meantime, the Hindi cinema had seen the rise of its first acknowledged genius,
Guru Dutt, whose films critiqued the conventions of society and deplored the conditions
which induce artists to relinquish their inspiration.

It is without doubt that under the influence of the Bengali film-makers like Satyajit Ray,
Ritwik Ghatak, and Mrinal Sen, the Indian cinema, not only in Hindi, also began to take a
somewhat different turn in the 1970s against the tide of commercial cinema,
characterized by song-and-dance routines, insignificant plots, and family dramas.

The Indian film industry, famously known as Bollywood, is the largest in the world, and
has major film studios in Mumbai (Bombay), Calcutta, Chennai, Bangalore
and Hyderabad.

Between them, they turn out more than 1000 films a year to hugely appreciative
audiences around the world. For nearly 50 years, the Indian cinema has been the central
form of entertainment in India, and with its increased visibility and success abroad, it
won't be long until the Indian film industry will be well thought-out to be its western
counterpart- Hollywood.

Mainstream commercial releases, however, continue to dominate the market, and not
only in India, but wherever Indian cinema has a large following, whether in much of the
British Caribbean, Fiji, East and South Africa, the U.K., United States, Canada, or the
Middle East.

Indian Art Cinema

India is well known for its commercial cinema, better known as Bollywood. In addition to
commercial cinema, there is also Indian art cinema, known to film critics as "New Indian
Cinema" or sometimes "the Indian New Wave" (see the Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema).
Many people in India plainly call such films as "art films" as opposed to mainstream
commercial cinema. From the 1960s through the 1980s, the art film or the parallel cinema
was usually government-aided cinema.

Indian Commercial Cinema

Commercial cinema is the most popular form of cinema in India. Ever since its inception
the commercial Indian movies have seen huge following. Commercial or popular cinema
is made not only in Hindi but also in many other regional languages of East and South
India. Commercial films, in whatever languages they are made, tend to be quite long
(approx three hours), with an interval. Another important feature of commercial cinema
in India is music.

Regional Cinema India

India is home to one of the largest film industries in the world. Every year thousands of
movies are produced in India. Indian film industry comprises of Hindi films, regional
movies and art cinema. The Indian film industry is supported mainly by a vast film-going
Indian public, though Indian films have been gaining increasing popularity in the rest of
the world, especially in countries with large numbers of emigrant Indians.