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CIBSE KNOWLEDGE SERIES

CONTACT US AT:
Humidification

Humidification
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
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Further publications in the CIBSE Knowledge Series:

KS01: Reclaimed water

KS02: Managing your building services
KS03: Sustainable low energy cooling: an overview
KS04: Understanding controls
KS05: Making buildings work
KS06: Comfort
KS07: Variable flow pipework systems
KS08: How to design a heating system
KS09: Commissioning variable flow pipework systems
KS10: Biomass heating
KS11: Green roofs
KS12: Refurbishment for improved energy efficiency: an overview
KS13: Refrigeration
KS14: Energy efficient heating
KS15: Capturing solar energy
KS16: How to manage overheating in buildings
KS19

KS17: Indoor air quality and ventilation

KS18: Data centres: an introduction to concepts and design

ISBN 978-1-906846-25-1
Direct and accessible guidance from key subject
overviews to implementing practical solutions

9 781906 846251
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in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the Institution.

© September 2012 The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers London

Registered charity number 278104

ISBN: 978-1-906846-25-1

This document is based on the best knowledge available at the time of publication.
However no responsibility of any kind for any injury, death, loss, damage or delay
however caused resulting from the use of these recommendations can be accepted by
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Production management and typesetting by The Lavenham Press

Printed in Great Britain by Page Bros (Norwich) Ltd., Norwich, Norfolk NR6 6SA

Note from the publisher

This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those responsible for the
design, installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of building services. It
is not intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will be necessary for users of the
guidance given to exercise their own professional judgement when deciding whether to
abide by or depart from it.

Any commercial products depicted or described within this publication are included for
the purposes of illustration only and their inclusion does not constitute endorsement or
recommendation by the Institution.

Picture credits
Illustrations of equipment by courtesy of members of the HEVAC Humidity Group.
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Humidification

CIBSE Knowledge Series: KS19

Technical author
Tim Dwyer

Contributors
HEVAC Humidity Group

CIBSE Head of Knowledge

Nicholas Peake

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification

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Contents

1 The need for humidification..................................................................1

2 What is humidity?....................................................................................2
2.1 Relative humidity or percentage saturation?....................................3

3 Why is humidity control important?....................................................4

3.1 Reasons for controlling humidity......................................................4
3.1.1 Health and comfort.............................................................4
3.1.2 Control of static electricity..................................................6
3.1.3 Fabric and materials............................................................7
3.1.4 Food storage.......................................................................8
3.1.5 Industrial production...........................................................8
3.1.6 Equipment and processes...................................................9
3.2 Design conditions for controlled environments............................. 10
3.2.1 Humidity variations within a room.................................... 10

4 Humidification processes..................................................................... 11
4.1 Adiabatic humidification................................................................. 11
4.2 Isothermal humidification............................................................... 12
4.3 Heating to humidify........................................................................ 12

5 Humidification load calculations......................................................... 13

5.1 An example to compare the application of adiabatic and .
isothermal humidification systems................................................. 14

6 Humidifier systems............................................................................... 19
6.1 Adiabatic humidifiers...................................................................... 19
6.1.1 Atomising humidifiers........................................................ 19
6.1.2 Wetted surface or ‘evaporative’ humidifiers..................... 23
6.1.3 Ultrasonic humidifiers....................................................... 24
6.1.4 Adiabatic humidifier performance..................................... 25
6.2 Isothermal humidifiers.................................................................... 25
6.2.1 Centrally supplied steam................................................... 26
6.2.2 Electric steam generators.................................................. 27
6.2.3 Local gas- or oil-fired steam generators............................ 30
6.2.4 Isothermal humidifier performance................................... 30

7 Selection considerations...................................................................... 31
7.1 System running costs...................................................................... 31
7.2 Absorption distances for duct-mounted humidifiers...................... 31
7.3 Duct relative static pressures......................................................... 32

8 Health concerns.................................................................................... 34
8.1 Legionnaires’ disease...................................................................... 34
8.1.1 Reducing health risk.......................................................... 35

9 Installation, commissioning and maintenance.................................. 36

9.1 Humidifier installation.................................................................... 36
9.2 Commissioning............................................................................... 36
9.3 Maintenance................................................................................... 37

Further reading........................................................................................... 39
References ................................................................................................. 40
CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification
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1 The need for humidification

Humidity may need controlling in almost every type of building, both for
comfort and health and for the building’s contents and processes. In many
cases this is undertaken using well-established natural mechanisms, but there
are often circumstances where the total-life cost of the building would benefit
from active humidification control.

Cold outdoor air will characteristically have a low moisture content, as will
outdoor air in hot arid climates, and will frequently require humidification to
provide comfortable and productive internal conditions.
Conversely, warm outdoor air (other than in arid climates) will
characteristically have a high moisture content and may need to be
dehumidified to meet comfort conditions. It is important that comfort
air-conditioning systems should not operate both cooling and humidifying
equipment at the same time as this can be hugely wasteful; it is normally
avoided through proper design and control.

This guide will specifically consider the means of increasing the humidity of air
to ensure that it does not fall below appropriate levels – a process known as
humidification.

This guide will explain:

— what ‘humidity’ means

­— the reasons for controlling the humidity levels in the built
environment Figure 1:
­— the processes that make humidifiers work Example of a
— the main types of humidifiers used in buildings humidification installation
— how to determine the humidification load
— the energy used when humidifying
— the selection of humidifiers
­— the operational needs of humidifiers.

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification 1

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2 What is humidity?

The properties of air that determine its humidity are the moisture content
(kg·kg–1 dry air) (this is also known as specific humidity) and the dry-bulb
temperature (°C). The moisture content is the mass of water vapour, in kg,
associated with 1 kg of dry air. The amount of water vapour in the air will
determine the air’s vapour pressure (Pa) – air with a large number of water
molecules in it will have a high vapour pressure, although this will nearly
always be less than 5% of the total pressure of the moist air.

As dry-bulb temperature is increased, so is the air’s ability to associate with

water vapour. When air is saturated with water vapour, no more water
molecules may be added to the air without some condensing out as liquid
water. At this point the vapour pressure has reached the saturated vapour
pressure, and the associated moisture content is the saturated moisture
content (related to that particular dry-bulb temperature). The term ‘dew
point’ is used to indicate the point where a sample of air that is being cooled
will become saturated and water starts to condense out. Figure 2 shows how
these terms relate to the standard psychrometric chart.

Figure 2:
e
Moisture
urv

Saturated air on a content

nc
tio

psychrometric chart
ura
sat

Vapour pressure is not shown on the standard

0%
10

chart, but if it were it would be on the same

Saturated
axis as the moisture content moisture content

Air dew
point Air sample

Air moisture
content

Dry-bulb Dew point Air dry-bulb

temperature temperature temperature

To determine the moisture content of the air (and indeed to establish the
humidity) the most basic method is to obtain both the wet-bulb temperature
and the dry-bulb temperature of the air using instrumentation such as a
sling psychrometer (Figure 3) or an electronic meter (Figure 4). Then, using
psychrometric tables, some simple formulae or a psychrometric chart, the
air’s moisture content may be established.

2 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification

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Figure 3:
Sling psychrometer

Figure 4:
Digital psychrometer

2.1 Relative humidity or percentage saturation?

Humidity is typically represented in one of two ways – relative humidity (%)

or percentage saturation (%):

relative humidity = vapour pressure

saturated vapour pressure ×100%

moisture content
percentage saturation = saturated moisture content ×100%

Percentage saturation is used as the measure of humidity on the

CIBSE psychrometric chart, and relative humidity is frequently used in
manufacturers’ literature and other texts. In practice, there is little numerical
difference between the two. In this guide, the term ‘humidity’ will be taken to
mean percentage saturation and relative humidity will be referred to as ‘RH’.

Percentage saturation of outdoor air will nearly always be greater in winter

than in summer. However, as can be seen by referring to a psychrometric Moisture content: units

chart, moisture content (kg·kg–1) will normally be higher in summer, as the

To reduce errors introduced by
warmer air can associate with significantly more moisture before becoming misreading decimal places the
saturated. If cold fresh air is introduced in winter, the percentage saturation moisture content of air is frequently
written in terms of g·kg-1 dry air in
will reduce as the air warms up. place of in kg·kg-1 dry air. For
example, 7.4 g·kg-1 dry air is the same
as 0.0074 kg·kg-1 dry air.
The underlying psychrometry is explored in CIBSE Knowledge Series
KS20: Practical psychrometry.

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification 3

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3 Why is humidity control important?

3.1 Reasons for controlling humidity

There are a number of reasons why controlled humidity should be maintained

within the built environment.

3.1.1 Health and comfort

Humidity must be neither too high nor too low to maintain comfortable,
as well as healthy, conditions for occupants (see Figure 5). Indexes such as
apparent temperature and Fanger’s comfort equation can be used to predict
the effect of humidity on human comfort.

Thicker band = greater effect

Figure 5:
Bacteria
The effect of humidity on
environmental factors that Viruses

affect occupants’ comfort

Fungi
and health
(Adapted and developed from ASHRAE Mites
Systems 2008; chapter 22, figure 1)
Respiratory Insufficient data
infections above 50%

Allergic rhinitus
and asthma

Chemical
interactions

Ozone
production

Static electricity

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative humidity (%)

The moist tissues lining the nose, mouth, lungs, eyelids and digestive tract are
dried at persistent low room air humidity (below about 40%). This affects
the body’s ability to deal with airborne contaminants and will potentially
increase susceptibility to infection. The loss of mucous fluid can be a particular
problem to wearers of contact lenses as microscopic particles are not diluted
and removed by the liquid normally available from the tear ducts. This is a
particular problem during winter, when outdoor air moisture content is low.
A review of studies indicated that increased levels of humidity have been
shown to reduce absenteeism (Arundel et al., 1986). Low humidity in air-
conditioned buildings has also been associated with ‘sick building syndrome’.

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Dry air readily allows the evaporation (into aerosols) of any droplets released
by a building’s occupants when speaking, coughing or sneezing (Figure 6),
and recent studies indicate that higher levels of air vapour pressure can
significantly reduce the transmission of viruses associated with influenza
(Shaman and Kohn, 2009). There are many thousands of airborne viruses and
bacteria, each with its own characteristics; however, the recommendation is
that, overall, their transmission can best be minimised by maintaining room
humidity at between 40% and 60%.

Figure 6:
The droplets from a sneeze
will enter the air, as well as
coat surfaces and then
evaporate into the air
(Reproduced by permission of Andrew
Davidhazy)

Ozone, which occurs both naturally and through equipment use, is an irritant,
but will decay more quickly at higher humidities (and temperatures).

Excessively high humidity (above 70%) is associated with mould growth and
the multiplication of house dust mites (Figure 7) and these can have adverse
health implications for asthma and allergy sufferers. Mould, once established,
will continue to grow even at lower humidities and so continue to release
musty odours. If the room humidity is maintained below 50% for an extended
period the risk of mites can be substantially reduced.

Figure 7:
Dust mite waste contains a
protein that causes illness
in some people

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification 5

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CIBSE recommends that, for human comfort and health, humidity be
maintained between 40% and 70%, maintaining a normal maximum of
60% for air-conditioned spaces. It is accepted that in naturally ventilated
buildings, humidity can be allowed to drop to 30% for short periods, and that
naturally ventilated buildings will inevitably operate at lower humidities than
air-conditioned buildings. There is no single ‘correct’ value for comfort since
individuals will have different expectations, as illustrated by the preferences of
wearers of contact lens shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Severity of eye

discomfort 1-3
The influence of relative 2
humidity on eye discomfort Increasing
for people using contact deposits
on lens
lens
There is no single value of humidity that will
please everyone
Increasing discomfort

Most sensitive
people

Least sensitive
people

0
0 20 40 60
No discomfort Relative humidity (%)

3.1.2 Control of static electricity

Shocks due to static electricity are unlikely to occur if the humidity is

maintained at over 40%. This is because above this humidity the materials
(particularly carpets) and the air will have a lower electrical resistance and
so will provide a continuous conductor, preventing the accumulation of static
electricity above the normally perceptible 3 kV (see Figure 9).

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18 Figure 9:
Relationship between
Limit for all
carpets tested relative humidity and body
voltage

16

Electrostatic
shock zone
No electrostatic
shocks

12
Average
Body voltage (kV)

4
3
Shock threshold

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Relative humidity (%)

Where there are specific explosive substances (such as petrol vapour, some
gases and organic dusts) CIBSE recommends that 65% is a safe minimum
humidity in order to reduce the risk of static electricity discharge. Low
humidity can be a particular concern in areas close to potential gas leaks,
where there are stores of flammable materials or airborne particles of flour,
sawdust or paper and in computer data centres.

Accumulated static voltages at low humidities can also cause problems with
paper handling and can damage sensitive electronic equipment.

3.1.3 Fabric and materials

Different materials will have their own humidity requirements and so

flexibility should be included in the environmental systems to provide the
appropriate humidity control.

Hygroscopic materials such as paper, leather, textiles and wood will absorb
moisture if the humidity level is high (which potentially encourages mould

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification 7

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growth), but will give up their moisture if the air is dry. Such materials would
normally be kept within the range of 40% to 65%. They can be particularly
susceptible to changes in air humidity levels and should be protected from
rapid drying out. Humidity is likely to have more impact than temperature
on their rate of expansion and so stability of humidity may well be important.
Impermeable materials such as metals and minerals benefit from low
humidity, below 50%, and bronze and glass should be kept in a humidity of
below 40%.

Buildings such as galleries and museums might accommodate many different

materials. The appropriate flexibility should therefore be designed into the
environmental control system.

3.1.4 Food storage

Food storage depends on close control of humidity to maintain freshness and

minimise product weight loss. Wherever fresh food crops are refrigerated
after harvest or when meat carcasses require temperature reduction after
slaughter, moisture loss becomes a significant cost and quality consideration.
Refrigeration creates a cooler, dryer air, which will increase the rate of
moisture loss from fresh food. Maintaining an appropriate minimum humidity
in the cooled air reduces the drying effect on fresh food, and controlled
humidification can significantly extend the shelf life of meat, fish, salad and
vegetables.

Rising standards in the food industry have highlighted shortcomings in many

agricultural cold stores, many of which were built some years ago. Existing
refrigeration equipment can struggle to achieve the required lower air
temperatures without drying out the products. Adding humidification can
allow farmers and food processors to meet the higher standards without
having to completely replace refrigeration systems. Such cold stores can have
resulting humidities of over 85%, and if humidification is used in conjunction
with effective defrosting systems, cold stores do not experience the problem
of refrigeration equipment icing up, even at these relatively high levels of
humidity.

3.1.5 Industrial production

In manufacturing environments, the maintenance of a consistent humidity

level suited to the material being processed is essential to ensure consistent
quality and productivity. Some materials can be particularly susceptible to
changing humidities and should be protected from drying out or alternatively
absorbing moisture. At low humidity, electrostatic problems can be
particularly disruptive and damaging.

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The printing industry suffers from differential drying of paper, where the
edges of the paper shrink and tighten, causing paper to misfeed through the
printing process. In web presses, such as those used in newspaper printing,
tight edges cause the paper to tear. Typically, humidity levels of 45% to 55%
Willis Carrier
are required in storage and production areas.

Textile yarns with the correct moisture content are stronger than those with
high or low moisture content, and are less prone to breakage and friction,
more elastic and more uniform, attract less contamination and have a better
feel. Textile weights are standardised at 60% and 20 °C, but a range of
between 55% and 75% is typically used in production areas, as determined
by the fabric and process.

Tobacco production typically requires the leaf to have a moisture content of

13% to 16%, which is in equilibrium with ambient humidity of 60% to 68%.
Cigarette paper must also be kept stable. Dry tobacco is difficult to handle
One of the first projects for Willis
and falls out of cigarettes, causing production to be severely affected. Carrier – the ‘father of air
conditioning’ – was in a printing
works, where fluctuations in humidity
The effects of a dry atmosphere on furniture production and storage include were distorting the paper and making
joints becoming loose, woodwork warping and veneers lifting and cracking. it impossible for the printer to achieve
good colour reproduction. Carrier’s
For the purposes of manufacture, the ideal water content of wood is from solution effectively meant that
9% to 12%, values that result from an atmospheric humidity level of between humidity control made four-colour
printing possible in the early years of
50% and 60%. the 20th century.

Humidity levels that are suited to the processing of natural materials also help
to suppress dust, thereby reducing contamination and maintaining a healthier
working environment.

3.1.6 Equipment and processes

The specific requirements for a humidity control system will be determined

by the particular situation and possibly requiring specialist guidance. However,
there is some general guidance for a range of applications.

Electronic data processing equipment will normally have operational limits for
humidity levels (Figure 10). The range of acceptable humidity is determined
by the risk of condensation at high humidities, which has the potential to
cause intermittent electrical faults and the risk of a build-up of static electricity
at low humidities.

Rapid humidity changes can adversely affect mechanical data storage

equipment, such as magnetic media (particularly if condensation takes place).
A typical acceptable range would be 40% to 55%. Recent recommendations
set a minimum moisture content (rather than humidity); this is because air
will heat up significantly as it passes over electrical equipment, so reducing its
humidity.
CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification 9
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Figure 10:
Burns unit
Indicative ranges of design
humidities in controlled Data centres

internal environments Human comfort

(From various sources)
Museums

Pharmaceuticals

Printing

Textiles

30 40 50 60 70 80
Design humidity (%)

Where electronic and pharmaceutical products are being manufactured, there

is often a need for humidity control to ensure the products meet the correct
specifications.

3.2 Design conditions for controlled environments

Relevant references should be used to determine appropriate design

conditions for specific application (such as CIBSE Guide A, chapter 1
(CIBSE, 2006a) and Guide B, chapter 2.3 (CIBSE, 2001)). Different fabrics
and materials have different ideal moisture contents and these differing
characteristics mean that humidity control must be considered in relation to
the specific material being handled.

3.2.1 Humidity variations within a room

Humidities close to the surfaces of a room may well be quite different from
those in the main part of the space. When the temperature of warm humid
air is reduced by adjacent cold surfaces, the air’s percentage saturation will
increase. This will typically occur at the exterior walls of a room, but low
temperatures may also be hidden below a floor covering, such as a carpet,
possibly resulting in condensation on the surface, or within the building fabric
itself.

For more detail on the properties of air and measurement, see CIBSE Guide
C, chapter 1 (CIBSE, 2007).

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4 Humidification processes

Humidification is most conveniently illustrated through the use of a

psychrometric chart, as in Figure 11, since the chart is designed to illustrate
air processes that include a change in dry-bulb temperature (demonstrating a
variation in air sensible heat) coincidentally with a change in moisture content
(relating to a variation in air latent heat).

Figure 11:
The key elements of a
CIBSE psychrometric chart
The chart is specifically drawn up for standard
Sp lum g¯¹)

Latent heating
vo ³·k
ec e,
(m

ific v

) or atmospheric pressure – there are only small

% humidification
ge (
W emp )

ta , µ
et e
t °C

differences at other ‘normal’ pressures found

-b ra

en tion
(

ul tur

c
r a
b e

Pe atur in buildings. At higher altitudes, where the

s
,θ

pressure is lower, there is an increase in the

'

Moisture content, g saturated moisture content at a particular

(kg·kg¯¹ dry air)
temperature

Sp
(kJ ecifi
·kg c e
¯¹) nth
Dry-bulb temperature, θ (°C) alpy
,h

Sensible heating

Two thermodynamic terms are used to describe the different processes of

increasing the amount of water vapour in the air: adiabatic humidification and
isothermal humidification.

4.1 Adiabatic humidification

(Adiabatic = ‘taking place without loss or gain of heat’)

Adiabatic humidifiers evaporate water into water vapour by using the heat
in the air to enable some of the water molecules to change from a liquid
and pass as vapour into the surrounding air. The heat transferred from the
air to the water is known as the latent heat of evaporation. There is little
overall energy change in the air – the total energy (the air’s enthalpy) remains
practically constant (with only a little energy being added from the sensible
energy in the original water). The dry-bulb temperature of the air will reduce
as it gives up sensible heat to the water. This heat is then present as latent
energy in the humidified air – each kilogram of water needs about 2500 kJ of
energy to change to vapour.

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A measure of how effectively adiabatic humidifiers add vapour to air is the
saturation efficiency. If the adiabatic humidification process shown in Figure 12
had a saturation efficiency of 100%, the air would leave at point A, i.e. the air
would be saturated. However, most humidifiers have a saturation efficiency
lower than this and the air will leave at point B.

Figure 12:
Adiabatic and isothermal
humidification as
represented on a
psychrometric chart co Pro
nst c Process taken as
The processes are simplified to follow the an follo ess t A following line of constant
t w wi ak
et- ng en B dry-bulb temperature
lines of wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperature bu line as
lb
tem of
respectively. Adiabatic humidification will not pe Isothermal
rat
ure humidification
follow this line exactly. An adiabatic humidifi-
cation process with 100% saturation
efficiency would take the air to point A Adiabatic
humidification

4.2 Isothermal humidification

(Isothermal = ‘taking place at constant temperature’)

Isothermal humidifiers generate water vapour (steam) and inject it into an

air stream or directly into a room. The energy required can be provided
remotely (e.g. by a centralised boiler system) or using a local steam generator.

Isothermal processes strictly operate at a constant temperature, but in

isothermal humidification the air dry-bulb temperature will increase slightly
(although this small increase in temperature due to the sensible heat in the
steam is typically ignored).

4.3 Heating to humidify

Normally, in a ducted system, the humidification process will be part

of an overall air-conditioning system. Whether adiabatic or isothermal
humidification is used, the air must be in a condition that makes it able to
associate with water vapour. When incoming air has a low temperature
it will need to be pre-heated by the air handling unit so that its dry-bulb
temperature – and therefore its capacity to associate with water vapour, i.e
its saturated moisture content – is increased. This is a particularly important
stage for conditioning of air in colder climates, when a significant proportion
of cold outdoor air is used.

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5 Humidification load calculations

The humidification need is normally quoted as the mass of water vapour

to be introduced into the air in a certain time (kg·h–1 or kg·s–1). Taking the
previously illustrated adiabatic and isothermal processes and adding some
values to their start and end points (as shown in Figure 13), the increase in the
air’s moisture content can be determined as well as the increase in the air’s
energy by considering the change in enthalpy (the energy contained in the
air).

Figure 13:
Comparison of adiabatic
and isothermal processes
producing the same
Sp
eci
increase in moisture
47.5 kJ·kg-1
fic
en
tha Air leaves content
lpy isothermal
Note that the adiabatic process is by
humidifier
38.5 kJ·kg-1 convention shown as following the wet-bulb
9.6 g·kg-1 dry air line printed on the chart
Isothermal

Air leaves
adiabatic Ad Moisture
iab content
humidifier ati
c
6.0 g·kg-1 dry air
Air enters
humidifier

Dry-bulb temperature 23 °C

Both the adiabatic and isothermal processes in Figure 13 have the same
start and end moisture contents of 6.0 g·kg–1 dry air and 9.6 g·kg–1 dry air
respectively, hence:
moisture content increase = 9.6 – 6.0 = 3.6 g·kg–1 dry air
If 0.3 kg of air is being humidified every second then this increase in moisture
content would be:
rate of water vapour added = 0.3 kg·s–1 × 3.6 g·kg–1 dry air
= 1.08 g·s–1
Relating this to moisture content added per hour gives:
3600 s × 1.08 g·s–1 = 3888 g·h–1 i.e. 3.89 kg·h–1
With the adiabatic process there is practically no change in the air’s energy –
there is a very slight increase in the air’s enthalpy due to the sensible energy
in the evaporated water being added to the air. However, as a result of the
process, the air’s dry-bulb temperature is significantly reduced.

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The isothermal process does add significant energy to the air:
change in enthalpy = 47.5 – 38.5 = 9 kJ·kg–1
So, every 1 kg of air being humidified has 9 kJ of energy added to it. Again,
if 0.3 kg of air is being humidified every second then this increase in energy
would equate to:
power added to air = 0.3 kg·s–1 × 9 kJ·kg–1 = 2.7 kJ·s–1 = 2.7 kW
So both processes add 3.89 kg·h–1 of water vapour to the air, but the only
apparent energy use (2.7 kW) is by the isothermal process. This, of course, is
not a fair comparison as the air leaving the adiabatic humidifier has a reduced
dry-bulb temperature. If that air is required to be at the same temperature as
the air leaving the steam humidifier (23 °C) then it would need heating (most
likely using a reheater) and that heating process would add the same energy
to the air as was added by the steam humidifier.

However, the fuel used by the reheater may well be different from that used
by the steam humidifier, and so it could be less expensive or have a smaller
carbon footprint (i.e. lower CO2 emissions).

Frequently, the volume flow rate of air is given in m3·s–1. This can be
converted to mass flow rate using:
 volume flow rate (m³·s–¹)
mass flow rate (kg·s–¹) =
air specific volume (m³·kg–¹)

where specific volume can be read from a psychrometric chart.

Alternatively, mass flow rate can be calculated using air density:

mass flow rate (kg·s–1) = volume flow rate (m3·s–1) ×
air density (kg·m–3)
Air density varies slightly with moisture content and temperature, but is
normally taken to be about 1.2 kg·m–3.

5.1 An example to compare the application of adiabatic

and isothermal humidification systems

A room has a sensible heating load (due to overall heat losses) of 4.78 kW
together with a latent cooling load (due to people and equipment increasing
the water vapour to the air) of 2.63 kW when the outdoor design condition is
0 °C dry bulb, 100% saturation.

The room is to be controlled at 21 °C dry bulb and 50% saturation (moisture

content 7.9 g·kg–1 dry air, as read from a psychrometric chart), with a supply
air temperature of 25 °C (this temperature would be based on requirements
for proper room air distribution).
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The detail of these room calculations can be seen in the CIBSE Knowledge Sensible and latent heat
Series KS20: Practical psychrometry and the basic equations are summarised in
The sensible heat equation:
the box (on the right).
qs = m × cP × Δθ

So, using qs = m × cp × Δθ: where:

4.78 = m × 1.02 × (25 – 21), and so qs = sensible heat added to or

removed from humid air (kW)
m = 1.17 kg·s–1 m = air mass flow rate (kg·s–¹)
Similarly, using qL = m × Δg × hfg: cP = specific heat capacity for air,
normally taken to be about
2.63 = 1.17 × Δg × 2450, and so 1.02 kJ·kg–¹·K–¹

Δg = 0.00092 kg·kg–1 dry air or 0.92 g·kg–1 dry air. Δθ = temperature difference of air
before and after treatment (K)
The supply moisture content of 7 g·kg–1 dry air can be determined from:
The latent heat equation:
gsupply = groom – Δg.
qL = m × Δg × hfg
The resulting points are illustrated on the psychrometric chart in Figure 14. where:

qL = latent heat added or removed

from the air (kW)

m = air mass flow rate (kg·s–¹)

hfg = latent heat of evaporation for

ic water, normally taken to be about
Specifme Moisture 2450 kJ·kg–¹
volu content
kg -1

Δg = moisture added to or removed

kJ·

from the air (kg·kg–1 dry air)

.0
43

50%
tha ic
lpy
en ecif

Room
Supply
Sp

7.0 g·kg-1dry air

kg -1
kJ·

-1
m ·kg
9.5

Outdoor 3
0.854
3.8 g·kg-1dry air
m ·kg
3
-1 Figure 14:
0.778
Design conditions for
0 °C 21 °C 25 °C humidifier calculation
Dry-bulb temperature

So referring to Figure 14, the data can be collected for the two points, as
shown in Table 1.

Table 1:
Outdoor Supply
Humidification load data
Dry-bulb temperature 0 °C 25 °C for the example systems

Moisture content 3.8 g·kg–¹ dry air 7.0 g·kg–¹ dry air

Enthalpy 9.5 kJ·kg–¹ 43.0 kJ·kg–¹

Specific volume 0.778 m³·kg–¹ 0.854 m³·kg–¹

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification 15

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If outdoor air was simply supplied into the room to meet the room load it
would require gsupply – goutdoor =7.0 – 3.8 = 3.2 g·kg – 1 additional moisture
content (plus, of course, some heating).

So the humidifier (latent) load in kg per hour will be:

air mass flow rate × (supply air moisture content
1
– outdoor moisture content) ×  × 3600 seconds
1000 g

= 1.17 kg·s–1 × (7.0 g·kg–1 dry air – 3.8 g·kg–1 dry air)
× 1 × 3600 s = 13.49 kg·h–1
1000 g
This would be the same for both an adiabatic and an isothermal humidifier.

Considering a ‘traditional’ arrangement for an adiabatic humidifier (with an

assumed saturation efficiency of 0.85) (see Figure 15), the associated heater
loads (in kW) will be:
air mass flow rate × enthalpy increase across heater
For the pre-heater this will be:
1.17 kg·s–1 × (28.0 kJ·kg–1 – 9.5 kJ·kg–1) = 21.65 kW
and (assuming the adiabatic humidifier adds practically no energy to the air)
the after-heater will consume:
1.17 kg·s–1 × (43.0 kJ·kg–1 – 28.0 kJ·kg–1) = 17.55 kW
The complete adiabatic humidification system will therefore consume
21.65 + 17.55 = 39.20 kW

Figure 15: used in sensible heating.

Adiabatic humidifier with
pre- and after-heaters

Moisture
content
kg -1
kJ·
.0
43
g -1
tha ic
lpy

k
en ecif

kJ·

After-heater Supply
.0
Sp

28

Adiabatic
kg -1

humidifier
kJ·
9.5

Outdoor Pre-heater

Dry-bulb temperature

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However, such a solution requires two heaters. Furthermore, the air
leaving the humidifier is very nearly saturated, with the subsequent risk
of condensation forming within the ductwork. The same results may be
achieved by using one larger heater, as in Figure 16 – this will use the same
total heating power.

Figure 16:
Adiabatic humidifier with
single pre-heater

ic
Specifme m3 ·kg
-1
Moisture
volu content
kg -1
kJ·
.0
43
tha ic
lpy
en ecif

Supply
Sp

Adiabatic
humidifier
kg -1
kJ·
9.5

Outdoor Heater

Dry-bulb temperature

For an isothermal humidifier, as in Figure 17, the power demand needs to be

evaluated for both the heater and the humidifier.

Figure 17:
Isothermal humidifier with
pre-heater

Moisture
content
kg -1
kJ·
.0
43
kg -1
kJ·
tha ic
lpy

.0
en ecif

34

Supply
Sp

Isothermal
kg -1

humidifier
kJ·
9.5

Outdoor Heater

Dry-bulb temperature

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification 17

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The calculation is again:
humidifier power = air mass flow rate ×
enthalpy increase across humidifier
For this example that would be:
1.17 kg·s–1 × (43.0 kJ·kg–1 – 34.0 kJ·kg–1) = 10.53 kW
and for the associated heater the power is:
1.17 kg·s–1 × (34.0 kJ·kg–1 – 9.5 kJ·kg–1) = 28.67 kW
So the complete isothermal humidification system will consume:
28.67 + 10.53 = 39.20 kW
exactly the same as the adiabatic system.

This does not necessarily mean that the operational carbon footprint of the
two systems will be the same as this will depend on the sources of the heating
and power being used.

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6 Humidifier systems

It is convenient to categorise humidifiers by their thermodynamic

characteristic: adiabatic or isothermal.

6.1 Adiabatic humidifiers

Adiabatic humidifiers reduce the dry-bulb temperature of the air whilst

increasing its moisture content – a phenomenon termed ‘evaporative cooling’.
This may be particularly beneficial where the incoming air is hot and dry.
Incoming air must have a sufficiently high dry-bulb temperature so that it
can associate with the water vapour – this will often require pre-heating of
the air. In some cases the air will be both pre-heated and heated following
humidification to provide appropriate supply air temperature and humidity.

When adiabatic humidifiers are used as standalone units in a room, the

room air will be cooled by the water drawing sensible heat from the air as it
evaporates.

Adiabatic humidifiers may be classified according to the process by which the

water is evaporated into the air. This may be by the formation of small water
droplets (atomisation), by using a wet surface or by using ultrasonics. The rate
at which evaporation occurs is proportional to the surface area of liquid water
in contact with the air.

6.1.1 Atomising humidifiers

Atomising adiabatic humidifiers provide water droplets directly into the air
stream which then vaporise. This can result in a very large surface area,
depending on the size of the water droplets. There are several methods of
atomisation.

Recirculating spray

The recirculating spray or ‘air washer’ can be as simple as a pump

recirculating water from a sump in the bottom of the duct (supplied with
make-up water) and through low-pressure spray nozzles (at about 2 bar)
to produce droplets (Figure 18). Depending on how the spray is used, this
system can provide a whole range of heating and cooling options as well as
humidifying and, if the spray water is chilled below the dew point of the air
passing through the spray, dehumidifying options.

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Figure 18:
The matrix of water outlets
that make up a spray
humidifier

Any droplets that do not vaporise into the air will either fall back into the
sump or be intercepted by eliminator plates downstream. These plates
impede any drops of water by providing a convoluted path for the air flow
and, by their inertia, the water droplets will strike the plates and run back
down into the sump. Eliminator plates add a pressure loss to the air system
and so will increase the fan power requirement. The unit will typically be
installed on the upstream side of the fan (at a suction pressure) to help
prevent water leakage.

The sump will need appropriate regular treatment and maintenance to

prevent the growth and accumulation of materials that may, at least, cause
unpleasant odours, but which could, more seriously, harbour harmful bacteria.
This type of humidifier used to be popular, but it has lost favour due to the
high level of maintenance required to prevent biological contamination, as
well as the poor absorption efficiency due to the large droplet size.

Pressurised water atomising

This type of humidifier uses a packaged pressurisation pump to provide

high-pressure (10 to 70 bar) water to nozzles in the air stream (Figure
19) or conditioned space (Figure 20). The droplet size will depend on the
nozzle design and water pressure, but can be exceptionally small, giving high
absorption efficiency. Compressed air may be used to provide the pressure
for the water spray, which will create even smaller droplet sizes (and so
reduce the free duct length required for absorption); however, the operating
costs are higher.

20 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification

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Figure 19:
A duct-mounted
pressurised water atomising
spray humidifier: (a)
1
6 controller cabinet and
7 installation; (b) atomising
1 Cabinet containing pump and controller
2 Water feed module
3 Array of atomising nozzles
4 Viewing window
2 5 Two-stage droplet separator
6 Humidification chamber of duct with service doors
and water tray
7 Water drain

a Figure 20:
A room-mounted
pressurised water atomising
spray humidifier: (a)
controller unit and
installation; (b) high-
pressure atomising nozzle

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Unless demineralised water is used, small particles may be passed into the
air stream. Water not absorbed into the air stream needs to be caught using
droplet separators and run to drain.

The system can be finely controlled using solenoid valves and variable speed
pumping and by altering the compressed air flow. This type of humidification
may be applied within ductwork, or used directly in the conditioned space,
for example in textile, tobacco and printing works, chilled stores, botanical
gardens and in the automotive industries.

Spinning disc

Spinning-disc systems (centrifugal systems) create droplets by supplying water

directly onto the centre of a disc spinning at around 3000 rpm. The water is
accelerated to the perimeter of the disc where it strikes a set of blades that
create a very fine mist which passes into the air stream. A separator plate
at the outer boundary of the blades captures any remaining larger droplets
and passes them to drain. These units produce an extremely small particle
size, which ensures ready absorption into the air, and so are frequently used
directly in conditioned spaces, as well as in air-supply ductwork.

Use of demineralised water will prevent scaling of the water-supply nozzle

and stop fine particulates entering the air stream. Since the output of this type
of unit is relatively low, they may be used in groups in air handling units. The
flow of water can be varied to provide close humidity control.

Spinning-disc humidifiers are commonly used in cold rooms stores, food

maturing rooms and smaller textile and printing works. They can be installed
directly in the room, as in the example in Figure 21.
Figure 21: 1 Air filter
Spinning-disc humidifier 2 Drain syphon
3 Cone and fan
4 Motor
5 Mist diffuser
5 6 Impact frame
7 Atomiser disc
8 Main body

7
6

1 8

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6.1.2 Wetted surface or ‘evaporative’ humidifiers

In this type of humidifier, the air passes through static permeable panels
of materials (paper, plastic, ceramic or glass fibre) that are saturated with
water, which is evaporated from the wet surface (Figure 22). The supply
water is allowed to trickle over the panel so that large amounts are available
for evaporation into the passing air stream. When installed in ductwork the
panels are likely to be 50 to 300 mm thick and will provide a convoluted air
path so that the air has contact with a large surface area. Any water droplets
that break off due to excessive air velocity should be caught by eliminator
plates (Figure 23), which can be mounted immediately downstream of the
humidifier – this will impose an additional pressure drop in the air system.
Upstream filtration is also required, to reduce the accumulation of biological
matter on the humidifier surface.

Figure 22:
An evaporative panel with
example dry-bulb air
temperatures

Figure 23:
A modular eliminator plate
installed downstream of the
humidifier to capture water
droplets

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Evaporative humidifiers can be used as standalone units in rooms, where
they may be also used to provide ‘free cooling’ by reducing the air dry-bulb
temperature while increasing the air moisture content.

The simple operating costs are very low for evaporative humidifiers (water
and maintenance), but there is likely to be a significant power requirement
for the fan. The water supply can be direct or recirculated and the panels can
be sectioned to provide a basic control, although the response time for any
change can be slow. Regular draining and flushing of the tank at the base of
the humidifier reduces the risk of a build-up of pollutants in the system, and
supplementary systems such as ultraviolet water treatment are frequently
used. This type of humidifier is being applied increasingly for evaporative
cooling in ventilation systems (the term ‘evaporative’ tends to be commonly
taken to mean a wetted surface rather than a spray-type humidifier –
although, of course, spray humidifiers also work by evaporation).

6.1.3 Ultrasonic humidifiers

Ultrasonic humidifiers apply a high frequency vibration to water using a

piezoelectric transducer (Figure 24). As the transducer moves rapidly through
a reservoir of water a partial vacuum is created, which produces cavitation – a
small bubble of water vapour. Instantaneously, as the transducer moves back
again it pushes the water vapour bubble from the water’s surface, where
the vapour quickly condenses into a tiny droplet. Each transducer can only
produce a small amount of vapour so multiple units are often used.

Figure 24:
A room-mounted ultrasonic
humidifier; activates in a
matter of seconds
Mist

Water reservoir

Ultrasonic transducers

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These humidifiers require a supply of demineralised water to prevent the
transducer scaling up and to stop fine particulates entering the air stream. The
water tank should be automatically drained when the system is not in use to
prevent a build-up of bacteria. Some ultrasonic humidifiers incorporate safety
features to minimise the risk of microbial contaminants getting into the mist
before it is passed to the atmosphere, the most common being the use of
germicidal ultraviolet lamps.

Care must be taken to ensure good distribution of droplets in the air stream
as the face area of the generated mist is likely to be far smaller than the duct
area. Groups of humidifiers may be used, with the individual units readily
modulated by altering their frequency, providing close control. Ultrasonic
humidifiers are commonly used in refrigerated display equipment to improve
the shelf life and appearance of fresh produce.

6.1.4 Adiabatic humidifier performance

A summary of indicative performance for duct-mounted humidifiers is given in

Table 2. Unlike the isothermal humidifiers discussed later, the air will also be
cooled and so may additionally require energy for pre-heating or reheating.

Output Power input Saturation Table 2:

range W·kg–¹·h–¹ efficiency Indicative performance
kg·h–¹ %
Direct Indirect of ducted adiabatic
Recirculating spray 10 to >1000 6 to 7 6 to 12 <70 humidifiers
Water pressurised <20 to >600 4 to 7 6 to 12 60 to 80
Compressed-air <20 to >250 70 to 110 6 to 12 60 to 90
pressurised
Duct-mounted spinning <20 to >200 3 to 5 6 to 12 <80
disc
Wetted surface 10 to >1000 0 to 1 15 to 30 60 to 90
Ultrasonic 1 to >20 50 to 60 – 65 to 95

6.2 Isothermal humidifiers

The introduction of steam into air is not strictly isothermal – there will be
a small increase in the air dry-bulb temperature. However, the reasonable
convention is that steam humidifiers are treated as isothermal and so their
process is shown as a vertical line on the psychrometric chart. Unlike
adiabatic humidifiers, these will not only add humidity to the air, but will also
add energy and so the air’s enthalpy will rise. The energy will come from
whatever heating source is used to generate the steam.

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6.2.1 Centrally supplied steam

Where steam is available from a central supply (such as in a hospital or

laboratory) it may be used to humidify air, provided it is free from any
chemical treatment. It can be added into the air stream in a number of ways
which ensure that ‘dry’ steam is introduced. In a simple steam distributor,
holes in the top of a pipe running across the duct supply steam into the air.
Any condensed steam runs back to the bottom of the pipe and into the
condensate-return system – but this is not a very satisfactory system. To
reduce this unwanted condensation of the steam, low heat transfer ceramic
materials may be used for the distributor to minimise heat loss. Alternatively,
as shown in Figure 25, a traditional method is to use ‘sleeved’ or ‘jacketed’
distributors, which have a concentric tube that envelops the distributor in
steam to ensure that dry steam is supplied to the air stream.

Figure 25:
A jacketed distributor
ensures dry steam is
supplied into the air stream

1 Filter
2 Steam inlet pipe union
3 Separator
4 Condensate outlet
5 Electric startup safety switch
6 Ball float steam trap
7 Lance heating system connection
8 Control valve
9 Steam lance
10 Nozzle
11 Thermostatic capsule steam trap
12 Actuator

As with all humidifiers the challenge is to ensure that the steam is distributed
as evenly as possible across the whole air stream. Control is achieved through
regulating the steam supply. The operating cost is likely to be relatively high
due to the low efficiencies of centralised steam production and distribution,
although the total cost of the steam is likely to be small compared with other
process and industrial loads in the building.

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6.2.2 Electric steam generators

Electric steam generators can be used in packaged units to boil water to

create steam. Two principal variants are used: electrode boilers and resistance
heaters. Dry steam is supplied from the unit, usually via a flexible hose to
the ducted air stream, through a steam manifold with holes along one side,
as shown in Figure 26. For large capacity units the manifold may incorporate
an integral drip tray to carry any condensate back to drain. The units can be
very flexibly located and may be used in rooms to directly humidify the air;
however, they can have a significant electrical load which may affect their
location.

Figure 26:
Steam manifold

Electrode boilers

Electrode-boiler humidifiers exploit the ability of mains supplied water to

conduct electricity. Two plates of conductive material (the electrodes),
suspended in the water, pass an electric current that heats the water to
produce steam (Figure 27). The water’s conductivity is approximately
proportional to the concentration of salts in the water, so using demineralised
water is not appropriate. As the water is boiled off, the salts will become
highly concentrated (potentially leading to foaming) and so flushing will be
required – for water with a hardness of 500 ppm, every 1 kg of steam will
precipitate 0.5 g of particles. Softened water may be used to reduce scaling,
but care must taken as increased salt concentration in the softened water
after evaporation may damage the electrodes.

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Figure 27:
Typical electrode boiler

The active components are normally designed to be replaced on a regular

cycle – the frequency will depend on manufacturer, load and water quality.
This may typically range from every three months to once a year.
The output can be automatically controlled by monitoring the current and by
varying the immersion depth of the electrodes.

Resistance heaters

These are based around a resistive electric heater element (Figure 28).
Softened water will reduce scaling, but in many cases the elements are
designed to be easily cleanable or disposable, enabling resistance heaters
to be used where water quality might mean that an electrode boiler is not
suitable. Salts will accumulate in the water during system operation which
will need to be removed, by bleeding off a proportion of the water to drain,
otherwise the water may start to foam.

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Figure 28:
Principles of a resistance
heater
Plug and
Plug and
flying leads
flying leads
from the
from the
elements
elements
Topfillfill
Top
level
level

Key- Contactor
Contactor
Switch
switch onon
Water level
water level
Float
Float
chamber and
chamber &
switches
switches

Water
Water inletinlet

The output can be closely modulated using integral microprocessor control of

the power supply (Figure 29).

Figure 29:
Typical resistance heater
humidifier

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6.2.3 Local gas- or oil-fired steam generators

The relatively lower cost of gas and oil (compared with grid-supplied
electricity) has encouraged the development of local steam generation
using gas or oil. These units use technology more commonly associated
with modern domestic boilers (Figure 30) and so will have installation
requirements and restrictions which are similar to those of a combustion
system. They can achieve very high fuel efficiencies, and individual units can
control down to about 30% output. The distribution of the superheated
steam uses the same methods as electric steam generators. Standalone units
fuelled by oil or bottled gas are available for direct use in rooms.

Figure 30:
An example of a gas-fired
steam generator

6.2.4 Isothermal humidifier performance

The output and effectiveness of individual isothermal humidifiers will be

determined by the installation and operation of the individual applications.
The power required to create 1 kg steam per hour will be 720 W. Isothermal
systems would therefore appear to be very much more energy intensive than
adiabatic systems. However, as described earlier, the adiabatic process will
also require some form of heating. As a result, the total heating power of
adiabatic and isothermal processes is identical when the sensible heating of air
is included.

The installed energy performance of an isothermal system will also depend on

the efficiency of the steam generator, steam distribution losses and the rate of
bleeding of (warmed) water (to maintain salt levels).

Well-designed local gas and electrically powered units may be able to produce
steam with 80% to 85% overall seasonal fuel efficiencies, leading to an
installed power of approximately 850 to 900 W for each kg steam per hour.

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7 Selection considerations Humidifier selection considerations

Output requirements
The selection of the appropriate humidifier, like any engineering decision,
Desired load and setpoint
requires sound judgement based on specific installation and operation needs
Closeness of control
and an understanding of previous applications. The principal criteria that Criticality of application
should be considered are listed in the box. Availability of services
Power
7.1 System running costs Gas
Water
Drain
Humidification costs include both direct and indirect energy costs as well as
Flue access
charges for the water and its treatment. Controls infrastructure
Water quality
However, humidification can lead to reductions in total building running costs Hardness
by providing an appropriately controlled environment – for example, humidity Hygiene
Constraints
control may be used to reduce the need for active heating or cooling. Total
Evaporation/absorption distances
operating costs can be reduced by maintaining personnel comfort, ensuring Acceptable noise levels
product reliability and maintaining the quality of goods and materials. The use Surrounding duct pressure
of evaporative cooling can provide a low-cost method of reducing air dry-bulb Tolerance of control
temperature (the application of this is described in CIBSE Knowledge Series Interaction of controls with other
systems
KS3 (CIBSE, 2006b)).
Ease of installation
Commissioning requirements
Maintenance and water-treatment costs are likely to be greater for adiabatic Energy and environmental costs
units which, together with the additional fan power required (for the media Capital expenditure
and eliminator plates), may offset savings gained from higher initial efficiencies Water use
and lower energy costs associated with these systems. Direct energy costs
Indirect energy costs
Total CO2 impact
7.2 Absorption distances for duct-mounted humidifiers Service and maintenance
Monitoring needs
The humidifier should be positioned so that any droplets or steam being Labour requirements
introduced into the air can be appropriately evaporated and/or mixed with Parts requirements
the air stream before the air passes or strikes any other piece of equipment
(such as dampers, turning vanes, fans or inactive cooling coils). This is to
prevent precipitation of water droplets or condensation of the water vapour.

The absorption efficiency provides a measure of how well the water vapour
will be absorbed into the air. The absorption efficiency will be affected by:

­ the droplet size: a smaller droplet will be absorbed more easily

—
­— the difference between the temperature of the droplets and the wet-
bulb air temperature: a greater difference is better
­— the distribution of the droplets across the air stream
­— the free length of the duct following the device: droplets that are
still suspended in the air will continue to evaporate into unsaturated
air

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­— the air speed: higher air speeds provide less time for evaporation,
but at the same time increase the mass transfer coefficients
that determine the ability of the water vapour to be absorbed into
the air.

There should be no obstacles in the duct within the absorption zone as these
are likely to become permanently wetted by the spray.

For spray and atomising humidifiers, eliminator plates should be fitted beyond
the absorption distance. For a steam humidifier, the absorption distance is the
point at which the steam has been fully absorbed into the air stream, although
even beyond this point the steam may still not be fully diffused in the duct.

Recommended distances are available from manufacturers, based on the

specific installation parameters. Since there are several interacting variables,
manufacturers provide sizing software and nomograms to establish the
absorption distance required – these give essential information for the
successful application of any humidifier. The nomogram in Figure 31 shows
the distance beyond an example steam manifold that should be clear of
‘normal’ obstructions (such as sensors and outlets). However, for filters and
grilles the distance should be increased (as advised by the manufacturer).

Misting in the downstream air can be experienced if excess steam or water

droplets are entrained in the air and not fully absorbed.

7.3 Duct relative static pressures

Some humidifers (such as electric steam generators) have a limiting maximum

duct pressure, above which the device may not effectively humidify the
air. Where there is a drain, for example from a sump under a humidifier
or eliminator plate, it is important that the pressure inside the duct will
allow water to flow away to drain (that would normally be at atmospheric
pressure).

32 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Humidification

<Figure 36: redraw>

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Figure 31:
Air temperature after humidification (°C)
Example of a nomogram to
Example for a particular maufacturer’s
establish the absorption
Moisture content before humidification (g·kg¯¹)

steam humidifier
distance required for a
Knowing....
Entering air moisture content = 5 g·kg¯¹ specific steam humidifier
Increase required in air moisture content = 3 g·kg¯¹
(Based on Henne, Erich, Luftbefeuchtung [Air
Temperature of air = 20 °C
Humidification load = 100 kg·h¯1 Humidification], 3rd edition, 1984)
Air velocity = 5 m·s¯¹
Length of steam manifold = 1.25 m

The lines can be plotted and the absorption distance

read off as 0.8 metres
Moisture content before increase (g·kg¯¹)

Absorption distance (m)

Length of steam manifold (mm)

Air velocity (m·s¯¹)

Humidification rate (kg·h¯¹)

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8 Health concerns

The benefits of maintaining appropriate humidification for the comfort

and well-being of occupants has been discussed earlier. However, there is
one particular building-related illness that has a popular association with
humidification systems: Legionnaires’ disease, which may be practically
eliminated through appropriate design and operation.

8.1 Legionnaires’ disease

Very few recorded outbreaks of Legionnaires’ disease (or the less serious
variant, Pontiac fever) have been associated with humidifiers. The majority
of cases have actually resulted from poorly operated cooling towers and
evaporative cooling devices passing heavily contaminated water droplets into
local ventilation systems – the disease is contracted by the inhalation of small
droplets of water infected with Legionella bacteria. Legionella is found naturally
in the environment; however, the operating temperature of the majority of
humidifiers used in heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems,
particularly isothermal humidifiers, is not conducive to the proliferation of the
bacteria, as can be seen in Figure 32.

Figure 32: 100 °C – Steam humidification

The effect of temperature
90 °C –
on Legionella bacteria FIELD OF RAPID INACTIVATION
80 °C – Heating systems (radiators)

70 °C –

60 °C –
Hot water FIELD OF SLOW INACTIVATION
50 °C –

40 °C – Pools and hot tubs

FIELD OF OPTIMUM PROLIFERATION
Cooling towers
Showers
30 °C – LEGIONELLA ACTIVE

20 °C –
Spray humidification
Mains water
10 °C – Cooling and LEGIONELLA QUIESCENT
dehumidifying coils
0 °C –

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However, this is not a reason to be complacent. Legionella can accumulate in
the water storage supplying an adiabatic humidifier, particularly where water
is recirculated as part of the humidification process. As water evaporates,
limescale and minerals are concentrated in the water store which, at the right
temperature range, can provide an ideal breeding ground for the Legionella
bacteria.

8.1.1 Reducing health risk

The risk of Legionnaires’ disease may be minimised through the use of

appropriate design and maintenance, which is covered in detail in CIBSE
TM13 (CIBSE, 2002). This focuses on scheduled cleaning and disinfection
routines (particularly for adiabatic humidifiers) or using isothermal (steam)
systems that operate at temperatures at which Legionella is not a risk. The
Health and Safety Commission’s approved Code of Practice HSE L8 (HSE,
2000) also has practical advice that should be followed to minimise the risks.

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9 Installation, commissioning and
maintenance

Each type of humidifier will have particular installation and commissioning

requirements. These can include a wide variety of services: water, water
treatment, electricity, gas, compressed air, steam, distributors and sprays,
control, air flow and drainage.

All of these elements must be installed and commissioned correctly, and

must be accessible for regular and essential maintenance throughout the
life cycle of the system. The diversity of humidifier types and the range
of services mean that many specifiers and contractors are unlikely to
be familiar with all aspects of installation, commissioning, operation and
maintenance requirements, so it is essential to ensure that the manufacturer’s
recommendations are sought and followed.

9.1 Humidifier installation

Installation of humidifiers should always be performed in accordance with the

manufacturer’s installation manuals. It should be carried out only by suitably
qualified technicians and be in accordance with local legislation and byelaws
relating to water, electricity, gas and hygiene.

An incorrectly installed humidifier might not meet performance requirements

and, in extreme cases, may become a health hazard. For example, poorly
installed steam distribution can lead to reduced steam output; incorrect
condensate drainage can lead to premature wear of electrodes in electrode-
boiler humidifiers; and dead legs in pipework can pose serious health risks by
encouraging the growth and proliferation of biological material in cold-water
humidifiers.

The principal requirement for successful humidification is that the percentage

saturation of the air stream to be humidified is low enough to enable it to
associate with the required amount of water vapour. Hence, the humidifier
should be located where the air dry-bulb temperature is sufficiently high so
that it has coincidentally high potential saturated moisture content.

9.2 Commissioning

Commissioning of humidifiers, as with most HVAC plant, should only be

carried out by suitably trained and experienced staff and in accordance with
the operation and maintenance manuals. Pre-commissioning checks should be
carried out to ensure that the installation has been completed correctly and
that appropriate services to and from the humidifier are available.

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Where the humidifier feeds an air handling unit (AHU), the AHU should be
accessible to the commissioning technicians, and provision to turn off the
AHU may be required. It is also useful to have a representative from the
controls manufacturer available at the time of commissioning.

The application of appropriate procedures from the early design stages to

post-occupation – as, for example, in BSRIA’s Soft Landings process – will
ensure that the process is documented and that best practice is followed.

9.3 Maintenance

Manufacturers’ instruction manuals provide guidance on performance checks,

maintenance schedules and cleaning, descaling and disinfection requirements.
Generally, steam humidifiers represent a lower health risk than cold-water
systems, but in any case the HSE Code of Practice L8 (HSE, 2000) should
be consulted to establish the frequency at which checks for Legionella
bacteria must be carried out. In certain applications, such as food retailers,
manufacturers recommend that the water is also tested for Escherichia coli (E.
coli) and other coliform bacteria. Humidifiers form part of the water system
in a building and so should be included in the risk assessment for the water
system as a whole.

The frequency and type of maintenance must take into account the safe
working life of the system’s components, such as electrodes, heating
elements, cylinders, ultraviolet lamps, filters, electrical components,
controls, connecting pipelines and nozzles. The end-users should be made
fully aware of the requirements for service and maintenance, and a suitably
trained person should be made responsible for routine maintenance. Specific
guidance is available in HEVAC Humidity Group’s Code of Best Practice 4
(HEVAC Humidity Group, 2010).

Sumps, particularly those associated with recirculating atomising humidifiers,

will require close attention to maintain safe levels of biological material and
to ensure that the concentration of salts in the water is limited. The salt
concentration can be monitored electronically, but the biological material
requires regular inspection routines. Well-designed humidification systems will
incorporate features such as automated drain down and pipework purges and
antimicrobial water treatment. However, where these elements are absent or
where water or ambient temperatures exceed 20 °C there is a higher risk of
Legionella contamination: this should be reflected in the risk assessment, with
a requirement for more frequent monitoring and testing.

Humidifier operation is, typically, seasonal and so maintenance requirements

vary according to the time of year. During extended periods when humidifiers
are out of use, they might require decommissioning to ensure that water

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does not stagnate within pipework, and recommissioning prior to the heating
season. There should be scheduled, regular duct and AHU cleaning regimes,
in conjunction with appropriate filtration of outdoor air, to reduce the risk
of contamination of the ventilation air. The use of chemical dosing of the
system is not recommended, but ultraviolet light can be used in the humidifier
chamber to provide protection against bacterial growth.

Service contracts should be tailored to meet the site’s specific requirements,

according to the importance of humidification in that situation, the hours
of use, the quality of the water supply, the pattern of use and the degree to
which the end-user wants to be involved in the maintenance schedule.

A proper maintenance schedule combined with proper documentation and

record keeping will ensure consistent humidifier performance.

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Further reading

ASHRAE Handbook: HVAC systems and equipment (Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE)

(2008) chapter 21
BSRIA BG 8/2004: Free cooling systems (Bracknell: BSRIA) (2004) sections 4.6,
4.7
BSRIA BG 10/94.1: Efficient humidification in buildings (Bracknell: BSRIA)
(1994)
CIBSE Guide A: Environmental design (London: CIBSE) (2006) section 8.3
CIBSE Guide B: Heating, ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration (London:
CIBSE) (2001) chapter 2, section 5.10
CIBSE Guide F: Energy efficiency in buildings (London: CIBSE) (2004) sections
7.2.3.2, 7.4.5, A18.A1
CIBSE Guide H: Building control systems (London: CIBSE) (2000) section 5.5.4
CIBSE Knowledge Series KS3: Sustainable low energy cooling: an overview
(London: CIBSE) (2006) section 5
CIBSE Knowledge Series KS6: Comfort (London: CIBSE) (2006) section 2.3.2
CIBSE Knowledge series KS20: Practical psychometry (London: CIBSE) (2012)
CIBSE TM13: Minimising the risk of Legionnaires’ disease (London: CIBSE)
(2002)
HEVAC Humidity Group Code of Best Practice 1: Cold water humidification
systems (Hare Hatch: HEVAC)
HEVAC Humidity Group Code of Best Practice 2: Atmospheric steam
humidification systems (Hare Hatch: HEVAC)
HEVAC Humidity Group Code of Best Practice 3: Live steam humidification
systems (Hare Hatch: HEVAC)
HEVAC Humidity Group Code of Best Practice 4: Commissioning and planned
maintenance (Hare Hatch: HEVAC)
Institute of Measurement and Control, Gatton Section and National Physical
Laboratory A guide to the measurement of humidity (London: Institute of
Measurement and Control) (1996)
Textbooks
Lazzarin R and Nalini L Air humidification (2004)
Henne E Humidification de l’air (Pyc édition) (1978) (French, out of print but
available second hand)

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References

Arundel A V, Sterling E M, Biggin, J H and Sterling T D (1986) Indirect health

effects of relative humidity in indoor environments, Environmental Health
Perspectives, 65: 351-361
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) (2001) CIBSE
Guide B: Heating, ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration (London: CIBSE)
— (2002) CIBSE TM13: Minimising the risk of Legionnaires’ disease (London:
CIBSE)
— (2006a) CIBSE Guide A: Environmental design (London: CIBSE)
— (2006b) CIBSE Knowledge Series KS3: Sustainable low energy cooling: an
overview (London: CIBSE).
— (2007) CIBSE Guide C: Reference data (London: CIBSE)
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) (2000) Approved Code of Practice and
Guidance, HSE L8: Legionnaires’ disease. The control of legionella bacteria in
water systems (3rd edition) (Sudbury: HSE Books)
HEVAC Humidity Group (2010) Code of Best Practice 4: Commissioning and
planned maintenance (Hare Hatch: HEVAC)
Shaman J and Kohn M (2009) Absolute humidity modulates influenza survival,
transmission, and seasonality, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
106(9): 3243-3248

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