DEVELO PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table is a tabular array of the chemical elements organized by atomic

number, from the element with the lowest atomic number, hydrogen, to the element

with the highest atomic number. The atomic number of an element is the number of

protons in the nucleus of an atom of that element.

In the periodic table, the list of all elements starts with the lightest atom,

Hydrogen (H), and to the element with the heaviest atom, aggregated by boxes.

The periodic table consists of 118 elements and is represented by symbols.

The symbols of elements are based on the first letter of the element`s

name or the first two letters of it. The first letter of the symbol will be capitalized,

while the second letter, written by a small letter.

The history of periodic table development

All things are made up of tiny particles called atoms and the element is a

substance made of only one type of atom.

In the modern periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic

number.

During the nineteenth century, chemists began to categorize the elements

according to similarities in their physical a n d chemical properties. The end

result of these studies was our modern periodic table.

Modern periodic table was developed by two major scientists

Dmitri Mendeleev
In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published the periodic law, which

states that “The properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic

weight.” He was able to successfully organize all the known elements at that time
into one table – a periodic table. He arranged the elements according to their

increasing relative atomic mass.

Mendeleev table allowed him to predicts the existence and properties of

undiscovered elements

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Contribution of Dmitri Mendeleev work

Developed table that showed relationship between properties of elements and

atomic masses

Avoided earlier mistakes of forcing elements to fit into 8 patterns like

Newland.

Proposed properties were a function of increasing atomic mass.

Believed similar properties occurred after periods that could vary in length by

specific patterns

Left blank spaces on table where an element did not fit (did not force elements

in)
Predicted that spaces were undiscovered elements.

His work laid the foundation for modern chemistry, influencing the future

development of the periodic tale

Advantages of Dmitri Mendeleev periodic table

The modern periodic table proposed by Mendeleev has three distinct

advantages over the earlier forms of the periodic table:

1. It systematized chemical knowledge.

2. It predicted the existence of new elements and their properties.

3. It validated the atomic weights of elements and corrected the

errors.

After the discovery of these unknown elements between 1874 and 1885, and

the fact that Mendeleev’s predictions for Sc, Ga, and Ge were amazingly

close to the actual values, his table wasgenerally accepted.

HENRY MOSELEY
Later, in 1914, Henry Moseley, an English physicist, observed that x-ray

frequencies emitted by elements could be correlated better with their atomic

numbers.

He computed the atomic number of the elements.

This observation led to the development of the modern periodic law, which states

that the properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

That the properties of the elements are a periodic function of their increasing

atomic number. The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic

functions of their atomic numbers

The elements in any group of the periodic table have similar physical and
chemical properties

Moseley work resolve inconsistency in Mendeleev table leading to a more accurate

organizations of elements

Mosley explained exceptions with discovery of Atomic Number.

contributions

Mosley’s experiment with x – ray spectra allowed him to determine the atomic

number of elements

His finding provided a clearer understanding of the periodic law and the

properties of elements

The modern periodic tale we use today is based Moseley’s atomic number concept,

rather than Mendeleev’s atomic mass

Impact on modern chemistry

The combined contributions of Mendeleev and Molesey have shaped our

understanding of chemical behavior and element classification

Their work paved way for future discoveries in chemistry including the

identification of new elements ad their properties

Today periodic tale remains a fundamental tool in science, used extensively I

education ad research
 Generalizations on the Periodic Table
1. For elements of subgroup A, the group number is equal to the number of

electrons in the outermost shell. The outermost shell is the valence shell, and

the electrons found in the outermost shells are called valence electrons.

2.For elements of subgroup B, the group number is equal to the number of

electrons in the outermost shell plus the number of electrons in the partially-

filling subshell

3.For all elements, the period number is equal to the number of shells that the

atom needs to accommodate all its electrons

Atoms of elements belonging to Groups IA, IIA, and IIIA tend to attain a stable

configuration by losing 1, 2, or 3 electrons to become positive ions (cations) with a

1+,2+, and 3+ charge respectively

stable configuration by gaining 3, 2, and 1 electron to become negative ions (anions)

with a 3-, 2-, and 1- charge respectively.

5.Atoms of elements belonging to Group VIA may lose or gain electrons depending

on the circumstances of bond formation.

6.Except for helium, atoms of elements in Group VIII (called the inert elements)

already possess eight electrons in the outermost shell, and are therefore

chemically inert. Helium has only one shell, and the maximum number of electrons in

the first shell is two, thus,

helium is still considered an inert element

Describes how the electrons of an atom are arranged in the energy levels, sub shells and orbitals. The
term normally applies to an atom in their ground states.

Rules for filling electrons

Rule 1: Aufbau Principle

The electrons in the ground state occupy orbitals in order of the orbital energy levels. The lowest energy
orbitals are always filled first

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 Li 1S 2S
E.g. for 3

Rule 2: Pauli Exclusion Principle

This states that an orbital cannot contain more than two electrons and then only if they have opposite
spins

e.g. 3 Li

1S 2S

Rule 3: Hunds Rule

This states that the orbital’s of a sub shell must be occupied singly first and with parallel spins before
they can be occupied in pairs

e.g. 7 N

1S 2S 2P

1S22S22P3

Rule 4:

Electrons in degenerate orbital’s which are singly occupied have parallel spins

The order of filling in the electrons in atoms is summarized in the diagram below.

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 1S

2S 2P

3S 3P 3d

4P 4d 4f
4S

5P 5d 5f
5S
6d 6f
6S 6P

7S

Principal quantum number, n where n= 1,2,3,4 etc

This is the main energy level of an atom which determines the energy of an electron.

This denotes the principal quantum energy shell in which the electron in an atom is found. Within the
principal quantum energy shell there are shells but the total number of electrons that can occupy any
principal quantum shell is given by 2n2

The inner most orbital i.e. the one nearest to the nucleus has principal quantum number of 1 and the
number of electrons in each energy level is shown as

n 1 2 3 4 5
Max. no. of 2 8 18 32 50
electrons

Subsidiary quantum number

Within the principal quantum energy shell there are sub shells which are denoted as s, p, d and f and the
number of electron that an orbital can accommodate is shown as

Orbital S p d f
No. of electron 2 6 10 14

Question

Write the electronic configuration of the following elements with their respective atomic number

(i) Aluminium (Z=13) (ii) Phosphorous (Z=15) (iii) Calcium (Z=20) (iv) Chlorine (Z=17)

(v)Vanadium (Z=23) (vi) Selenium (Z=34) (vii) Nickel (Z=28) (viii) Copper (Z=29)

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N.B.Fully filled and half filled orbital’s are regarded as thermodynamically more stable therefore the
electronic configuration of Chromium (Z=24) and Copper (Z=29) follow this.

Determination of Block of an element

The block to which an element belongs is determined by the orbital’s which are in the process of filling
up.

E.g. 11 Na  1S 2 2S 2 2P 6 3S 1 belongs to the S- block

N.B. Electronic configuration can be used to determine the period and group of the element.

PERIODIC PROPERTIES

1. Atomic radius/ covalent radius

Atomic radius is half the inter-nuclear distance between two atoms of the same element joined by the
singly covalent bond.

The covalent radius depends on:

 Nuclear charge. This is the attraction of the positively charged nucleus for the outermost electron.
Increase in nuclear charge, decrease in atomic radius

 Screening effect/ shielding effect. This is tendency of inner electrons to shield outer electrons from
nuclear attraction. Increase in screening effect results into increase in atomic radius.

Variation across the period

Atomic radius decreases across the period. This is because the nuclear charge increases due to the
addition of protons to the nucleus. For every proton added, an electron is added to the same energy level
and almost screening effect almost remains constant. The effective nuclear charge increases thus the
electrons become more strongly attracted and closer to the nucleus

Example of the period variation is that of period 3

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Atomic 0.156 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.110 0.104 0.09 0.094
radius(nm)

N.B. In the transition metal series the decrease is gradual

Element Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
At.
Radius 1.44 1.32 1.22 1.17 1.17 1.16 1.16 1.15 1.17 1.25
(oA)

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The metallic radius decreases from scandium to nickel and it slightly increases from nickel to Zinc.

As atomic number increases, the nuclear charge increases. However, the electrons are being added to
inner 3d-subshell therefore these electrons are poorly shielded from the nuclear charge hence the
nuclear attraction for the outer for the most electron increases resulting into increase in atomic radius/
metallic radius.

The slightly increase from nickel to Copper is because the 3d-subenergy level in copper is fully filled
with electrons and this increases the shielding of the outer electrons from the nuclear charge hence
atomic radius increases.

The decrease in radius coupled with increasing atomic mass causes an increase in the density and
decrease in atomic volume in passing from Scandium to Nickel.

Variation down the group

Atomic radius increases down the group. Both nuclear charge and screening effect increases. However
the increase in screening effect outweighs the increase in nuclear charge due to addition of extra energy
level of electrons thus the effective nuclear charge decreases such that the outermost electrons are less
strongly attracted towards the

Example of such variation is in group 1:

Element Li Na K Rb Cs
At. Radius (nm) 0.123 0.157 0.203 0.216 0.235

Ionic radius

(a) Positive ions

These are formed by removing one or two electrons from the outer most energy level. The nuclear
attraction for the remaining electrons increases thus the radius of the cation is smaller than that of the
atom from which it is formed.

Examples include

Species Mg Mg2+ Fe Fe2+

(b) Negative ions / Anion

Formed by addition of one or more electrons to a neutral gaseous atom . The effective nuclear charge is
reduced and hence the electron cloud expands. Therefore the anions are larger than corresponding
atoms .e.g.

Species Cl Cl- O O2-

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2. Ionization energy/ Potential

The first ionization energy is minimum amount of energy required to remove one mole of electrons
from one mole of free gaseous atoms to form one mole of unipositively charged gaseous ions.

Successive ionization energies refer to loss of a second, third……………, nth electron. Thus the second
ionization energy of X is the first ionization energy of X+ and sum of the first n ionization energies
gives the energy change for the formation of the Xn+ ion

The magnitude of ionization energy depends:

 Nuclear Charge; ionization energy increases with increasing nuclear charge.

 Screening effect: increase in screening effect decreases the magnitude of ionization energy

 Nature of orbital: Electrons being removed from fully filled and half filled energy levels require
more energy because such electronic structures are stable.

 Type of orbital: S, P, d and f orbital have different shapes. In energy level the S- orbital penetrate
closer to the nucleus therefore the penetrating trend is S>P>d>f hence an orbital of higher
penetrating power requires more energy

 Atomic radius: Atoms with small radius the electrons are strongly bound by the nuclear attraction
and thus require more energy to be removed.

Variation across the period

Element Li Be B C N O F Ne

I.E 520 899 801 1086 1403 1310 1681 2080

Across a period, ionization energy increases with increase in atomic number .Electrons are added to the
same main energy level as nuclear charge increases. These electrons shield each other poorly from the
increasing nuclear charge therefore atomic radius decreases resulting into increase in ionization energy
along the period

However, beryllium, neon and nitrogen have abnormally high ionization energy because the electrons
are removed from 2S2, 2P6and 2P3 which are fully filled and half filled respectively and are regarded as
thermodynamically stable.

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Qn:The table below shows the elements in period 3 of the Periodic Table

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Z 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1st I.E 502 745 587 791 1020 1000 1260 1530
(a) Plot a graph of first ionization energy against atomic number

(b) Explain the shape of your graph in (a)

Variation down the group

Ionization energy decreases down the group. Both nuclear charge and screening effect increase down
the group. Due to extra energy level of electrons being added, the increase in screening effect exceeds
the increase in nuclear charge. Effective nuclear charge decreases such that the outer most electrons
become less strongly attracted hence less energy is required

The values of ionization energy can be used to deduce:

 Atomic number of an element. The number of successive ionization energy indicates the number of
electrons present. E.g. Mg has 12 successive ionization energies.

 Arrangement of electrons and distribution of energy levels

 Metallic character. Elements which easily lose electrons have low values of ionization energy and
are electropositive. The 1st ionization energy is usually below 800KJmol-1

Qn: The data given below are for the elements A, B, C and D which belong to the same period in the
periodic table

Element A B C D
1 I.E
st
495 580 790 1255
Melting point of
oxide ………… 2300 1610 -20

(a) Which ones of the elements A, B, C and D is a metal? Explain your answer

(b) State the type of bonding and structure of the oxides of elements A and D

(c) The 2nd, 3rd, and 4th ionization energy of element B are 1500, 7700 and 10500KJmol -1
respectively. To what group in the periodic table does B belong? Give reason for your answer

ELECTRON AFFINITY (E.A)

This is the energy released when an electron is gained by one mole of an isolated neutral gaseous atom
to form a uninegatively gaseous ion.

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Electron affinity values are negative i.e. exothermic process even for highly electropositive elements.
The more exothermic the E.A, the easier an atom gains electron hence the more stable the ion is.

The second E.A is accompanied by absorption of energy i.e. endothermic. This is because the incoming
electron experiences greater repulsion from both outermost electron and the negative ion. In addition,
the increased radius of the ion decreases the nuclear attraction for the incoming electron.

E.A. Values are not experimental and thus inaccurate. They are determined directly from Born-Haber
cycle.

Variation across the period

Across the period, E.A increases. This is due to decrease in atomic radius and increase ineffective
nuclear charge which increases the nuclear attraction for the incoming electron thus more energy is
evolved.

N.B. E.A. of Beryllium and Magnesium are less exothermic because the electron is added to completely
filled S-orbital which is stable.

Variation down the group

Down the group, E.A decreases due to decrease in effective nuclear charge caused by addition of an
extra energy level of electrons. The nuclear charge decreases and ability of the nucleus to attract
electrons is reduced hence less energy is given out.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

This is the tendency of an element to attract bonding electrons towards itself in a covalent compound.

The magnitude of electronegativity depends on:

 Nuclear charge

 Atomic radius

 Screening effect

Variation across the period

Across the period, electronegativity increases because the atoms become smaller and the effective
nuclear charge increases therefore the electron attractive power increases.

Variation down the group

Down the group, electronegativity decreases due to increasing atomic radius and decrease in effective
nuclear charge.

Example of such variation is;

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 Element F Cl Br I
Electronegativity 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5

ELECTROPOSITIVITY

This is the ability to lose outermost electrons to form a positively charged ion. This is basically a
property of a metallic elements because they have few electrons in the outermost energy level with low
ionization energy.

Down the group, Electropositivity increases because:

 The shielding of outer most electrons from nuclear attraction increases as more completed energy
levels are added.

 Atomic radius increases

The most reactive metals are therefore found at the bottom of the group e.g. Lithium in group I reacts
slowly with cold water due to low Electropositivity value

CHARGE DENSITY

This is the ratio of charge of a given ion to its radius.

According to Fajan, polarization is favoured by:

 High charge. Highly charged positive ions greatly polarize anions with large negative charge

 Small radius of the Cation

 Large anions. Anions with large radius are more polarisable

Polarisation affects both the chemical and physical properties of ionic compounds

Examples include:

The melting point of chlorides of Sodium, Magnesium and Aluminium are shown below

Chloride NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3

DIAGONAL RELATIONSHIP

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This is the similarity in chemical properties between elements in period two to their diagonal neighbors
in period three and adjacent groups.

The pairs of elements with similarity in chemical properties include:

 Lithium and Magnesium

 Beryllium and Aluminium

 Boron and Silicon

The similarity in chemical properties is due to following reasons:

 Similar polarizing power or charge density

 Similar electronegativity

 Similar Electropositivity

 Similar electrode potential

N.B.The similarity in Chemical properties between the pairs See S- block elements.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Evidence for Sub-atomic particles

See physical chemistry notes

Hydrogen Spectrum

The hydrogen spectrum consists of a series of lines both in the visible and invisible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum i.e. line spectrum.

In each series, the spacing between the adjacent lines decreases towards the continuum i.e. the energy
levels get closer as energy decreases due to decreased nuclear attraction on the electrons in the energy
levels which nearly become constant and converge into continuous spectrum.

For the visible spectrum, each line has a different color and represents a radiation of definite
wavelength and frequency

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I.R U.V

red violet
frequency increases

wavelength increases

Explanation of the line Spectrum

When an electric discharge is passed through hydrogen gas at low pressure the gas molecules break
down to form gaseous atom, the hydrogen atoms absorb energy in discrete units called quanta.

The electron in each hydrogen atom becomes excited and gets promoted from levels of lowest energy
(ground state) to higher energy levels far away from the nucleus.

The electron in higher permissible state is unstable and falls back towards the ground state emitting
light/ radiations with definite frequencies.

When the radiations are resolved by the spectrometer, an emission spectrum develops.

n=
n=7
n=6

n=5

n=4

n=3
paschen series

n=2
balmer series

n=1

lyman series

Each series represent a transition from a higher energy level to a given level of lower energy.

The wavelength of each line is by;

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1  1 1 
 R H  2  2  Where RH is Rybergs constant = 109678
  n1 n2 

The energy given out when an electron falls back to lower energy level is given by:

E  hf Where h –Planck’s constant and f-frequency of radiation

c hc
Since f  , the expression can be written as E  where c is speed of light
 

When an electron is removed from n , it is removed from the influence of the nucleus .i.e .ionization

Qn: The diagram below shows some energy levels in the hydrogen atom

n
0

-82 n=4

-146 n=3

-329 n=2

-1310 n=1
KJmol-1

(a)If an electron is in ground state, what is the minimum energy for ionization?

(b) What is the significance of the shaded area?

(c) If an electron is in energy level 4 what is the frequency of the lowest energy it can emit
(h=6.63X10-34J s)

Evidence for existence of energy levels

 Hydrogen atoms has one electron but produces a spectrum containing a series of lines

 The lines in each series have definite frequency and wavelength.

 The spacing between the adjacent lines in each series differs and converges into a continuum.

 The number of lines in spectra-series increases with an increase in the resolving power of the
spectrometer prism used. hence atom has got an infinite number of energy levels

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