UNIT-II

Orbital Mechanics: Orbital Mechanics, Kepler’s Three laws of Planetary Motion, Developing
the Equations of the orbit, Look Angle Determination, Earth Stations, Orbital Perturbations,
Orbital effects in Communication system performance.
Satellite Sub-systems: Seven segments of Satellite communication, Attitude and Orbit control
systems, Telemetry, Tracking and command control system, Power supply system.

Orbital Mechanics:
We know that the path of satellite revolving around the earth is known as orbit. Orbital
mechanics is the study of the motion of the satellites that are present in orbits. So, we can easily
understand the space operations with the knowledge of orbital motion.
Orbital Elements:
Orbital elements are the parameters, which are helpful for describing the orbital motion of
satellites. Following are the orbital elements.
 Semi major axis
 Eccentricity
 Mean anomaly
 Argument of perigee
 Inclination
 Right ascension of ascending node
Semi major axis:
The length of Semi-major axis (a) defines the size of satellite’s orbit. It is half of the major axis.
This runs from the center through a focus to the edge of the ellipse. So, it is the radius of an
orbit at the orbit's two most distant points.

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Eccentricity:
The value of Eccentricity (e) fixes the shape of satellite’s orbit. This parameter indicates the
deviation of the orbit’s shape from a perfect circle.
If the lengths of semi major axis and semi minor axis of an elliptical orbit are a & b, then the
mathematical expression for eccentricity (e) will be

The value of eccentricity of a circular orbit is zero, since both a & b are equal. Whereas, the
value of eccentricity of an elliptical orbit lies between zero and one.
The following figure shows the various satellite orbits for different eccentricity (e) values

In above figure, the satellite orbit corresponding to eccentricity (e) value of zero is a circular
orbit. And, the remaining three satellite orbits are of elliptical corresponding to the eccentricity
(e) values 0.5, 0.75 and 0.9.
Mean Anomaly:
For a satellite, the point which is closest from the Earth is known as Perigee. Mean
anomaly (M) gives the average value of the angular position of the satellite with reference to
perigee.
If the orbit is circular, then Mean anomaly gives the angular position of the satellite in the orbit.
But, if the orbit is elliptical, then calculation of exact position is very difficult. At that time,
Mean anomaly is used as an intermediate step.
Argument of Perigee:
Satellite orbit cuts the equatorial plane at two points. First point is called as descending node,
where the satellite passes from the northern hemisphere to the southern hemisphere. Second

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point is called as ascending node, where the satellite passes from the southern hemisphere to
the northern hemisphere.
Argument of perigee (ω) is the angle between ascending node and perigee. If both perigee
and ascending node are existing at same point, then the argument of perigee will be zero
degrees.
Inclination:
The angle between orbital plane and earth’s equatorial plane is known as inclination (i). It is
measured at the ascending node with direction being east to north. So, inclination defines the
orientation of the orbit by considering the equator of earth as reference.

There are four types of orbits based on the angle of inclination.

 Equatorial orbit − Angle of inclination is either zero degrees or 180 degrees.
 Polar orbit − Angle of inclination is 90 degrees.
 Prograde orbit − Angle of inclination lies between zero and 90 degrees.
 Retrograde orbit − Angle of inclination lies between 90 and 180 degrees.
Right Ascension of Ascending node:
Right Ascension of ascending node (Ω) is the angle between line of Aries and ascending node
towards east direction in equatorial plane. Aries is also called as vernal and equinox.
Orbital Equations:

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A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling force from the earth due
to earth’s gravitational force. This force is known as Centripetal force (F1) because this force
tends the satellite towards it.
Mathematically, the Centripetal force (F1) acting on satellite due to earth can be written as

Where,
 G is universal gravitational constant and it is equal to 6.673 x 10-11 N∙m2/kg2.
 M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.
 m is mass of the satellite.
 R is the distance from satellite to center of the Earth.

A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling force from the sun and the
moon due to their gravitational forces. This force is known as Centrifugal force (F2) because
this force tends the satellite away from earth.

Mathematically, the Centrifugal force (F2) acting on satellite can be written as

Where, v is the orbital velocity of satellite.

Orbital Velocity:

Orbital velocity of satellite is the velocity at which, the satellite revolves around earth. Satellite
doesn’t deviate from its orbit and moves with certain velocity in that orbit, when both
Centripetal and Centrifugal forces are balance each other.

So, equate Centripetal force (F1) and Centrifugal force (F2).

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Therefore, the orbital velocity of satellite is

Where,

 G is gravitational constant and it is equal to 6.673 x 10 -11 N∙m2/kg2.

 M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.
 R is the distance from satellite to center of the Earth.

So, the orbital velocity mainly depends on the distance from satellite to center of the Earth (R),
since G & M are constants.

Kepler’s Laws

Many scientists have given different types of theories from early times. But, only Johannes
Kepler (1571-1630) was one of the most accepted scientist in describing the principle of a
satellite that moves around the earth.

Kepler formulated three laws that changed the whole satellite communication theory and
observations. These are popularly known as Kepler’s laws. These are helpful to visualize the
motion through space.

Kepler’s First Law:

Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around its primary (the earth) will
be an ellipse. This ellipse has two focal points (foci) F1 and F2 as shown in the figure below.
Center of mass of the earth will always present at one of the two foci of the ellipse.

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If the distance from the center of the object to a point on its elliptical path is considered, then
the farthest point of an ellipse from the center is called as apogee and the shortest point of an
ellipse from the center is called as perigee.

Eccentricity "e" of this system can be written as

Where, a & b are the lengths of semi major axis and semi minor axis of the ellipse respectively.

Kepler’s Second Law:

Kepler’s second law states that for equal intervals of time, the area covered by the satellite
will be same with respect to center of mass of the earth. This can be understood by taking a
look at the following figure.

Assume, the satellite covers p1 and p2 distances in the same time interval. Then, the areas B1
and B2 covered by the satellite at those two instances are equal.

Kepler’s Third Law:

Kepler’s third law states that, the square of the periodic time of an elliptical orbit is proportional
to the cube of its semi major axis length. Mathematically, it can be written as follows −

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Where, ‘n’ is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second.

Look Angles

The following two angles of earth station antenna combined together are called as look angles.

 Azimuth Angle
 Elevation Angle

Generally, the values of these angles change for non-geostationary orbits. Whereas, the values
of these angles don’t change for geostationary orbits. Because, the satellites present in
geostationary orbits appear stationary with respect to earth.

These two angles are helpful in order to point at the satellite directly from the earth station
antenna. So, the maximum gain of the earth station antenna can be directed at satellite.

Azimuth Angle:

The angle between local horizontal plane and the plane passing through earth station, satellite
and center of earth is called as azimuth angle.

Where,

 L is Latitude of earth station antenna.

 G is the difference between position of satellite orbit and earth station antenna.

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Measure the horizontal angle at earth station antenna to north pole as shown in figure. It
represents azimuth angle. It is used to track the satellite horizontally.

Elevation Angle:

The angle between vertical plane and line pointing to satellite is known as Elevation angle.
Vertical plane is nothing but the plane, which is perpendicular to horizontal plane.

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Orbital Perturbations

Following are the orbital perturbations due to gravitational and non-gravitational forces or
parameters.

 Irregular gravitational force around the Earth due to non-uniform mass distribution.
Earth’s magnetic field too causes orbital perturbations.
 Main external perturbations come from Sun and Moon. When a satellite is near to
these external bodies, it receives a stronger gravitational pull.
 Low-orbit satellites get affected due to friction caused by collision with atoms and
ions.
 Solar radiation pressure affects large GEO satellites, which use large solar arrays.
 Self-generated torques and pressures caused by RF radiation from the antenna.

Orbital Effects in Communication System Performance

Orbital effects significantly impact communication system performance by influencing factors

like signal strength, propagation delay, Doppler shift, and handoff management, depending on
the satellite's orbital altitude and inclination, which can affect the quality and reliability of
communication links, particularly in satellite communication systems; with lower orbits
generally offering better signal strength but requiring more frequent handoffs between
satellites, while higher orbits provide wider coverage but experience larger propagation delays.

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Key orbital effects on communication system performance:

 Signal Strength:
 Altitude: Higher altitude satellites result in weaker signals due to increased
propagation distance, requiring more powerful transmitters and larger antennas on
the ground.
 Elevation Angle: Lower elevation angles lead to weaker signals due to atmospheric
attenuation.
 Propagation Delay:
 Orbital Altitude: Higher orbits lead to longer propagation delays, impacting real-
time communication applications.

 Doppler Shift:
 Relative Motion: As the satellite moves relative to the ground station, the received
signal frequency shifts due to the Doppler effect, requiring adjustments to maintain
signal quality.
 Handoff Management:
 Orbital Period: Satellites in lower orbits have shorter orbital periods, necessitating
more frequent handoffs between satellites to maintain a continuous connection.

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