LESSON OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson learners should know

❑ Concepts in inheritance
❑ The Law of Dominance
❑ Format for representing a genetics cross
❑ Mendel's Principle of Segregation
❑ Types of dominance: complete, incomplete & codominance
❑ Sex determination
❑ Sex-linked inheritance
PRE KNOWLEDGE
A cell contains a nucleus

Within the nucleus is the chromatin

network
Untangled Chromatin network form
chromosomes which contain DNA
 BASELINE ASSESSMENT
Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate the chromosome.
BASELINE ASSESSMENT: SOLUTIONS
 TERMINOLOGY
Biological term Meaning/Definition
The condition that results from the absence of skin
Albinism
pigmentation
Alleles Two alternative forms of a gene at the same locus
Artificial
The breeding of organisms over many generations in order to
selection/selective
achieve a desirable phenotype
breading
The use of biological processes, organisms or systems to
Biotechnology
improve the quality of human life
A copy of an organism that is genetically identical to the
Clone
original organism
The process by which genetically identical organisms are
Cloning
formed using biotechnology
The type of inheritance where both alleles are equally
dominant, and both express themselves equally in the
Co-dominance
phenotype. E.g. A white cow crossed with a black bull will
produce a calf with black and white patches
 TERMINOLOGY
The type of inheritance where the dominant allele masks the
Complete dominance
expression of the recessive allele in the heterozygous condition
Chromatin network: Visible as thread-like structures in the nucleus of an inactive cell
A structure made up of two chromatids joined by a centromere that
Chromosome:
carries the hereditary characteristics within the DNA
A genetic cross involving two different characteristics e.g. shape and
Dihybrid cross
colour of seeds
An allele that masks or suppresses the expression of the allele partner
on the chromosome pair and the dominant characteristic is seen in the
Dominant allele:
homozygous (e.g.: TT) and heterozygous state (e.g.: Tt) in the
phenotype.
A segment of DNA/a chromosome that codes for a particular
Gene
characteristic
Gene mutation:
A change of one or more N- bases in the nuclear DNA of an
organism.
 TERMINOLOGY
This is the total genetic composition of an organism. It is the information
Genotype
present in the gene alleles, for example BB, Bb or bb.

Genome The complete set of chromosomes in the cell of an organism

A sex-linked genetic disorder characterised by the absence of a blood-

Haemophilia
clotting factor

Heterozygous An individual having two non-identical alleles for a characteristic

Similar structures on different organisms that suggest they have a common

Homologous structures
ancestor
When two alleles that control a single trait (on the same locus) are
Homozygous:
identical.
A tentative explanation of a phenomenon that can be tested and may be
Hypothesis
accepted or rejected
The type of inheritance where both alleles express themselves in such a
Incomplete dominance way that an intermediate phenotype is formed. E.g. A white flowering plant
crossed with a red flowering plant will produce a pink flowering plant.
Locus: The exact position or location of a gene on a chromosome.
Concepts in inheritance

https://ischoolconnect.com/blog/father-of-genetics
 CONCEPTS OF GENETICS

Concepts
❖Chromatin vs Chromosomes
commonly
❖Genes vs Alleles confused and
used
❖Dominant allele vs Recessive allele interchangeably

❖Phenotype vs Genotype
❖Homozygous vs Heterozygous
CHROMATIN vs CHROMOSOME
 GENES vs ALLELES
Gene: a segment of DNA/a chromosome that codes for
a particular characteristic

Allele: alleles are alternate forms of a gene localised on

the same locus on homologous chromosomes.
GENOTYPE vs PHENOTYPE
 HOMOZYGOUS vs HETEROZYGOUS
If alleles of the same characteristic are both the same, the organism will be
homozygous for that characteristic. If the alleles for a characteristic are different
the organism is described as heterozygous for that characteristic.
DOMINANT ALLELE vs RECESSIVE ALLELE
Dominant allele: An allele that masks or
suppresses the expression of the allele partner
on the chromosome pair and the dominant
characteristic is seen in the homozygous (e.g.:
TT) and heterozygous state (e.g.: Tt) in the
phenotype.

Recessive allele: An allele that is

suppressed when the allele partner
is dominant. The recessive trait will
only be expressed/seen in the
phenotype if both alleles for the trait
are homozygous recessive (e.g.: tt)
 MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE
The Law of Dominance
• When two homozygous organisms with contrasting characteristics are crossed, all the
individuals of the F1 generation will display the dominant trait
• An individual that is heterozygous for a particular characteristic will have the dominant
trait as the phenotype.
 MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE

Mendel's Principle of Segregation

• An organism possesses two 'factors' which separate or segregate so that each gamete
contains only one of these 'factors'
 MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE

Mendel's Principle of Independent Assortment

• The various 'factors' controlling the different characteristics are separate entities, not influencing
each other in any way, and sorting themselves out independently during gamete formation.
Monohybrid crosses
A cross between two
organisms involving
ONE trait.
FORMAT OF A GENETIC CROSS

The visible trait is the phenotype e.g.

tallness, shortness

The genetic make-up of the individual is

it’s genotype e.g. TT or Tt or tt

The alleles segregate (separate) during

meiosis to form gametes
During fertilization the individual gets one
allele from each parent
 FORMAT OF A GENETIC CROSS

Remember that by
writing P1 and F1 &
meiosis and
fertilization in the
correct sequence you
can get 2 marks

Format of a genetic cross diagram made

logical.https://youtu.be/oYknZYaziw0
 COMPLETE DOMINANCE
(Red) (White)
RR x rr A genetic interaction where
one allele of a gene suppress
the expression of an
alternative allele in the F1
heterozygote (e.g., Bb) so that
the phenotype is the same as
that of the dominant allele.
 COMPLETE DOMINANCE
Four types of crosses that can be carried out in complete
dominance:

1. Homozygous dominant X homozygous recessive

2. Heterozygous X heterozygous
3. Homozygous dominant X heterozygous
4. Homozygous recessive X heterozygous

E.g.: In rabbits, the allele for black fur colour (B) is dominant over the allele
for white fur colour (b). The inheritance of fur colour is controlled by two
alleles namely:
Black fur (B) and White fur (b)
 COMPLETE DOMINANCE
1. Homozygous dominant X homozygous recessive
P1 Phenotype: Black x White

Genotype: BB x bb

Meiosis

Gametes: B, B x b, b

Fertilization
B B
b Bb Bb
b Bb Bb

F1 (first filial generation = first offspring)

Genotype: Bb

Phenotype: 100% black

 COMPLETE DOMINANCE
2. Heterozygous X heterozygous
P1 Phenotype: Black x Black

Genotype: Bb x Bb

Meiosis

Gametes: B, b x B, b

Fertilisation
B b
B BB Bb
F1 b Bb bb

Genotype: BB: Bb: Bb: bb

1 : 2 : 1

Phenotype: 75% Black and 25% white

3 : 1
 COMPLETE DOMINANCE
3. Homozygous dominant X heterozygous
P1 Phenotype: Black x Black

Genotype: BB x Bb

Meiosis

Gametes: B, B x B, b

Fertilisation
B B
B BB BB
b Bb Bb

F1

Genotype: BB: BB: Bb: Bb

1 : 1

Phenotype: 100% black

 COMPLETE DOMINANCE
4. Homozygous recessive X heterozygous
P1 Phenotype: White x Black

Genotype: bb x Bb

Meiosis

Gametes: b, b x B, b

Fertilisation
B b
b Bb Bb
b bb bb

F1

Genotype: Bb : Bb: bb: bb

1 : 1

Phenotype: 50% black and 50% white

 ACTIVITY 1
Flower colour (purple or white) in a particular plant species is
controlled by two alleles, D and d. Four crosses were carried out to 3 State Mendel's Law of Segregation. (3)
determine which allele is dominant. Forty (40) offspring were produced - An organism possesses two 'factors‘
in each cross. The phenotypes of the parents and offspring in each which separate or segregate so that
cross were recorded. each gamete contains only one of
The results are shown in the table below:
these 'factors' 
4 Use a genetic cross to show how the
crossing of two purple flowering plants
can produce white offspring, as in cross
2. (6)
1 State the dominant flower colour. (1)
Purple
2 Use cross 1 to explain your answer to QUESTION 2.4.1. (2)
When purple and white flowering plants are crossed 
all offspring have purple flowers /no white flowers
 4
P1: phenotype Purple X Purple
genotype Dd Dd
Meiosis

Gametes D d D d
Fertilisation

F1: Genotype DD Dd Dd dd

Phenotype Purple Purple Purple White
3 Purple: 1 white*

P1 and F1
Meiosis and fertilization
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE VS CO- DOMINANCE
Red (RR) White (WW) Red (RR) White (WW)

X
X Both alleles of a gene are
equally dominant whereby
both alleles express
themselves in the phenotype
in the heterozygous
condition

Pink (RW)
Red and white
Neither one of the two alleles of a gene is
(RW)
dominant over the other, resulting in an
intermediate phenotype in the heterozygous
condition
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE VS CO- DOMINANCE
P1 Phenotype: Red x White P1 Phenotype Red x White

Genotype: RR x WW
Genotype RR x WW
Meiosis Meiosis
Gametes R, R x W, W
Gametes R, R, x W, W

Fertilisation Fertilisation

R R
R R
W RW RW
W RW RW
W RW RW
W RW RW

F1 Genotype: RW RW
F1 Genotype: RW; RW; RW; RW RW RW

Phenotype: 100% pink Phenotype: (red and

white)
(Both alleles are equally dominant
and are expressed in the
phenotype)
 ACTIVITY 2
In bunnies, fur colour may be black, white or grey. The inheritance
of fur colour is controlled by two alleles namely:

Black fur (B) and White fur (W)

1 Explain why fur colour in bunnies is an example of

inheritance with incomplete dominance. (2)

- The grey fur colour is an intermediate phenotype /a blend of

black and white
- This indicates that neither of the alleles is dominant.

2. Use a genetic cross to show the expected genotypes and

phenotypes of the offspring when a grey male mates with a
black female. (6)
 ACTIVITY 2 SOLUTIONS
P1: Phenotype Grey Black 
Genotype BW BB 
Meiosis

Gametes B W B B
Fertilisation

F1: Genotype BB BB BW BW

Phenotype Black Black Grey Grey
2 Black : 2 Grey *
P1 and F1
Meiosis and fertilization
 ACTIVITY 3
1
A farmer has an orchard of apple trees. Each
apple produced expressed red and yellow colour
equally (red-yellow apples). To extend his apple
orchard, the farmer collected seeds from the
red-yellow apples and grew them. When the new
trees matured, he found that some of the trees
produced red apples (R), others produced yellow
apples (Y) and the rest produced apples that
were red-yellow.
1 Use a genetic cross to explain his results
in the F1 generation. (6)
2 What proportion of apples in the F1 generation
will be red-yellow apples? (1)
50% / half
 ACTIVITY 3
A farmer has an orchard of apple trees. Each 3 The farmer saw that the red-yellow apples
apple produced expressed red and yellow colour sell the best.
equally (red-yellow apples). To extend his apple Name the phenotypes of the trees that he
orchard, the farmer collected seeds from the should cross in the future in order to ensure
red-yellow apples and grew them. When the new that any new trees will definitely produce only
trees matured, he found that some of the trees red-yellow apples. (6)
produced red apples (R), others produced yellow
apples (Y) and the rest produced apples that A tree with red apples  should be crossed with
were red-yellow. a tree that produces yellow apples 
 GONOSOMES (SEX CHROMOSOMES)
In a human somatic cell, there are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)

• 44 chromosomes (22 pairs) are autosomes

• 2 chromosomes (23rd pair) are gonosomes (sex chromosomes)
• These are distinguished by a large X chromosome and a small Y
chromosome.
• Males have an X and a Y chromosome (XY) at pair 23
• Females have two identical X chromosomes (XX) at pair 23

• Somatic cells of a male will have 44+XY chromosomes and a

gamete will have 22+X or 22+Y
• Somatic cells of a female will have 44+XX chromosomes and a
gamete will have 22+X
 SEX DETERMINATION
Female Male

First 22 pairs: autosomes

Last pair (23): gonosomes
• XX in females
• XY in males
SEX DETERMINATION
Note: during meiosis
Males produce two types of sperm: half will have 22 + X
chromosomes, and the other half will have 22 + Y
chromosomes.

Depending on which sperm reaches the ovum, there is

a 50% chance of the zygote being male and a 50%
chance of the zygote being female.
 ACTIVITY 4
Lindiwe has two sons, and she is now pregnant for the third time.
Use a genetic cross to show the percentage chance that this child could be a boy.
 ACTIVITY 5
The diagram below represents the chromosomes 1. Define the term somatic cells.
from the human somatic cells of two individuals who Body cells OR cells in the body except for sex cells.
are twins.
2. Name the specific type of chromosomes numbered
1 to 22.
Autosomes

3. Each of the pairs shown is a homologous pair of

chromosomes. State the origin of each chromosome
in a homologous pair during zygote formation.
One chromosome comes from the father and
one comes from the mother.

4. Explain ONE observable reason

why the two individuals are not
identical twins.
The gonosomes are not identical.
Individual 1 has XY and individual 2
has XX
 SEX LINKED-INHERITANCE
The gonosomes carry sex-linked genes. The allele for the gene is carried on the X chromosome.
The question will indicate to you whether the trait is sex-linked or not.
This is a generic
Sex of the person Possible approach to sex-
Genotypes linked phenotypes
Normal Female (homozygous) XNXN and genotypes

Normal Female (heterozygous) XNXn

Affected Female (homozygous) XnXn
Normal male XNY
Affected male XnY
 HAEMOPHILIA

✔ The father can only

Haemophilia is the
pass the affected allele
inability of the blood to
to his daughters
clot due to lack of a blood
clotting factor. If the
✔ The mother can pass
person were to cut
the affected allele to
themselves, the wound
both her sons and
would continue to bleed.
daughters
 COLOUR BLINDNESS
A person who is colour blind is unable to tell
different colours apart. For example, red-
green colour-blindness is caused by an
Normal allele absence of the proteins that make up the red
Allele for colour or green cones in the retina of the eye
blindness resulting in the person not being able to tell
Normal female who Normal male the difference between red and green.
carries the colour blind
allele Normal colour vision

Normal female Normal female who Normal male Colour blind

carries the colour blind male Red-green confusion Colour
allele
blindness
ACTIVITY 6

Brown enamel of the teeth is a sex-linked trait. A

dominant allele on the X chromosome causes
brown teeth in humans.

A Man with brown teeth married a woman with

white teeth. Use a genetic cross to show the
possible phenotypic ratios of their children. Use
XB for brown teeth and Xb for white teeth.
 ACTIVITY 6

Brown enamel of the teeth is a sex-linked trait. A dominant allele on the X chromosome causes brown
teeth in humans.

Explain why more males than females have white teeth. (4)

- Males only of one X chromosome/The Y-chromosome does not have this allele and
- Have to inherit only one recessive allele to have white teeth
- Whereas females have two X chromosomes and have to
- Inherit two recessive alleles to have white teeth.
 DIAGNOSTIC REPORT FINDINGS
• Some candidates had difficulty stating the phenotype in the monohybrid cross.
They had to write that a male with brown teeth was crossed with a female with
white teeth and not just brown teeth were crossed with white teeth.
• Some candidates gave their own genetic notations when showing the genetic
cross.
• Candidates gave the phenotypic ratio as 2 females with brown teeth : 2 males with
white teeth instead of stating the smallest ratio of 1 : 1 and lost the compulsory
mark.
• Learners must use the phenotypic description stated in the question and not use
terms such as “normal” male/female. “Affected” should also
be avoided unless stipulated in the question.
• Sex-linked disorders can be carried by a recessive or dominant
allele
 HOMEWORK
Polydactyly is a condition that leads to extra fingers or toes. It is caused by a
dominant allele.
A man who is heterozygous for polydactyly has a wife who is not polydactyl.
Using the letters R and r, do a genetic cross to show the percentage chance
that their children will have polydactyly. (6)