PERDEV

In its resting state, the human brain takes up only one fifth of all the energy generated by your body.

Imagine a 100-watt light bulb that is continuously glowing --that is similar to how your brain
works. The brain consists of approximately 100 billion cells with each one connected to 1000
other brain cells, making approximately 100 trillion connections. A normal brain weighs just
about 3.3 pounds or 1.5 kilograms. The gray matter contains about 86 billion neurons. The
white matter contains billions of nerve fibers - the axons and dendrites. The neurons are
connected by trillions of connections known as synapses

It was once thought that one hemisphere can be slightly dominant than the other.
The right brain-left brain theory originated in the work of Roger W Sperry in the
60's. While studying the effects of epilepsy, he discovered that by cutting the
corpus callosum seizures could be reduced or eliminated. However, after a team
of neuroscientists set out to test his theory, they found proof that the human
brain does not actually favor one side over the other.
The two hemispheres are tied together by bundles of nerve fibers which create an information
highway.

The left hemisphere of our brain handles tasks such as reading, writing, speaking, arithmetic
reasoning and understanding. It also performs tasks that have to do with logic, such as in
science and mathematics. Studies show that when we speak or do arithmetic calculations,
activity in our left hemisphere increases.
The right hemisphere of our brain plays a role in visual and auditory processing, spatial skills and
artistic ability. It excels in visual perception, understanding spatial relationships, recognizing patterns,
music, and emotional expressions. It is also good at making inferences. The right hemisphere
coordinates and performs tasks that have to do with creativity and the arts.
THE ADOLESCENT'S BRAIN
The brain of an adolescent continuously develops until early adulthood. In making decisions and solving
problems, adolescents rely on the part of the brain known as amygdala, since the prefrontal cortex is
not yet fully developed and will not be until age 25 or so.

"The brain continues to change throughout life, but there are huge leaps in development during
adolescence", according to Sara Johnson, an assistant professor at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School
of Public Health

Although it may seem impossible to get inside the head of an adolescent, scientists have probed the
tangle of teenage neurons. Here are five things they have learned about the mysterious teen brain.

1. New thinking skills According to Johnson, due to the increase in brain matter, the teen brain
becomes more interconnected and gains processing power.
2. Intense emotions "Puberty is the beginning of major changes in the limbic system," Johnson
said, referring to the part of the brain that not only helps regulate heart rate and blood sugar
levels, but also is critical to the formation of memories and emotions.
3. Peer pressure "As teens become better at thinking abstractly, their social anxiety increases",
according to research in the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences published in 2004.
Abstract reasoning makes it possible to consider yourself from the eyes of another.
4. Measuring risk Johnson stated that "The brakes come online somewhat later than the
accelerator of the brain", referring to the development of the prefrontal cortex and the limbic
system respectively. She also mentioned that at the same time, "teens need higher doses of risk
to feel the same amount of rush adults do".
5. I am the center of the universe! The hormone changes at puberty have huge effects on the
brain, one of which is to spur the production of more receptors for oxytocin, according to
research detailed in a 2008 issue of the journal Developmental Review. While oxytocin is often
described as the "bonding hormone," increased sensitivity to its effects in the limbic system has
also been linked to feelings of self-consciousness, making an adolescent truly feel like everyone
is watching him/her.

Apart from the five things we have just discussed, the adolescent brain has other
characteristics.

1. The adolescent brain has its own complexities. A girl's brain reaches its largest physical size at
around 11 years of age, while a boy's brain reaches it at around age 14. Of course, this
difference does not mean that one is smarter than the other! Although your brain may be as
large as it will ever be, it doesn't finish developing and maturing until your mid- to late-20s. The
front part of the brain, the prefrontal cortex, is one of the last brain regions to mature. It is the
area responsible for planning, prioritizing, and controlling impulses.
2. The adolescent brain is adaptable. In a digital world that is constantly changing, the
adolescent brain is well prepared to adapt to new technology -- and is shaped in return by
experience.

3. The adolescent brain is resilient. Although adolescence is a vulnerable time for the brain and
for teenagers in general, most teens go on to become healthy adults. Some changes in the brain
during this important phase of development actually may help protect against long-term
mental disorders. Sadly, all the big changes the brain is experiencing may have negative effects
on the adolescent brain.

4. The adolescent brain needs more rest. Although it may seem like teens are lazy, science
shows that melatonin (the "sleep hormone") levels in the blood naturally rise later at night and
fall later in the morning than in most children and adults.

5. The changes in the adolescent brain mean that they act differently from adults. Pictures of
the brain in action show that adolescents' brains work differently than adults when they make
decisions or solve problems. Their actions are guided more by the emotional and reactive
amygdala and less by the thoughtful, logical frontal cortex.

Based on the stage of their brain development, adolescents are more likely to:
-act on impulse;
-get involved in fights;
-get into accidents of all kinds;
-engage in dangerous or risky behavior; or
-misread and misinterpret social cues and emotions.

Adolescents are less likely to:

• think before they act;
change their dangerous or inappropriate behaviors; or
pause to consider the consequences of their actions.

BUILDING A HEALTHY ADOLESCENT BRAIN The combination of your child's unique brain and
environment influences the way your child acts, thinks, and feels. For example, your child's preferred
activities and skills might become 'hard-wired' in the brain.
 THE DEFINITION OF EMOTION MOD 2
The dictionary defines emotion as a natural and instinctive state of mind or intuitive feeling.
Distinguished from reasoning or knowledge, an emotion is derived from one's circumstances, mood, or
relationships with others.

In physical terms, emotions involve body systems, such as the hormone system, autonomic nervous
system, and the hindbrain and midbrain (also known as the lower brain) center. In psychology, emotion
is often defined as "a complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that
influence thought and behavior.
In general, emotions have three purposes
1. Emotions are a means of communication. Your emotions serve an important function, that is, to
connect with others. In relating with others, our facial expression, tone and tempo of voice, and body
language have more impact than the words we say.
2. Emotions motivate behavioral impulses. The biological underpinnings convey fast acting, yet subtle,
bodily sensations that we experience as impulses which cause our body to take necessary action to get
our needs met. Anger motivates us to protect ourselves. Fear would motivate someone to run away
from danger. Happiness would motivate you to do more positive actions.
3. Emotions signal a need. We tend to experience emotion when something is important to us. We feel
sad when something important to us gets lost. We feel surprised if our wish comes true.

THEORIES OF EMOTION
Different theories of emotion have attempted to explain what emotions are and how they operate. In
one sense, emotions are sophisticated and subtle, the epitome of what makes us human.

The Evolutionary Theory of Emotion- It was naturalist Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) who
proposed that emotions evolved because they are adaptive and allow humans and animals to survive
and reproduce. Emotions motivate people to respond quickly to stimuli in the environment, which helps

improve the chances of survival and success.

The James-Lange Theory of Emotion- The psychologist William James (1842-1910) and the physiologist
Carl Lange (1834- 1900) independently proposed another theory of emotion. According to this theory,
seeing an external stimulus leads to a physiological response. Your emotional reaction is dependent
upon how you interpret those physical reactions.
The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion- Another well-known physiological theory is the Cannon-Bard
theory of emotion. The physiologist Walter Bradford Cannon (1871-1945) disagreed with the James-
Lange theory. While the James-Lange theory proposes that an external stimulus causes a physiological
response, the Cannon-Bard theory suggests that physiological reactions, such as crying and trembling,
are caused by emotions.
Schachter-Singer Theory Stanley Schachter (1922-1977) and Jerome E. Singer (1934-2110) proposed
what is known as the two-factor theory of emotion which is a cognitive theory of emotion. suggests that
the physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the reason for this arousal in
order to experience and label it as an emotion. To put it simply, a stimulus leads to a physiological
response that is then cognitively interpreted and labeled which results in an emotion.
Cognitive Appraisal Theory According to the cognitive appraisal theory of emotion, thinking must occur
first before experiencing emotion. The psychologist Richard Lazarus (1922-2002).
THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF EMOTIONS
The experience of emotion is accompanied by the activation of two major areas of the nervous system:
the brain and the autonomic nervous system.

Activation of Brain Regions The area of the brain known as the limbic system is highly involved in
emotion. One structure in the limbic system, the amygdala, plays a particularly important role in
regulating emotion.
Activation of the Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic nervous system is made up of two parts:
the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the
body for action while the parasympathetic nervous system keeps the body still. The sympathetic
nervous system involves expending energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system works to keep
energy in the body.
Gender Differences - Some research suggests that males and females differ in how much emotion they
express.
Emotion and Culture - Some aspects of emotion are universal, while other aspects differ across cultures.
The psychologist Dr. Paul Ekman (1934-) and his colleagues have found that people in different cultures
can identify six basic emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust. The physiological
indicators of emotion are similar in people from different cultures.

EMOTION REGULATION
Emotions are the most present, pressing, and sometimes painful force in our lives. We are driven, day by
day, by our emotions. But when we act on our emotions too quickly, or we act on the wrong kinds of
emotions, we often make decisions that we later regret.
To navigate through the emotional battleground, some important distinctions need to be made.
1. We cannot turn emotions on and off like a tap. Emotions will come and go whether you like it or not.
Once this is clear in your mind, you can stop waiting for unwanted emotions to go away.
2. Emotions are not positive or negative. The human brain is wired to categorize things as positive or
negative and is particularly alert to threats.
3. You are not your emotions. Emotions are, by their very nature, strong. However, it's important to be
clear that you are not your emotions.
4. We always have a choice. A thought or feeling in itself doesn't prevent you from taking any action.
Substantial disagreements exist regarding the definition of El, with respect to both terminology and
operationalizations. Currently, there are three main models of El: ability model, mixed model (usually
subsumed under trait El), and trait model.

The trait model was developed by Konstantin Vasily Petrides in 2001. He defined the trait model as "a
constellation of emotional self-perceptions located at the lower levels of personality".
The ability model, developed by Dr.Peter Salovey and John Mayer in 2004, focuses on the individual's
ability to process emotional information and use it to navigate the social environment.

The mixed model is based on Goleman's original model, but it combines what was modeled separately
as ability El and trait El. The mixed model focuses on El as a wide array of competencies and skills that
drive leadership performance. Goleman's model outlines five main El constructs ("What Makes A
Leader", by Daniel Goleman, Harvard Business Review 1998).

1. Better social relations for children Among children and teens, emotional intelligence positively
correlates with good social interactions, relationships and negatively correlates with deviance from
social norms, anti-social behavior measured both in and out of school as reported by children
themselves, their own family members as well as their teachers.
2. Better social relations for adults High emotional intelligence among adults is correlated with better
self-perception of social ability and more successful interpersonal relationships while less interpersonal
aggression and problems.
3. Highly emotionally intelligent individuals are perceived more positively by others Other individuals
perceive those with high El to be more pleasant, socially skilled and empathic to be around. 4. Better
family and intimate relationships
4. Better family and intimate relationships High El is correlated with better relationships with the family
and intimate partners on many aspects.
5. Better academic achievement Emotional intelligence is correlated with greater achievement in
academics as reported by teachers but generally not higher grades once the factor of IQ is taken into
account.
5. Better academic achievement Emotional intelligence is correlated with greater achievement in
academics as reported by teachers but generally not higher grades once the factor of IQ is taken into
account.
6. Better social relations during work performance and in negotiations Higher emotional intelligence is
correlated with better social dynamics at work as well as better negotiating ability.
7. Better psychological well-being Emotional intelligence is positively correlated with higher life
satisfaction, self-esteem and lower levels of insecurity or depression. It is also negatively correlated with
poor health choices and behavior.

Emotional Intelligence, IQ, and Personality are Different

Emotional intelligence taps into a fundamental element of human behavior that is distinct from intellect.
There is no known connection between IQ and emotional intelligence; you simply can't predict
emotional intelligence based on how smart someone is. Intelligence is one's ability to learn and it's the
same at age 15, as it is at age 50. Emotional intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence is Linked to Performance Your emotional intelligence is the foundation for a host
of critical skills – it impacts most everything you say and do each day. Emotional intelligence is the
strongest predictor of performance, according to Talent Smart.
Emotional Intelligence Can Be Developed The communication between your emotional and rational
"brains" is the physical source of emotional intelligence. The pathway for emotional intelligence starts in
the brain, at the spinal cord.
"Plasticity" is the term neurologists use to describe the brain's ability to change. Your brain grows new
connections as you learn new skills.
Emotional Intelligence Affects Performance at School or Work Emotional intelligence can help you
navigate the social complexities of the workplace, lead and motivate others, and excel in your career.
Your physical health. If you're unable to manage your emotions, you probably are not managing your
stress either. This can lead to serious health problems
Your mental health. Uncontrolled emotions and stress can also impact your mental health, making you
vulnerable to anxiety and depression.
Your relationships. By understanding your emotions and how to control them, you're better able to
express how you feel and understand how others are feeling.
 MODULE 3 INTRAPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS Personal relationships are unique to each one of us. To most people personal
relationship refers to the state of connectedness, especially an emotional connection. To others, it could
mean anything from acquaintanceship to friendship and to a more intimate connection.
There are three kinds of personal relationships which include: family, friendship, and partnership.

Although the concept of family is one of the oldest in human nature, the definition of the family has
evolved in the past three decades. The structures and roles of non-traditional family can provide as
much comfort and support as traditional ones.
Friendship can be thought of as a close tie between two people that is often built upon mutual
experiences, shared interests, proximity, and emotional bonding. Friends are able to turn to each other
in times of need.
Partnerships, especially those between two people, are close relationships that are built upon affection,
trust, intimacy, and romantic love. We usually experience this kind of relationship with only one person
at a time.

The Importance of Relationships Research findings reveal that strong relationships contribute to a long,
healthy and happy life. It was also discovered that being alone or isolated from others tend to lead to
health risks comparable to those associated with obesity, blood pressure, and cigarette smoking.

How Relationships Help Defuse Conflicts Establishing a personal relationship with people on the other
side of the conflict can help lessen many of the problems related to conflict escalation. This is because
personal relationships humanize adversaries, improve communication, and increase the general level of
mutual understanding and trust.

ESTABLISHING PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS Cross-cutting relations that connect nations or subgroups of

society are crucial in overcoming divisive in-group/out-group distinctions and damaging stereotypes.
They involve the opportunity for members of opposing groups to spend time together, work together,
play together, and even live together for extended periods of time.
Developing Attachment - Developing attachment is about creating bonds with those people you care
for, those whom you love, and those whom you respect.

1. Physical connection. All relationships are built and thrive from a source within that brings people
together for a lifetime or a season. You can start by creating a healthy attachment with those people you
go to school or work with, your neighbors, your roommates and housemates.
2. Verbal affirmation. Verbal affirmation is the act of declaring or telling someone how important
he/she is in your life. Most people want to hear that they are valued and wanted. Telling someone how
much you value him/her is important in maintaining a healthy personal relationship.
3. Emotional availability. All individuals need to be emotionally available in order to maintain a healthy
personal relationship. It is important that people are assured that they are being supported and parents,
siblings, friends, or partners are readily available whenever they need one.
4. Trust Trust is essential in any relationship. To trust someone is to place your confidence into that
person. It can be re-affirmed through honest communication, genuine emotions. Building up trust is the
best tool in creating a lasting relationship.
ATTRACTION AND ITS EXPRESSIONS In the global community, understanding body language and
gestures is becoming more important to the quality of social interactions. Unfortunately, second
language learning does not place a strong emphasis on teaching gestures.

Signs of Attraction: Body Language Body language is the unspoken element of communication that
reveals one's true feelings and emotions. Being able to read gestures, facial expressions, and posture
can work to your advantage.

Attraction and Body Language: Why It Matters In every stage of courtship, be it seduction or rapport,
attraction and body language are essential. The ability to "read between the lines" and understand
exactly how someone feels will help you succeed in moments you may have once viewed as "hopeless."
It can also help you avoid major disasters down the road

here's a basic rundown of what body language is all about.

1. Body language reveals what words won't tell you.
2. You can trust body language.
3. Body language is always available.

Microexpressions The amount of conscious willpower it takes to repress an emotion can only last
so long. Sooner or later a person is liable to "crack" if only for a brief moment. This quick expression of
true emotion can often take the form of a microexpression.
Avoiding Trouble - Real vs. Fake Signs of Emotion Looking for microexpressions is just one way to
cipher out genuine emotions. But you can also rely on simply knowing the difference between an
authentic and deceptive expression.

The Basics of the Body Language of Attraction Body language hasn't changed much since the dawn of
man. The messages we convey with the body language of attraction are I'm harmless, I like you, I'm
approachable, etc. If your body language says "unavailable" or "not interested" you can be sure that's
what people will pick up on, no matter what you say!

Male/Female Body Language of Attraction - It may surprise you or not - that women typically
exhibit about 52 ways to signal attraction, where men use only about 10! Let's describe the most
common and most visible body language of attraction.

THE TRIANGULAR THEORY OF LOVE Our understanding of what love is has come a long way since the
first caveman felt the first case of butterflies in his stomach. Advances in neuroscience have helped us
visualize our physical reactions to the feeling we call love, while philosophers and psychologists have
helped us hammer out what we mean emotionally when we say we love.

Robert J. Sternberg does not think so. He said there are actually seven types of love! In 1985, Sternberg
came out with the Triangular Theory of Love. Through a research done at Yale University, Sternberg
sought to define different elements of interpersonal relationships and illustrate how they can combine
to form the seven types of love.

According to Sternberg's theory there are three components that can be found at the heart of most
human relationships: passion, commitment, and intimacy. If taken individually, these three components
can form the three simplest forms of love passion alone brings infatuation, intimacy alone equals liking,
and commitment alone means empty love.
Being Responsible in a Relationship Learning emotional responsibility is significant in creating healthy
relationships. Relationships grow and develop when the individuals involved are kind, genuine,
accepting, compassionate, and authentic. They must be responsible for their own emotions. They must
also value the other person's emotions to make the relationship authentic, honest, and forgiving.
 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
Social science defines social relationship as any relation or interaction between two or more individuals.
Social relationships may be close personal relations or casual acquaintances. Close personal
relationships are marked by reciprocal self-disclosure that is, you know each other deeply, accept each
other's strengths and weaknesses, share each other's secrets, and enjoy each other's company. On the
other hand, casual acquaintances happen when you know about each other's family background, likes
and dislikes but you do not feel that you really know the other person.

THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY In his Social Learning Theory, the social cognitive psychologist Albert
Bandura (1977) proposed that behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of
observational learning. During his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura illustrated the process of
observational learning. Bandura believes that humans think about the relationship between their
behaviour and its consequences. Observational learning takes place only if cognitive processes are at
work.
Bandura proposed four mediational processes involved in observational learning: attention, retention,
reproduction, and motivation.

Attention is the extent to which an individual is exposed to or notice a behaviour.

Retention refers to how well the behaviour is remembered. It is important that the memory of
behaviour is formed to be performed later by the observer
Reproduction is the ability to perform the behaviour that the model demonstrated. Every day you see a
lot of behaviour that you may like to imitate, but that may not always be possible. Y
Motivation refers to the will to perform the behaviour. The observer may consider the rewards and
punishment that follow a behaviour.

SOCIAL INFLUENCE
SOCIAL INFLUENCE Social influence refers to the way in which individuals change their ideas and actions
to meet the demands of a social group, a person of authority, or a social role. Social influence takes
several forms and is visible in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, leadership, and
persuasion.
Humans conform due to two psychological needs: the need to be right, or informative social influence
and the need to be liked
There are three broad varieties of social influence: compliance, identification and internalization
(Kelman, 1958). Compliance is the act of responding favourably to an explicit and implicit request
offered by others.
Identification occurs when a person, seeking favour and acceptance, identifies with other members of a
group and conforms to their opinions and behaviours.
Internalization is when a person accepts a belief or behaviour and agrees to it, both publicly and
privately. The person may express a group's views and may also adopt these views and regard them as
his/her own.
Obedience is another result of social influence. It occurs when the individual modifies his/her behaviour
to obey the directions of another person.

Why do people accept social influence? We often conform to the norms of a group to gain acceptance.
Group conformity, in turn, encourages cooperation in working toward achieving a common goal.

LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP

The term "leadership" refers to the act of leading and the word "leader" can bring to mind a variety of
images. A leader is not necessarily someone who holds a formal position of leadership or who is
perceived as a leader by others. A leader is someone who is able to affect positive change for the
improvement of other individuals, the community and the society as a whole.
The qualities of a good leadership are:
• Honesty - It is the greatest responsibility of leadership to practice honesty in whatever task he/she is
leading.
• Traits of inspiring others - When you're the leader, you are the one your members look up to; you are
their ultimate inspiration, their most important source of encouragement. So, be wise when you talk to
them.
• Ability to build a good relation - Working together gets easier when there is team work. The ultimate
strategy to make followers do as they are directed is to conduct the team with friendliness.
• Appreciative - Appreciation is important in any job. When a person is appreciated, his confidence
develops and will perform his/her task a lot better.
• We must agree, too, that being a good follower must be an important skill that all leaders should have.

The concept of followership takes place with leadership simultaneously. Followership is the willingness
of an individual to cooperate in working toward the achievement of the group goals, mission, and vision.

The qualities of a good followership are:

• Loyalty and obedience - For a group or organization to be dynamic, good followers must be loyal to
their leader. Followers should abide by their leader's instructions in order to attain their objectives.
• Diligence - Followers have to be hardworking in order to make the guidance and instructions of the
leader effective. A task can be performed successfully when directions are followed accurately.
• Collaboration - It is the most vital quality of a good follower. The ability to work as part of a group
makes leadership easier.
• Ambitious - Ambition boosts the chances of growth and success. A leader paves the path and followers
walk on this path while keeping their ambitions in mind.

GROUP DYNAMICS
A social group is defined as several individuals who come together to accomplish a particular task or
goal. Group dynamics are the processes involved when people interact with each other. It also refers to
the attitudinal and behavioural characteristics of a group and is concerned with how the group is
formed, its structure and process, and its functions.
In his classic Social Exchange Theory, George C. Homans (1910-1989) suggested that groups develop
based on activities, interactions, and sentiments.
result in the development of positive or negative attitude toward each other. The involvement of
individuals in the interaction is the major element of this theory.

According to Homan's theory, individuals may form relationships based on the implicit expectation of
mutually beneficial exchanges founded on trust and felt obligation. Thus, a perception that exchange
relationships will be positive is essential if individuals are to be attracted to and affiliated with a group.

Another theory that has something to do with group dynamics is the Social Identity Theory. This theory
suggests that individuals get a sense of identity and self-esteem based upon their membership in salient
groups. According to this theory, the individuals are motivated to belong to and contribute to identity
groups because of the sense of belongingness and self-worth that membership in the group imparts.

Group dynamics is not only concerned with why groups are formed but also how the groups are formed.
In the 1960s, the psychologist Bruce Tuckman came up with the Group Development Theory which
examined how groups are formed. According to Tuckman, there are five stages in group development.

1. Forming This is a stage characterized by some confusion and uncertainty. The major goals of the
group have not been established yet. The nature and task of the group leadership has not been
determined (Luthans, 2005). (Orientation period).
2. Storming This is the stage in which the highest level of disagreement and conflict occur. The group
goals and struggle for power are often challenged. During this stage of group development, individuals
vie for leadership position. In this phase, members frequently voice their concern and criticisms.
3. Norming This stage is characterized by the recognition of individual differences and shared
expectations. At this stage, the group members will begin to develop feelings of group cohesion and
identity. Cooperative efforts begin to yield results.
4. Performing This stage occurs when the group has matured and attained a feeling of cohesiveness.
During this stage of development, individuals accept one another and conflict is resolved through group
discussions.
5. Adjourning Not all groups experience this stage because it is characterized by the disbandment of the
group. Groups disband due to varying reasons, the common reason being the accomplishment of the
task or individuals deciding to go their own way.

Types of Groups
Groups are classified as formal or informal. Formal groups are established by an organization to achieve
organizational goals.

Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of supervisors and
subordinates who report to that supervisor.
Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are brought
together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period.
Functional groups are created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an unspecified
time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after the achievement of current goals and
objectives.
Informal groups are formed naturally and in response to the common interests and shared values of
individuals. They are created for purposes other than the accomplishment of organizational goals and do
not have a specified time frame.
Interest groups may not be part of the same organizational department but the members are bound
together by some other common interest.

Friendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs, religious
values, or other common bonds.
Reference groups are a type of group that people use to evaluate themselves. The main purpose of
these groups is social validation and social comparison.

Group Conflict and Conflict Resolution

Conflict is a competitive or opposing action of incompatibles, an antagonistic state or action as of
divergent ideas, interests, or persons. There are generally two accepted ways of defining conflict, one is
realistic and the other is perceived.

Conflict analysis of groups is divided between the study of intragroup conflict which happens within a
group among its members, and intergroup conflict which happens between one or more groups where
the conflict is viewed as involving the group as a whole.
When groups are in conflict, the very presence of the group intensifies and changes the way conflict
between individuals is perceived.

Conflict Resolution Conflict is a natural and inevitable part of our personal and social lives. Morton
Deustch (1973), a sociologist who was one of the founding fathers of the field of conflict resolution,
wrote The Resolution of Conflict in 1973. ) Deustch listed variables which affect the course of a conflict;

There are three conditions that encourage the resolution of a conflict.

Establishing communication between the parties is an essential part of turning competitive conflict into
cooperative problem solving. The dynamics of groups can make this particularly challenging to
accomplish.