LECTURE 4 (EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION)

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

4.1: THE MOTIVATION PROCESS

Motivation is a process that starts the physiologically/ psychological deficiency or need

that activates behavior or drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.

Motivation consists of needs which set up drivers. The drivers in turn help in acquiring

goals.

Note

 Drives/ motives are action oriented and help goals accomplishment. They are

personal and internal.

 Incentives are found at the end of the motivational cycle. They alleviate a need

and thereby reduce the drive (Motive).

 Incentives are external to a person.

Example: Need: (Water through cells in body deprives)

Drives: feels thirsty

Incentives: cells acquire water.

Note:

a) Motive is a driver or expression of a person’s needs- hence is personal and

internal.
 b) Incentives are external and are made part of the work environment by

management in order to encourage workers to perform tasks.

4.2 FRUSTRATION

This is the blocking/ thwarting of goal attainment. This can lead to:

a) Aggression:-

This is where goal attainment has been blocked and an individual result to hostile

behavior. This may be directed against the object/ person who he/ she feels the cause

of frustration.

b) Rationalization

This is making excuses for the inability to accomplish a goal e.g. It was my boss’s fault.

c) Regression

This is the situation whereby an individual adopts childish/ primitive behavior after failing

to accomplish a given task e.g. a person who cannot start his car can proceed to kicking

it.

d) Fixation

A person exhibits the same behavior pattern over and over again although experience

has shown that it can accomplish nothing e.g. a person who has been punished

severely over a certain behavior may lead to fixation.

e) Resignation
Occurs after prolonged frustration when an individual loses hope for accomplishing his

goal in particular situation and decides to withdraw from reality

Activity: Discuss the various types of frustrations likely to be shown by teachers in

school.

4.2 DEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATION

Comes from a Latin word ‘movers’ implying to move. Thus motivation is referred to as a

process of arousing movement in the organism.

1. Definitions

Motivation refers to all ‘those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of

action towar+ds a particular objective where previously there was little or no

movement towards those goals.” Motivation is a mechanism which ultimately

influences people to act in a desired way. Motivation is a way of creating high

level of enthusiasm to reach organizational goals and this situation is

accomplished accommodated by satisfying some individual need. Basically

motivation refers to achieving organizational main goals by satisfying individual

employee’s needs or demands. According to Pinder (1998) in Ambrose and

Kulik (1999) work motivation may be regarded as a set of internal and external

forces that initiate work-related behaviours and determines its form, direction,

intensity and duration. In the workplace, work motivation presents an invisible,

personal and hypothetical construct that manifests itself in the form of observable

and therefore measurable behaviour.

 Motivation is very important for the managers and officers to know and

understand why people behave differently at workplace and to manipulate their

behaviour so that they exert their best effort to achieve organizational goals. It is

the goal of managers at every stratum to have employees motivated so that work

can progress at desired rate, pace and time.

If employees feel that their inputs such as efforts, commitment, loyalty, trust and

enthusiasm to the organisation are fairly and adequately rewarded by outputs

such as financial and non-financial benefits or incentives, they remain motivated

and continue to provide inputs toward higher productivity. Employees get de-

motivated due to the perceived absence of such equity (Ahmad, Mkuddes,

Rashid and Samad, 2010).

2. Atkinson

Defines motivation as the arousal of tendency to act to produce one or more

effect.

3. Maslow

Motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex i.e. an almost

universal characteristic of particularly organismic state of affairs.

FUNCTIONS OF MOTIVATION

1. Motives/Drives energies and sustains behavior.

-These motives allow him/her for action.

2+. Motives direct and regulate behavior.

-The motivated behavior moves in specific direction. The behavior of the organism is

persistent and purposeful.

3. Behavior is selective.

-Tender motivated conditions, the behavior of the organism does not move haphazard

way. It is directed towards the selective goal that the individual sets for him/herself.

Example:

A student who is motivated to secure high grades in the examination concentrated on

his studies by selecting appropriate means to reach his/her goal.

4.3: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

In this lecture we shall consider four early motivation theories. They include Maslow’s

hierarchy of needs; Herzberg motivation/Hygiene theory; McGregor X and Y, and

Vroom’s expectancy theory. Although more recent and valid explanations of motivation

have been developed, these early theories are still important because they represent

the foundation from which contemporary motivation theories were developed and

because many practicing managers still use them.

1) MASLOW’S LAW OF MOTIVATION

Developed by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). Maslow is a good starting point to start

examining the different motivation theories.

 Maslow believed that man can work out a better world for mankind as well as for

himself.
  He examined the traditional approach of pain avoidance and pleasure seeking

and tension reduction as the major source of motivating behavior.

He argues that needs are arranged in hierarchy; and that as one general type of need is

satisfied, another high order need will emerge and become operative.

He categorized needs into two divisions:-

i) Deficit needs

Includes needs such as hunger and thirst. Once these needs are satisfied, an

individual strives to satisfy higher needs e.g. safety needs , among others.

ii) Growth Needs

This is the self ‘actualization need’

Maslow needs hierarchy can be represented from higher to lower levels as

follows (also indicated in the figure below):-

 Self-actualization

 Self esteem

 Belonging and love needs

 Safety needs

 Physiological needs e.g. food, water, shelter and sex among others.

Maslow start the idea that people always tend to want something and what they want

depends on what they already have. Maslow proposed that there are five different levels

of needs people have to seek for satisfaction of their basic needs (Mullins, 2007,

258).The first or lowest level is physiological needs. These needs include food, water,

shelter and clothing among others. Before these needs are fulfilled a person does not
have any other needs. When people don’t feel hunger, thirst or cold, their needs

proceed to a second level.

The second lowest level is security. In that level, a person needs to feel secure in

his/her family and in a society and feel protected against violence. The need for safety

is manifested with job security, savings and for insurances of health, mental health, old

age and disability.

Love and belonging need is the third level of Maslow’s hierarchy. After feeling secure,

people need to feel that they receive and give love, appreciated and they have good

friendships.
Esteem needs is the fourth level. It is the need to be unique with self-respect and to

enjoy esteem from other individual people wants to evaluate themselves highly based

on their achievements receive appreciations from other people. Lack of these needs

may cause inferiority, helpness and weakness.

Self-actualisation need is the fifth level. This is the highest of Maslow’s hierarchy of

needs. The development of this need is based in the satisfaction at the other four lower

levels. It refers to need of self-fulfillment and to be actualized represents one’s potential.

The core of this theory lies in the fact that when one need is fulfilled, its strength

diminishes and the strength of the next increases (Lutham, 2007, 3). Maslow does note

that one level of needs doesn’t have to be totally fulfilled before a person moves to the

next level. The individual can be partly satisfied with one level and still seek for

satisfaction at the next level (Salanora & Kirmanen, 2010).

i) Physiological needs

These are the most potent needs (i.e. powerful needs)

When these needs are deprived for a long period, all other needs

fail to appear and thus one is motivated to do something e.g.:

 A boy who is deprived of food will be motivated to do

something to get food.

 In order to motivate our children to complete their school

assignments, we sometimes deprive them of their own

privileges like pocket money and freedom, among others.

ii) Safety needs

When physiological needs are successfully fulfilled, then safety

needs become dominant. This category of needs is mainly

concerned with maintaining order and security, .e.g. boarding of

money, purchase of buildings, land and other investments make

ones future secure.

In schools: Formation of welfare groups and cooperative societies

attempt to offer safety needs.

iii) Belonging and love needs

 These are needs of making intimate relationships with other

members of the society in an accepted member of an

organization.

 These needs are dependent on the fulfillment and

satisfaction of previous categories of needs.

Note:

In schools, we have clubs and societies, associations as an attempt

to fulfill this need.

iv) The esteem need

This category of needs can be split into two:-

a) Self-esteem, Self-respect, self-regard and self-valuation.

b) Relating to respect from other’s reputation, status, social

success and fame.

Examples of needs in this category are:-

  Feeling of achievement and competence.

 Achieving high standards of excellence in performance.

 Need to feel superior to others e.g. by purchasing of

items as good as costly clothes.

Note:

Failure to gratify self-esteem need can produce

personality disturbances in the individual, i.e. inferiority

complex: one becomes a misfit in the society.

In school: Creating favorable conditions to enable a

worker to perform well, recognizing individual

performances.

v) Self-actualization

 This is the highest in the hierarchy

 This need means ‘to fulfill one’s individual nature in all

aspects. Being what one can be.’

 People can be motivated towards self-actualization when

their lower order needs have been satisfied.

 A self-actualizing person wants to be and must be free from

restraints from society.

 For self-actualization, one should enjoy his job. He should

feel satisfied on his social relation in family, social in his job.

Note:

Characteristics of self-actualization
  Can demonstrate an efficient perception of reality and

acceptance;

 They accept themselves and others;

 They appreciate ‘basic good of life.’

 Identify with making;

 Sense of humor;

 Democratic in outlook

In schools:

1. Recommending individual to high positions of

responsibility

2. Allowing members to participate in seminars or

workshops

3. Give challenging work to give opportunities for

personal growth and advancement.

Activity: Discuss how a teacher can satisfy the

various levels of need to his/her staff.

2) HERTZBERG’S THEORY

Sometimes referred to as:

 “Hertzberg motivation- Hygiene theory”

 “The motivation- hygiene[M.H.] theory”

 “The motivation- maintenance theory”

 “The two factor theory”

This is a theory of external motivation because the manager or leader controls

the factors that produce job satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

A study was done to determine factors in the job which were present when the

employees felt exceptionally happy or unhappy with their jobs. From the

interviews with the employees a two factor hypothesis was developed:

i) The factors that were present when job satisfaction was produced were

separate and distinct from the factors that led to the job dissatisfaction.

ii) The opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction not job

dissatisfaction.

From interviews conducted during the study, it was discovered that:-

Reports of feeling happy were not brought about by the absence of factors that

cause dissatisfaction, but instead by the presence of factors classified as

“satisfiers”, “motivators” or “Intrinsic factors.”

Factors that lead to satisfaction include: [Satisfiers / motivational/intrinsic factors]

i) Achievement

ii) Recognition

iii) Characteristic of work itself

iv) Responsibility

v) Advancement

Note:

1. When these factors fail below an acceptable level, they contribute very little to

job dissatisfaction but do prevent job satisfaction.

2. Feelings of unhappiness were not brought about by the absence of the

satisfier factors, but by the absence of “dissatisfiers”, “maintenance” or

“extrinsic factors.”

 Hertzberg called these factors “Hygiene” factors.

Hygiene factors describe the employee’s relationship to the context or

environment in which he performs his work. Satisfiers relate to what an employee

does, dissatisfiers to the environment in which he does it.

Examples of dissatisfies are:

i) Company policy and administration.

ii) Technical supervision

iii) Salary

iv) Interpersonal relations with a supervisor

v) Working conditions

 When Hygiene factors fall below what employees consider an

acceptable level, he becomes dissatisfied. At/above the acceptable

level, dissatisfaction is removed. This leads to neutral state.

 Hygiene factors help man avoid unpleasantness whereas the motivator

factors make people happy with their jobs.

Hygiene factors or dissatisfies are those that the employees expect to be in good

condition. Hygiene factors are those that do not cause satisfaction but when

absent or lacking they cause job dissatisfaction. Salaries or wages must be

equivalent to those salaries that other people in the same industry or

geographical area get. The status of the person must be recognised and

maintained. s is possiblEmployees must feel that their job is secured in the

current economical situation. The working conditions should be clean, sufficiently

lit and safe in other way. Sufficient amount of fridge benefits like health, pension

and child care must be provided and implemented in general equivalent to the

amount of work done. Policy and administrative practices such as flex hours,

dress code, vacation schedules and other scheduling affect workers and should

be run sufficiently. These factors relate to the content of the work and if they are

in the proper form it tends to eliminate job dissatisfaction (Ellis, 2005: 83). The

main finding of Herzberg is that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction

but no satisfaction.

3. McGREGOR’S THEORY:

 In this theory, McGregor tries to look at the interaction between the

individual and the organization.

 He therefore developed two theories commonly referred to as

McGregor theory X and Y.

McGregor’s Theory X

I) The average human being has inherent dislike of work and will avoid it

if he can.

II) Because of human characteristics of dislike of work, most people must

be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment to

 get them to put forth adequate effort towards their achieving of

organizational objectives.

III) The average human beings prefer to be directed, wish to avoid

responsibilities, have relatively little ambition, wants security above all.

 These assumptions listed above hold that most people dislike

work and responsibility and prefer to be directed; and that

people are motivated not by the desire to do a good job, but

simply by financial incentives.

 Hence, people must be coerced to achieve organizational goals.

McGregor’s Theory Y

Assumptions:

I) The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as

play or rest.

II) External control and threat of punishment are not the only means of

bringing the above effort towards organizational objectives.

III) Commitment to objectives is a good function to the rewards associated

with their achievement.

IV) The average human being learns under proper conditions not only to

accept but to seek responsibility.

V) The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination,

ingenuity and creativity in the solution of an organizational problems is

widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.

VI) Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual

potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized.

 Thus theory y is an establishment of an environment in which

employees can best achieve their own goals by committing

themselves to the organization’s objectives.

 Thus employees have to exercise large degrees of internal

motivation.

Note:

 With theory Y, heavy emphasis on international motivation implies

that all employees will be motivated by self-esteem and self-

actualization needs while on the job thus calling for self-control.

Each manager must remember that each employee is unique and

should be understood and treated as such. External motivation

should be flexible enough to accommodate each unique person in

the organization.

Techniques suggested by McGregor in order to develop self-control

i) Decentralization and delegation :

In order to free people from “too close control”

ii) Job enlargement:

So that worker’s jobs are made more challenging and interesting.

iii) Participate management :

 To give employees a voice In decisions.

iv) Management by objectives:

-Hear subordinates set goals jointly with their superior and then are

measured on the accomplishment of these goals.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF McGregor’s THEORIES

THEORY X:

Advantages:

i) No delays in decision making.

ii) Employees do not absent themselves from work unnecessarily.

Disadvantages:

i) Administrator has a negative attitude towards workers.

ii) There exist in organization rigid rules.

iii) Assumes workers are immature, irresponsible and need external control and

close supervision.

iv) Feelings/ Morale of people are secondary emphasis is on efficient

performance.

v) There exist poor interpersonal relations between administration and other

workers.

vi) Emphasis is on centralization of authority. No consultation over decisions.

vii) There is low work output due to threats, external controls and negative

attitudes.
 THEORY Y

Advantages:

i) Employees are motivated and committed, thus high work output.

ii) There exists positive attitude by administrator towards workers.

iii) Administrator assumes creativity is widely distributed in people and not

just a few selected.

iv) No rigid rules and regulations. Employees are left to self-direct and

self-control.

v) There is decentralization of authority.

vi) There exists good interpersonal relations between administrator and

other workers.

vii)Administrator assumes workers are not passive to original needs but

an unsupportive environment makes them so.

Disadvantages

i) Too many consultations may lead to delays in decision making.

ii) Administrator may be viewed as weak due to many

consultations/persuasions.

4. EXPECTANCY THEORY

The concept of expectancy was originally formulated by Vroom and it stands for

the probability that action or effort will lead to an outcome. The concept of

expectancy was defined in more detail by Vroom as follows (Vroom, 1964):

 Where an individual chooses between alternatives which involve uncertain
outcomes it seems clear that his/her behaviour is affected not only by
his/her preference among these outcomes but also by the degree of which
he believes these outcomes to be possible. Expectancy is defined as
momentary belief concerning likelihood that a particular act will be
followed by a particular outcome. Expectancy may be described in terms
of their strength, maximal strengths indicated by subjective certainty that
the act will be followed by outcome while minimal strength is indicated by
the subjective certainty that the act will not be followed by the outcome
Motivation in this case is likely when a clearly perceived and usable
relationship exists between performance and outcomes and the outcome is
seen as a means of satisfying needs. It suggests that there are two factors
determining the effort people put in their job. The first one is the value of the
reward to individuals and the extent to which these rewards satisfy their needs
for security, social esteem, autonomy and self- actualization. The second is
the probability that the rewards depends on the effort perceived by individuals,
their expectation about relationship between effort and reward. Thus, the
greater the value of a set of the awards and the higher the probability that
receiving each of these rewards depends upon effort, the greater the effort in a
given situation (Armstrong, 2006, 259-260).

The fundamental to all the popular theories of motivation is the notion that
employees are motivated to perform better when offered something they want,
something they believe will be satisfying. But employees must believe that it
is possible to achieve what they want. Employees are not motivated to perform
better when managers focus on the “offering” and ignore “believing”.

Employee’s confidence in what they want is based on three beliefs:

 That they can perform well enough to get what is being offered;
 That they get it if they perform well;
 That what is offered will be satisfying

Each of these three beliefs deals with what employees think will deal with what
employees think will happen if they put effort to perform.

The first belief deal with the relationship between effort and performance;
 The second belief deal with the relationship between performance and
outcome;

The third deals with the relationship between outcomes and satisfaction.

All these beliefs are interrelated because employees effort leads to some level
of performance, the performance leads to outcomes and outcomes leads to
some amount of satisfaction or dissatisfaction..

In conclusion, the expectancy theory of motivation requires the fulfillment of

the following conditions (Green, 1992, 1-4):

 Employees are motivated to perform only when they believe that effort
will lead to performance;
 Performance will lead to outcomes;
 The outcomes will lead to satisfaction.

Activity:

a) Does motivation originate from sources external or internal to a

person? Explain.

b) If you were a worker, would you prefer to be motivated from within or

by the organization?

c) If you were a head teacher, would you prefer that your employees be

self-motivated, or would you want the responsibility for motivating

them?

Further Reading

Ahmad, S., Mukaddes, A. M., Rashed, C. A., & Samad, M. A. (2010). Implementation of
motivation - Theory in apparel industry. International Journal of Logistics and Supply
Chain Management , 103-108.
Ouchi, W. (1987). Management in action, Theory Z, is it the key to the motivation? In W.
Ouchi, Fundamentals of Managements (6th ed.). Homewood Juinpis: Business
Publication Inc.

Ricky W. Griffin,(2007) “Management”, Tenth Edition.

Salanova, A., & Kirmanen, S. (2010). Employee Satisfaction and Work Motivation –
Research in Prisma Mikkeli. Mikkeli University of Applied Sciences .

Stephen P. Robbins & Mary Coulter,(2012). “Management”, Eleventh Edition,

Wan, H. L. (2009). Employee Loyalty at the Workplace: The Impact of Japanese Style
of Human Resource Management”,. International Journal of Applied HRM , 3 (1).
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