Unit 2

Topic- Data Collection Methods : Observation

 Observation Method
The observation method involves human or mechanical
observation of what people actually do? “Information is
collected by observing process at work.”

Definition
 Observation method is a technique in which the behavior of
research subjects is watched and recorded without any direct
contact.
Types of observation methods

 Participant observation
 Non-participant observation
 Participant observation
• Observer participates actively, for an extended period of time.
• May require observer to live or work in that area.
• Assumes that observer will become accepted member of the
group or community.
• Historically field research has been associated most strongly
with participant observation.
Non-participant observation
• Observer is an eavesdropper.
• Someone who attempts to observe people without
interacting with them.
• Without their knowledge that they are being observed.
• Used most routinely by psychologists studying children and
animals.
 Ethical Considerations

• Ethical issues arise when people are being observed, whether

they are aware of it or not.

• Technological advances--cameras and microphones—facilitate

observing verbal and non-verbal behavior that might be
considered to be an invasion of privacy, particularly if the
subject is unaware of being observed.

• Yet the information is used to make decisions that impact the

subject.
 Should you Collect Your Data by Observation?

Questions to consider:

• Is the topic sensitive?

• Can you observe the Phenomena?
• Do you have a lot of time?
• Are you sure of what you are looking for?
 Types of Observations

• Observation is a method of collecting data by human,

mechanical, electrical or electronic means.

• The researcher may or may not have direct contact or

communication with the people whose behavior is being
recorded.

• Observation techniques can be part of qualitative research

as well as quantitative research techniques.
 Observation Methods
Personal Observation

• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.

• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon

being observed but merely records what takes place.

• For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe

traffic flows in a department store.
 Observation Methods
Mechanical Observation

Do not require respondents' direct participation.

• record the number of people entering or leaving a
building.
• On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
• Optical scanners in supermarkets

Do require respondent involvement.

• eye-tracking monitors, pupilometers
• psychogalvanometers
• voice pitch analyzers
• devices measuring response latency
 Observation Methods
Structured versus Unstructured Observation

• For structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail what is

to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded, e.g.,
an auditor performing inventory analysis in a store.

• In unstructured observation, the observer monitors all aspects of the

phenomenon that seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g.,
observing children playing with new toys.
 Observation Methods
Disguised versus Undisguised Observation

• In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware that they are

being observed. Disguise may be accomplished by using one-way
mirrors, hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices.
Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.

• In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware that they are

under observation.
 Observation Methods
Natural versus Contrived Observation

• Natural observation involves observing behavior as it takes

places in the environment. For example, one could observe
the behavior of respondents eating fast food in KFC.

• In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is observed

in an artificial environment, such as a test kitchen.
 A Classification of Observation Methods

Observation Methods

Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace

Observation Observation Analysis Analysis
 Observation Methods
Audit

• The researcher collects data by examining physical records or

performing inventory analysis.
• Data are collected personally by the researcher.
• The data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects.
• Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing research
suppliers
 Observation Methods
Content Analysis

• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of

a communication.
• The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals or objects), themes
(propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the message), or
topics (subject of the message).
• Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed and the
communication is broken down according to prescribed rules.
 Observation Methods
Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence of past
behavior.

• The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement rate

was used to determine the relative popularity of exhibits.
• The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the
readership of various advertisements in a magazine.
• The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine people's
favorite magazines.
• Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine browsing
and usage behavior by using cookies.
 A Comparative Evaluation of Observation Methods
Criteria Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace
Observation Observation Analysis Analysis Analysis

Degree of structure Low Low to high High High Medium

Degree of disguise Medium Low to high Low High High
Ability to observe High Low to high High Medium Low
Observation bias High Low Low Medium Medium
Analysis Bias High Low Low Low Medium

General remarks Most Can be Expensive Limited to Method of

flexible intrusive commu- last resort
nications
 Relative Advantages of Observation

• They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or

preferred behavior.
• There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the
interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.
• Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration,
observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
 Relative Disadvantages of Observation

• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is
known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.
• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult to
observe certain forms of behavior.
• In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in
observing people without their knowledge or consent.

It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than as

being in competition with them.
 A Comparative Evaluation of Survey Methods
for Research
Criteria Telephone Personal Mail Electronic
High sample control + + - -
Difficulty in locating + - + +
respondents at home
Inaccessibility of homes + - + +
Unavailability of a large + - + +
pool of trained interviewers
Large population in rural areas - + - -
Unavailability of maps + - + +
Unavailability of current - + - +
telephone directory
Unavailability of mailing lists + + - +
Low penetration of telephones - + + -
Lack of an efficient postal system + + - +
Low level of literacy - + - -
Face-to-face communication culture - + - -
Poor access to computers & Internet ? + ? -
Note: A (+) denotes an advantage, and a (–) denotes a disadvantage.
 TABLE 7.3
Relative Advantages of Observation Methods
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Personal Observation Most flexible High observation bias

Highly suitable in natural settings High analysis bias

Mechanical observation Low observation bias Can be intrusive

Low to medium analysis bias Not always suitable in natural
settings
 Advantages and Role of Observations
• Records actual behavior, not what people say they said they did or believe they
will do.

• Recorded behavior can be compared to verbal statements or other records, to

check for the validity of their responses.

• If the researcher observes and record events, it is not necessary to rely on the
willingness and ability of respondents to report accurately.

• The biasing effect of interviewers is either eliminated or reduced. Data collected

by observation are, thus, more objective and generally more accurate.
 Disadvantages of Observations

• Observation techniques do not provide insights into what the person

may be thinking, why they performed a behavior, or what might
motivate a given behavior/comment.

• That type of information can only be obtained by asking people

directly or indirectly from written or other sources.
 Disadvantages of Observations

• Time consuming.
• May bias worker performance.
• Small sample size.
• Requires skilled observer.
• Validity & reliability may be problematic.
• Not useful for jobs consisting of mostly mental tasks.
 Know How You Are Going To Interpret
Your Observations
 DESCRIPTIVE:
Requires no inference--You see something and record it.
 INFERENTIAL:
Requires making inferences about something underlying what is observed. For
example, I observe Mr. Pandey working on a crossword puzzle. From this I infer
(correctly?) that he is bored with research.
 EVALUATIVE:
Requires making an inference and a judgment from the observed behavior. e.g., I
wonder whether people enjoy a good challenge. “Good Challenge” is an
evaluative judgment. I observe Mr. Pandey scrunching up his puzzle and infer
1) he “failed” and 2) he hates to lose!
 Field Notes

 When making field notes you should include descriptive as well as

contextual data (notes can be oral or written).
 It is important to describe the setting and the mood in detail.
 All things that may change behavior need to be noted. Especially
reflect upon your presence.
 Do you think that you changed the behavior noticeably?
 Recording Data

• Recording data on blank sheets is not recommended!

• Create data recording forms and, when possible, use simple codes to
record data quickly.
• Consider using maps to record certain data, such as movement.
• Agree on what to observe and record as a team, practice, and refine.
Practice again.
Thank You

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