Integrated Master of Science (IT) [iMSc (IT)]

Semester IV
FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORKING
 Unit-3
OSI Model and TCP/IP Model
Content..
● OSI Model and TCP/IP Model
● Introduction to OSI Model
○ TCP/IP Model
● Introduction to Physical Layer
● Wired Physical Layer
○ Twisted pair
○ Coaxial cable
○ Optical fiber
● Wireless Physical Layer
○ Microwave
○ Satellite communication
○ Cellular telephones
Content..
● Introduction to Data Link Layer
● Error classification
○ Delay Distortion
○ Attenuation
○ Noise
● Types of Error
● Error Detection
○ Checksum
○ VRC
○ LRC
○ CRC
● Recovery from errors
○ Stop and Wait
○ Go back n
○ Sliding Window
Introduction to OSI Model
○ OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how

information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the

software application in another computer.

○ OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.

○ OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in

1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.

○ OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is

assigned a particular task.

○ Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently .
OSI - Model
○ The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
○ The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and
they are implemented only in the software.
○ The application layer is closest to the end user.
○ Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An
upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
○ The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues.
○ The data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software.
○ The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical
medium.
7 layers of OSI Model
● 7 Layers of OSI Model
● There are the seven OSI layers.
● Each layer has different functions.
● A list of seven layers are given below:
○ Physical Layer
○ Data-Link Layer
○ Network Layer
○ Transport Layer
○ Session Layer
○ Presentation Layer
○ Application Layer
TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP model
○ The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
○ The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
○ The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
○ The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these
four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
○ TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them
provides specific functionality.
Similarities between TCP/IP and OSI Models

○ Both the models are based upon layered architecture.

○ Protocols are defined in a layer-wise way.
○ Both models convert the raw data into packets and help them reach their destination node.
○ Each model has different layers with a specific function. This helps in identifying issues if any
failure occurs.
○ The Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model correspond to the Network Access layer of the
TCP/IP model.
○ The Application, Presentation, and Sessions layers of the OSI model correspond to the Application
layer of the TCP/IP model.
○ Both models have the network layer and the transport layer.
Difference ..
Difference ..
The OSI model has the following layers:
○ The OSI model has the following layers:
○ Physical. This consists of a data connection between a device generating data and the network.
○ Datalink. The data link layer is the point-to-point connection that transmits the data to the network layer.
○ Network. In the network layer, the data gets its address and routing instructions in preparation for its
journey across the network.
○ Transport. In the transport layer, the data hops between different points on the network on its way to its
destination.
○ Session. The session layer has a connection that manages the sessions happening between applications.
○ Presentation. The presentation layer is where data gets encrypted and decrypted and converted into a
form that is accessible by the application layer,
○ Application. In the application layer, an application, such as an internet browser, gets the data and a
user can then interact with it.
Introduction to Physical Layer
Physical layer
○ The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the
individual bits from one node to another node.
○ It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
○ It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
○ It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network
interface specifications.
Transmission media of Physical layer
Transmission media: Data is carried from source to destination with the help
of transmission media. There are two sorts of transmission media:
○ Wired Media:
○ The connection is established with the help of cables.
○ For example, fiber optic cables, coaxial cables, and twisted pair cables.

○ Wireless Media:
○ The connection is established using a wireless communication network.
○ For example,Microwave,Satellite, cellular, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc.
Guided media / wired media
● Guided media is a type of transmission media in computer networks which is also

known as wired or bounded media.

● These transmission media consist of wires through which the data is transferred.

● Guided media is a physical link between transmitter and recipient devices.

● Signals are directed in a narrow pathway using physical links.

● These media types are used for shorter distances since physical limitation limits the

signal that flows through these transmission media.

Guided media / wired media -Types
Twisted Pair
● As the name suggests, a twisted-pair cable consists of pairs of wires that form the

circuit to transmit data.

● The wires are insulated conductors generally made of copper and twisted together.

● One conductor is used to carry the signal, and the other one is used only as a ground

reference.

● A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of

the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.

● The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

Twisted Pair

● Description:

● Wires are twisted to improve noise immunity.

● Commonly used in telephone and LAN connections.

● Available in shielded and unshielded variants.

Twisted pair
Twisted Pair characteristics

○ Twisted pair cables have become common in LANs and phone lines.

○ They are available in two types:

a. unprotected twisted pair

b. shielded twisted pair

○ A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral

pattern.
Uses

○ Ethernet networks (LANs).

○ Telephone lines.

○ DSL connections.

○ Short-distance data transmission.

○ Security camera systems.

Types of Twisted pair cable
Twisted pair types
Unshielded twisted pair or UTP:

● UTP cable has four pairs or eight colour-

coded copper wires twisted together and

covered with a plastic sheath.

● Their electromagnetic interference gets

cancelled due to the twisting effect.

● UTP cables are primarily used in LANs,

telephone wires and ethernet cables.

Twisted pair types
Shielded twisted pair or STP:

● STP cable uses the techniques of wire

twisting, shielding, and cancellation.

● Each wire pair is covered in a metallic foil.

● Then four pairs of wires are then covered

by an external metallic braid.

● STP cables reduce crosstalk both within the

cable with pair-to-pair coupling and from

outside the cable.

Fiber optic cable
○ Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.

○ Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are

used to send the data by pulses of light.

○ The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold,

electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.

○ Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Fiber optic cable
○ Definition:

○ A fiber optic cable is a high-speed data transmission medium that transmits

data as light signals through thin strands of glass or plastic fibers.

○ Description:

○ Composed of a core (glass or plastic) and cladding that reflects light inward.

○ Typically used for long-distance and high-bandwidth communication.

○ Operates using the principle of total internal reflection to carry light signals.
Fiber optic cable
Fiber optic cable types
○ Single-Mode Fiber: Used for long-distance communication, supports a

single light mode.

○ Multi-Mode Fiber: Used for short-distance communication, supports

multiple light modes.

Fiber optic cable types
Fiber optic cable uses

○ Internet backbone for ISPs.

○ High-speed data communication in enterprises.

○ Telecommunications.

○ Medical imaging and sensors.

○ Secure military communication.

Coaxial cable
○ Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually

a coaxial cable.

○ The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.

○ It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.

○ The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor

is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that

separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.

○ The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh

prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable

Description:

● Central conductor carries the signal, surrounded by insulation.

● Metallic shielding prevents EMI.
● Widely used for television signals and broadband internet.
Uses

● Cable television systems.

● Broadband internet connections.

● Telephone trunk lines.

● CCTV and surveillance systems.

● Connecting radio transmitters and receivers.

Unguided media
● Unguided media also called wireless communication.
● An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves
without using any physical medium.
● Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
● Send communications signals through air or space.
● Used when inconvenient or impossible to install cables.
Unguided media
Unguided media- Wireless Band
● VLF: Very Low Frequency, Usually spread through air and water. VLF waves do not suffer attenuation
but affected by atmoshphere.It is generally used for long distance.
● LF: Low Frequency, waves works with long-distance-radio frequency.
● MF: Middle Frequency, waves rely on line-of-sight antennas to increase
control problems. AM radio.
● HF: High Frequency used in amateur radio, citizen band radio, international broadcasting, military
communication, telephone and telegraph.
● VHF: Very High Frequency, are used in television, FM radio, aircraft AM radio.
● UHF: Ultra High Frequency, used for television, mobile phone,cellular radio, paging and microwaves
● SHF: Super High Frequency, in space used for terrestrial and satellite
● microwave and radar communications.
● EHF: Extremely High Frequency, are transmitted into space and used for radar, satellite and
experiment communication.
Microwave
● Microwave uses the line of sight method of propagation as the signals do
not travel along the surface of the earth.
● So, two antennas must be in a straight line able to look at each other
without any obstacle in between.
● The taller the antenna the more is the distance that these waves travel.
● The antennas are positioned on mountains to avoid obstacles.
● Microwave signals travel only in one direction at at time. Therefore for two
way communication two frequencies is required.
● Repeaters are used to enhance the signal.
Example of telephone systems
Microwaves
● Microwaves are used for unicast(single sender and
a single receiver)
● communication such as cellular telephones, satellite
networks, and wireless LANs.
● The frequencies used are in the low-gigahertz range.
Characteristics of Microwave
● Characteristics of Microwave:

● Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.

● Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
● Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a
longer distance.
● Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by
environmental conditions and antenna size.
Advantages
● Advantages of Microwave Communication:

● Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

● It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the
installation of cables.
● Microwave transmission provides an easy
communication in terrains as the installation of cable
in terrain is quite a difficult task.
Disadvantages
● Disadvantages of Microwave Communication:

● The main problem with microwave communication is the mountains & other
structure often block the line of side.
● Due to this reason, many repeats are required for long distance which
increases the cost of data transmission between the two points.
● This problem is recommended by using satellites.
● Satellite microwave transmission is used to
transmit signals through out the world. These system use
satellites in orbit about 50,000 Km above the earth.
Unguided media- satellite
How satellite microwave works…
● A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a
known height.
● Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more
flexibility than cable and fibre optic systems.
● We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.
● The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth
station, and it amplifies the signal.
● The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.
Satellite microwave
Advantages of Satellite microwave
● The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the
terrestrial microwave.
● The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance
from the centre of the coverage area.
● Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless
communication applications.
● It is easy to install.
● It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather
forecasting, radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.
Disadvantages of Satellite microwave

● Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher

cost.
● The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods
so that it remains in orbit.
● The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason,
another launch of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes
non-functional.
Radio waves
● Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in
all the directions of free space.
● Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in
all the directions.
● The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
● In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not
aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received
by any receiving antenna.
● An example of the radio wave is FM radio
Radio waves
● Radio waves use
omnidirectional antennas that
send out signals in all directions.
● Based on the wavelength,
strength, and the purpose of
transmission,
● we can have several types of
antennas.
● Figure shows an omnidirectional
antenna.
Radio waves
Applications of Radio waves

● A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and
many receivers.
● An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio
wave.
Advantages of Radio waves
● Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile
cellular phones.
● Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
● Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
Infrared waves
● An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for
communication over short ranges.
● The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
● It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer
between two cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer
between a computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area.
Infrared waves
Characteristics of Infrared waves

● It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very
high.
● Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared
communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby
rooms.
● An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
● Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because
the sun rays will interfere with the infrared waves.
Application and uses of infrared signals
● Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a
closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
● Infrared technology is widely used in security systems, including
motion detectors and infrared cameras.
● Infrared sensors are employed in various automotive applications,
such as night vision systems and collision avoidance systems.
● Infrared technology is found in many consumer electronic devices,
including remote controls for televisions, air conditioners, and other
appliances.
Cellular communication
● Cellular transmission is the process of sending and receiving data
through a cellular network, which is made up of land-based towers.
● A device connects to a cellular tower by emitting radio waves through
its transmitter and antenna.
● The tower notifies the device when it can communicate with it, and the
device acknowledges the connection.
● If the tower can't reach the device, it notifies the device to look for a
new tower
Cellular communication - how it works

● The signal generation process for cellular transmission is called

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).
● This process involves converting an analog message into binary,
encrypting it with a cell code, and then converting it into a DSSS
waveform
● Cellular networks support voice calls, data services, and mobility. They
use advanced protocols like LTE and 5G to deliver fast and reliable
connections.
● Cellular networks vs satellite networks
Satellite networks offer broader coverage than cellular networks, but
they are more expensive to build and maintain. In some cases, a device
can communicate through both a cellular network and a satellite system
using dual-mode tracking and monitoring technology.
● Examples of cellular networks
Some examples of cellular networks include GSM (Global System for Mobile
communication), GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access), and 3GSM
Cellular transmission towers
Advantages of cellular transmission
● 1.Higher capacity
● Smaller the size of the cell more the number of concurrent users i.e. huge
cells do not allow for more concurrent users.
● 2. Less transmission power
● Huge cells require a greater transmission power than small cells.
● 3. Local interference only
● For huge cells there are a number of interfering signals, while for small cells
there is limited interference only.
● 4. Robustness
● As cellular systems are decentralized, they are more robust against the
failure of single components.
Disadvantages of cellular transmission

● 1. Infrastructure needed
● Small cells require a complex infrastructure to connect all base station. The infrastructure
required includes switches for call forwarding, location registers etc.
● 2. Handover needed
● The mobile station has to perform a handover when changing from one cell to another very
frequently.
● 3. Frequency planning
● To avoid interference, frequency spectrum should be distributed properly with a very less
range of frequency spectrum.
Summary
Introduction to Data Link Layer
● The data link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI
(Open System Interconnection) network architecture model.
● It is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of data. Its major role
is to ensure error-free transmission of information.
● DLL is also responsible for encoding, decoding, and organizing the
outgoing and incoming data.
● This is considered the most complex layer of the OSI model as it
hides all the underlying complexities of the hardware from the
other above layer
Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer-responsible for…
● The Data Link Layer is essential for ensuring that data is transferred
reliably and accurately across a network.
● It handles error detection and correction, manages data frame
sequencing, and provides access to the physical network.
● By organizing data into frames and controlling how devices on the
network communicate, the Data Link Layer plays a crucial role in
maintaining smooth and efficient network operations
Data Link Layer
● Data-link layer uses error control techniques to ensure that frames,
i.e. bit streams of data, are transmitted from the source to the
destination with a certain extent of accuracy.
Error classification
● Error classification

○ Delay Distortion
○ Attenuation
○ Noise
Attenuation
● Attenuation – It means loss of energy.
● The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance which
causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium.
● This is also known as attenuated signal.
● Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the
original signal back and compensate for this loss.
Attenuation
Distortion/Delay Distortion
● Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal.
● This is generally seen in composite signals made up with different frequencies.
● Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling through a
medium.
● And that's why it delay in arriving at the final destination Every
component arrive at different time which leads to distortion.
● Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they had at
senders end
Distortion/Delay Distortion
Noise
● Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with
the original signal is called noise.
● There are several types of noise such as
a. induced noise,
b. crosstalk noise,
c. thermal noise and
d. impulse noise
● which may corrupt the signal.
Noise
Noise types
● Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances.
These devices act as sending antenna and transmission medium act as
receiving antenna.
● Thermal noise is movement of electrons in wire which creates an
extra signal.
● Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other wire.
● Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning
or power lines
Errors and types of Errors
● Errors
● When bits are transmitted over the computer network, they are subject to get
corrupted due to interference and network problems.
● The corrupted bits leads to spurious data being received by the destination and
are called errors.
● Types of Errors
a. single bit errors,
b. multiple bit errors,
c. burst errors.
Types of Errors
● Single bit error − In the received frame, only one bit has been
corrupted, i.e. either changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.
Types of Errors
● Multiple bits error − In the received frame, more than one bits are
corrupted.
Types of Errors
● Burst error − In the received frame, more than one consecutive bits
are corrupted.
Error Control

● Error control can be done in two ways

● Error detection − Error detection involves checking whether any error
has occurred or not. The number of error bits and the type of error does
not matter.
● Error correction − Error correction involves ascertaining the exact
number of bits that has been corrupted and the location of the
corrupted bits.
Error detection
● When frame is transmitted from transmitter to the receiver.
● There are two possibilities viz. frame is received without error, frame is received in
error (i.e. frame is bad).
● Error detection helps in detecting errors in a received block or frame by the receiver.
● Once the error is detected receiver informs the transmitter to re-transmit the same
frame again.
● Error detection can be made possible by adding redundant bits in each frame during
transmission.
● Based on all the bits in the frame (i.e. data + error check bits), receiver is capable
of detecting errors in the frame.
Error detection
● Error detection Types

○ Checksum
○ Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
○ Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)
○ Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Checksum
● Checksum is the error detection method used by upper-layer
protocols and is considered to be more reliable than
● Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC),
● Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC), and
● Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
● This method uses a Checksum Generator on the sender side and
a Checksum Checker on the receiver side.
Checksum
● On the Sender side, the data is divided into equal subunits of n bit
length by the checksum generator.
● This bit is generally of 16-bit length.
● These subunits are then added together using one’s complement
method.
● This sum is of n bits. The resultant bit is then complemented.
● This complemented sum which is called checksum is appended to the
end of the original data unit and is then transmitted to the receiver.
Checksum method
Example - checksum
● Example – If the data unit to be transmitted is 10101001 00111001,
the following procedure is used at Sender site and Receiver site.
Example - checksum
Example - checksum
Vertical Redundancy check(VRC) / Single parity check

● Vertical Redundancy Check is also known as Parity Check

● A simple method that adds a single bit to data to ensure the total number of
1s is even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).
● Simple-bit parity is a simple error detection method that involves adding an
extra bit to a data transmission. It works as:
● 1 is added to the block if it contains an odd number of 1’s, and
● 0 is added if it contains an even number of 1’s
● This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why it is called
even parity checking.
Drawbacks of single parity check

● It can only detect single-bit errors which are very rare.

● If two bits are interchanged, then it cannot detect the errors.
Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)

● Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) is also known as 2-D parity check.

● Performance can be improved by using Two-Dimensional Parity Check which
organizes the data in the form of a table.
● Parity check bits are computed for each row, which is equivalent to the single-
parity check.
● In Two-Dimensional Parity check, a block of bits is divided into rows, and the
redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
● At the receiving end, the parity bits are compared with the parity bits computed
from the received data.
Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
Drawback of LRC

● Drawbacks Of 2D Parity Check

● If two bits in one data unit are corrupted and two bits exactly the
same position in another data unit are also corrupted, then 2D Parity
checker will not be able to detect the error.
● This technique cannot be used to detect the 4-bit errors or more in
some cases.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

● Unlike the checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on

binary division.
● In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are
appended to the end of the data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly
divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.
● At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this
step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore
accepted.
● A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and therefore
must be rejected.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Example -CRC
● Suppose the original data is 11100 and divisor is 1001.
● CRC Generator
● A CRC generator uses a modulo-2 division. Firstly, three zeroes are appended at the end of the
data as the length of the divisor is 4 and we know that the length of the string 0s to be appended
is always one less than the length of the divisor.
● Now, the string becomes 11100000, and the resultant string is divided by the divisor 1001.
● The remainder generated from the binary division is known as CRC remainder. The generated
value of the CRC remainder is 111.
● CRC remainder replaces the appended string of 0s at the end of the data unit, and the final
string would be 11100111 which is sent across the network.
Example -CRC
Example -CRC
● CRC Checker
● The functionality of the CRC checker is similar to the CRC generator.
● When the string 11100111 is received at the receiving end, then CRC
checker performs the modulo-2 division.
● A string is divided by the same divisor, i.e., 1001.
● In this case, CRC checker generates the remainder of zero. Therefore,
the data is accepted.
Example -CRC
Recovery from errors
● Recovery from errors
○ Stop and Wait
○ Sliding Window
■ Go-Back-N (GBN)
■ Selective Repeat (SR).
● One of the main issues in computer networking is the transfer of data in an accurate
manner.
● The control over this service department rests with TCP.
● They use Stop and Wait, Go Back N and Selective Repeat as their main flow control
protocols.
Stop and wait
Stop and Wait Protocol
● The sender sends the packet and then waits for the packet’s ACK
(acknowledgement).
● The next consecutive packet is sent once the ACK has been received
by the sender.
● It sends the previous packet again if the ACK is not received.
Stop and wait
Stop and wait
● Simple Stop and Wait
At Sender
● Rule 1: Send one data packet at a time.
● Rule 2: Send the next packet only after receiving acknowledgment for
the previous.
At Receiver
● Rule 1: Send acknowledgement after receiving and consuming a data
packet.
● Rule 2: After consuming packet acknowledgement need to be sent
(Flow Control)
Problems Associated With Stop and wait

1. Lost Data

● Assume the sender transmits the data packet

and it is lost. The receiver has been waiting for
the data for a long time.
● Because the data is not received by the
receiver, it does not transmit an
acknowledgment.
● The sender does not receive an
acknowledgment, it will not send the next
packet.
● This problem is caused by a loss of data.
Problems Associated With Stop and wait
2. Lost Acknowledgement
● Assume the sender sends the data, which is also
received by the receiver.
● The receiver sends an acknowledgment after
receiving the packet.
● In this situation, the acknowledgment is lost in
the network.
● The sender does not send the next data packet
because it does not receive acknowledgement,
under the stop and wait protocol, the next
packet cannot be transmitted until the preceding
packet’s acknowledgment is received.
Problems Associated With Stop and wait

3. Delayed Acknowledgement/Data

● Assume the sender sends the data, which is also received by the receiver.
● The receiver then transmits the acknowledgment, which is received after
the sender’s timeout period.
● After a timeout on the sender side, a long-delayed acknowledgement
might be wrongly considered as acknowledgement of some other recent
packet.
Go-Back N(GBN)
● In Go-Back-N, the sender can send multiple data packets without
waiting for an acknowledgement(ACK) for each one.
● However, it can only send a certain number of packets (this is called
the “window size”).
● If one packet is lost or not acknowledged, the sender must go back
and resend that packet and all the packets that followed it, even if
they were received correctly.
● For example, if packets 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are sent and packet 3 gets
lost, the sender will have to resend packets 3, 4, and 5, even if 4 and
5 were received
Go-Back N(GBN)
GO BACK - N
Sliding window
● The Sliding Window Protocol is a method used in computer networks to manage
the flow of data between two devices, ensuring that data is sent and received in
the correct order.
● The date to be send is divided into frames.
● The sender must send a frame, wait for its acknowledgement and only after it
receives that acknowledgement, send the next frame.
● A trick to improve efficiency would be to send multiple frames at a time, check the
CRC of all the frames one by one, send the acknowledgement for all and request
for the next set of frames. The sliding window is based on this philosophy.
Sliding window
SLIDING WINDOW
SLIDING WINDOW
SLIDING WINDOW
Thank you