Space Tech + Defence

Rocket Engines

●​ Rocket engines operate on the principle of Newton's third law of motion: for
every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. In a rocket engine, a
propellant (fuel and oxidizer) is ignited in a combustion chamber.
●​ This combustion produces high-pressure gases that are expelled through a
nozzle at high velocity. The force of these gases rushing out of the nozzle creates
thrust, propelling the rocket forward.

Rocket Fuels

Solid Rocket Fuel Liquid Rocket Fuel

Composition Fuel and oxidizer Separate liquid fuel and

mixed and bound in oxidizer
solid form

Storage Stored as a single Stored in separate insulated

solid block tanks

Ignition Simple and Requires complex ignition

immediate upon systems
ignition
Throttling Non-throttleable, Throttleable, can control
burns until thrust output
exhausted

Complexity Simple design, Complex design, involves

easier to pumps and plumbing
manufacture and
handle

Efficiency Generally less Higher efficiency, better

efficient specific impulse

Usage Used for boosters Used for main engines and

and short-duration long-duration missions
missions

Examples of Use Space Shuttle Solid Saturn V, SpaceX Falcon 9,

Rocket Boosters, Ariane 5
Fireworks

Advantages Simple, reliable, Controllable, higher

lower cost performance
 Disadvantages Cannot be shut Complex, expensive,
down once ignited, handling/storage challenges
less efficient

Examples of Ammonium Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) with

fuels perchlorate Liquid Oxygen (LOX), RP-1
composite (refined kerosene) with LOX,
propellant (APCP), Hypergolics like Hydrazine
Black powder, (N2H4) with Nitrogen
Zinc-sulfur Tetroxide (N2O4)

Cryogenic Engines
●​ Uses propellants that are gases at room temperature but are cooled to
cryogenic temperatures to become liquids. Common propellants include liquid
hydrogen (LH2) and liquid oxygen (LOX).
●​ Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen mix and burn, creating a high-temperature,
high-pressure exhaust gas.
●​ The exhaust gases are expelled through a nozzle, converting thermal energy into
kinetic energy.

Comparison with Conventional Engines

Feature Conventional Engines Cryogenic

(Solid/Liquid Non-Cryogenic) Engines

Specific Impulse Lower Higher

Thrust Moderate Higher

 Combustion CO2, H2O (if hydrocarbon fuels) Mostly H2O
Byproducts (cleaner)

Fuel State Solid or liquid at room Liquid at

temperature cryogenic
temperatur
es

Efficiency Lower Higher

Complexity Simple to moderate High (due

to
cryogenic
handling)

Use Cases Boosters, short-duration missions Upper

stages,
deep-space
missions,
heavy lift

Satellite

●​ A satellite orbits a planet or a star.

●​ Two types - natural (moon) and human-made/artificial (machine);
○​ Artificial satellite: machine launched into space which moves around the
earth or other object.
 ○​ Application: weather forecasting, study of planets and galaxies, in
communication and information technology, GPS.

Satellite Orbits

●​ It is a repeating path that one object in space takes around another one.
●​ Orbits- inclination angle
○​ It is the angle between the plane of an orbit and the equator.
○​ An orbital inclination of 0° is directly above the equator; 90° crosses right
above the pole, and 180° orbits above the equator in the opposite
direction of Earth's spin.

Types of satellite orbits

●​ Satellites orbit around the earth in different planes - equatorial orbit (orbit
directly above the earth’s equator); polar orbit (orbit that passes over both the
poles.)
●​ Other orbits are inclined; Orbits may be circular or elliptical.
●​ Altitude of communication can be GEO (geostationary earth orbit), MEO
(medium earth orbit), LEO (low earth orbit).
●​ Polar orbit
○​ An orbit in which a satellite passes above Earth’s North and South poles
on each revolution.
○​ Has an inclination of 90 degrees to the equator.
●​ Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO)
○​ Satellites in SSO, travelling over the Polar Regions, are synchronous with
the Sun.
○​ They are synchronized to be at a fixed position relative to the sun which
enables the satellite to always visit the same spot at the same local time.
●​ LEO (low earth orbit)
○​ Polar orbit: altitude of 50-1500km and orbital period range (95-120
minutes)
○​ Advantages
■​ Provides a high quality communication link.
■​ Provides global coverage and efficient use of spectrum
■​ Propagation delay is low.
○​ Disadvantage
■​ Requires large number for whole coverage,
■​ requires to be replaced regularly
 ●​ MEO (medium earth orbit)
○​ Positioned somewhere between LEO and GEO altitude of 5000-2000 km
inclination towards equatorial plane.; Orbital period of satellite 6hrs;
Medium propagation delay
○​ Covering a large area requires less handover; Provides true global
coverage.
○​ Requires a large number of satellites for coverage Long time to deploy a
full constellation.
●​ GEO (geostationary earth orbit)
○​ Geosynchronous orbit Orbital period of earth (24 Hours); altitude of
35,863 km above earth’s surface;
○​ Geostationary orbit Inclination of the orbit are zero; appears stationary
from earth
○​ Disadvantage large propagation delay; affects voice and time data
protocol; high launch cost.
●​ GTO (geosynchronous transfer orbit)
○​ Elliptical orbit, with an apogee of 35,784km
○​ Inclination equal to the latitude of the launch site, into which a spacecraft
is initially placed before being transferred to a geosynchronous/
geostationary orbit.

Satellite Launch vehicle

●​ Rocket powered vehicles used to transport any spacecraft into earth’s

atmosphere.
●​ Used to send various satellites, spacecraft and space probes into space.
●​ India’s used launch vehicle- RLV-TD, SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV.

Satellite launch vehicle (SLV) and augmented satellite launch vehicle (ASLV)

Satellite launch vehicle Augmented launch vehicle

●​ First generation launch vehicle of ●​ It was designed to augment

India the payload capacity to 150 kg
●​ SLV-3 was the first in this in low earth orbit (LEO)
generation to be successfully ●​ Five stage launch vehicle
launched. technology.
●​ Capable of placing 40 kg class ●​ All had solid propellant
payloads in low earth orbit (LEO) ●​ Not in use
at a distance of 400km.
 ●​ It had four stages. Not in use

PSLV (polar satellite launch vehicle): third generation

●​ Most reliable and popular launch vehicle in service for over 20 years; First Indian
launch vehicle to have liquid stages;
●​ Payload: PSLV can take up to 1,750 kg of payload to Sun-Synchronous Polar
Orbits of 600 km altitude and up to 1425kg to geostationary orbits.
●​ It has a four stage multi propellant launcher that has a height of 44 meters
and a lift off 320 tons (PSLV XL).

First stage (SOLID) ●​ It uses an S139 engine with Hydroxyl-terminated

PS1 polybutadiene (HTPB) as fuel and has 6 strap-ons as
boosters.

Second stage ●​ It uses Vikas engine with Unsymmetrical

(LIQUID) PS2 dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) as fuel and Dinitrogen
tetroxide (N2O4) as oxidiser.

Third Stage(SOLID) ●​ It provides upper stage high thrust after atmospheric

PS3 phase with Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB)
as fuel .

Fourth Stage ●​ The uppermost stage uses Monomethyl Hydrazine

(LIQUID) PS4 (MMH) as the fuel and mixed oxides of nitrogen (MON)
as oxidiser.

Note - Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and Mars Orbiter Spacecraft in 2013 were launched
through PSLV-XL (most remarkable mission of ISRO).

Geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle (GSLV): fourth generation

●​ Developed to launch geosynchronous satellites into geostationary orbit.

●​ 3 stage launch vehicle, first two stages are similar to PSLV with same solid and
liquid natures of fuel; third stage is cryogenic stage.
●​ Three variants include:
○​ GSLV Mark I (a) ( capability of 1500 kg’s)
○​ GSLV Mark I (b) (capability of 1900 kg’s )
 ○​ GSLV M ark II (uses Indian cryogenic engine and is capable of launching
2,500 kg’s of payload to geostationary orbit and up to 5000 kg’s of
payload to LEO.)

First Stage GS1 (SOLID)

It is derived from the PSLV's first stage (PS1). This stage uses
Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) as its fuel. The four liquid engine
strap-ons for extra thrust.

Second Stage GS2 (LIQUID)

This stage was derived from the second stage (PS2) of PSLV using the Vikas
engine. It uses Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) as fuel and dinitrogen
tetroxide (N2O4) as oxidiser.

Third stage GS3 CUS (CRYOGENIC)

Third Stage is the Cryogenic Upper Stage and it uses liquid oxygen and liquid
hydrogen as its fuel.

●​ GSLV MK-III
○​ Three -stage heavy lift launch vehicle.
○​ Intended for carrying 4 ton class of satellites into geosynchronous
transfer orbit (GTO) or about 10 tons to low earth orbit (LEO), which being
double the GSLV Mk II capacity.
○​ GSLV Mk III-M1, successfully injected Chandrayaan-2, CARE mission
(crew module atmospheric re-entry experiment.), India’s second lunar
mission, into earth parking orbit.
○​ Will be used to launch Gaganyaan mission.

Ariane -5

●​ European heavy-lift launch vehicle that can carry payloads weighing more than
10 metric tons to GTO and over 20 metric tons into low-earth orbit (LEO).
​ ​
Types of Satellite

A. Earth Observation

●​ Satellite imaging and remote sensing - spectral fingerprint;

●​ Most orbit at altitudes above 500 to 600 kilometres; Orbits have significant
air-drag;
●​ Remote sensing - acquisition of information without making physical contact;
Active or Passive;

Types

●​ Passive - studying reflected light e.g. IR, Radiometers;

●​ Active - RADAR & LIDAR;
●​ Synthetic aperture radars; multi-spectral imaging; Hyperspectral imaging (vast
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. continuous scan); Acoustic - Ultrasound
- water levels;

Uses

●​ Military - surveillance, espionage, intelligence;

●​ Non-military- such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, cartography and
others; Topographic maps; Resource mapping and monitoring; meteorological
data;

B. Communication Satellite

●​ Relays and amplifies radio signals via a transponder;

●​ Orbit - largely Geosynchronous, geostationary;
●​ Uses: television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications
●​ Frequency ranges or "bands" - minimize interference; Assigned by ITU; E.g.
C-band 4-8 Ghz, KU band- 12-18 GHz, KA band;
●​ E.g. INSAT, GSAT;

C. Telescopes

Frequenc Characteristic Examples Advantage Challenges

y s s
Infrared Detects heat, Spitzer,Hersch Observes Requires
sees through el cool cooling,
dust clouds objects, atmospheri
sees c
through absorption
dust

Ultraviolet Observes hot Hubble, Galex Studies Absorbed

stars, quasars, young by
interstellar stars, atmosphere
medium active , needs
galaxies space-base
d
observatori
es

X-ray Studies Chandra, Observes Absorbed

high-energy XMM-Newton black by
processes holes, atmosphere
neutron , requires
stars, hot advanced
gas technology

Gamma-r Detects Fermi, Studies Absorbed

ay highest energy Compton gamma-ra by
events y bursts, atmosphere
AGNs, , needs
supernova specialized
e instruments
D. Ground Telescopes

●​ GMRT (PUNE): Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope: Array of 30 fully steerable

radio telescopes
●​ Thirty Meter Telescope: Multi wavelength; near-UV to mid-infra; Mauna Kea
(Hawaii) or Hanle (India)
●​ Meerkat: South Africa; Largest telescope in Southern Hemisphere;

Navigation

A. IRNSS

●​ Objective: provide reliable position, navigation and timing services over India
and its neighborhood;
●​ India became one of the 5 countries having their own navigation system like
GPS of USA, GLONASS of Russia, Galileo of Europe and BeiDou of China
●​ Constellation: Consists of eight satellites, 3 in geostationary and 5 satellites in
geosynchronous.
●​ Range: India + 1,500-km radius over the sub-continent;
●​ Satellites: The satellites are named as- IRNSS – 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F, 1G. (3
Geostationary, 4 Geosynchronous)
●​ Services:
○​ Standard positioning service: open for civilian use and
○​ Restricted service: encrypted for authorised users like military
●​ Applications:
○​ Terrestrial, aerial and marine navigation; Disaster management; Vehicle
tracking and fleet management; Integration with mobile phones; Precise
timing (as for ATMs and power grids);
●​ Working of GPS
○​ Global Positioning System (GPS) is a US based navigation system.
○​ It has 32 satellites (24 active at a time) that continuously broadcast
signals with time stamps.
○​ Devices such as mobile, laptops, cars receive these signals and compare
signals from 4 or more satellites.
○​ Trilateration: Based on this comparison, devices calculate distance
between themselves and satellites to determine their location (longitude,
latitude and altitude).

B. GAGAN

●​ Space Based Augmentation System (SBAS) jointly developed by ISRO and AAI;
GAGAN GEO footprint expands from Africa to Australia
 ●​ System of satellites and ground stations that provide GPS signal corrections;
●​ Only four Space-Based augmentation systems are available in the world namely
India (GAGAN), US (WAAS) Europe (EGNOS) and Japan (MSAS).

ISRO’s Third Launch Pad

●​ Union Cabinet approved the establishment of ‘Third Launch Pad’ (TLP) project at
Satish Dhawan Space Centre of ISRO at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.
●​ It is designed to support the launch of Next Generation Launch Vehicles
(NGLV) and Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3) with a semi-cryogenic stage and
upgraded NGLV configurations.
●​ It is also supported as a standby launch pad for the Second Launch Pad at
Sriharikota.
●​ It is expected to be operational within 4 years.
●​ Significance:
○​ Increases Launch Capacity: Enhances launch frequency and supports
future human spaceflight and space exploration missions.
○​ Advances India’s Space Vision: Essential for India's long-term goals,
including the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) by 2035 and an Indian
Crewed Lunar Landing by 2040.
○​ Future Space Transportation: Ensures India meets evolving space
transportation needs for the next 25-30 years.
Reasons for Choosing Sriharikota for Satellite Launch Pads
●​ Eastern Coast Location – Enables launches in an easterly direction.
●​ Proximity to the Equator – Provides an extra boost for payloads.
●​ Safety Considerations – Reduces risks due to fewer maritime and airline
routes.
●​ Other Factors – Features uninhabited land and proximity to the sea for safer
launches.

Scramjet Engine

●​ A Scramjet engine (Supersonic Combustion Ramjet) is an improved version of

the Ramjet, designed to operate at extremely high speeds.
○​ A ramjet is an air-breathing jet engine that relies on the vehicle's
forward motion to compress incoming air for combustion, eliminating the
need for a rotating compressor
●​ It works by using supersonic airflow to generate thrust and functions at
hypersonic speeds (Mach 5+)
●​ Key features:
 ●​ Air-Breathing Engine: Unlike traditional rocket engines, Scramjets use
atmospheric oxygen for combustion, eliminating the need to carry heavy
oxygen tanks.
●​ No Moving Parts: Scramjets rely on supersonic airflow, making them
highly efficient for sustained high-speed travel.
●​ Significance:
●​ Next-generation hypersonic missiles with unmatched speed and accuracy.
●​ Faster air travel, potentially reducing flight times drastically.
●​ Low-cost satellite launches, making space access more affordable.

Mission in news

Chandrayaan 3
●​ India's third lunar exploration mission, led by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO).
●​ Objective: To demonstrate end-to-end capability in landing and roving on the
lunar surface, specifically targeting the south pole.
●​ Launch Vehicle:
○​ GSLV Mk III (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III).
○​ Height: 43.43 meters.
○​ Payload capacity: Up to 4,000 kg to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO).
●​ Components:
○​ Lander: Equipped with navigation, hazard detection, and landing
technology.
○​ Rover: Designed to explore the lunar surface and conduct scientific
experiments.
○​ Propulsion Module: Provides necessary thrust for the journey from Earth
to lunar orbit.
●​ Modules and Corresponding Payloads
○​ Lander (Vikram):
■​ Payloads:
●​ Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE):
Measures thermal conductivity and temperature.
●​ Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA): Detects
seismic activities on the Moon.
●​ Langmuir Probe (LP): Measures the plasma density near the
lunar surface.
●​ Rover (Pragyan):
○​ Payloads:
■​ Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS): Analyzes the
elemental composition of the lunar surface.
 ■​ Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscope (LIBS): Identifies
elements present on the lunar surface.
●​ Propulsion Module:
○​ Payload:
■​ Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE):
Studies the spectral and polarimetric characteristics of
Earth from lunar orbit.

NISAR (NASA-ISRO-SAR)
●​ A collaborative mission between the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
scheduled for launch in 2024.
●​ Objective: To utilize advanced radar technology for comprehensive monitoring
of Earth's dynamic surfaces and ecosystems.
●​ Technical Specifications:
○​ Dual-frequency Radar System:
■​ L-band (longer wavelength) (ISRO Contribution): Offers superior
ground penetration, ideal for biomass assessment and subsurface
structure analysis.
■​ S-band (shorter wavelength) (NASA Contribution): Provides
high-resolution imagery for detailed observations.
●​ High-Resolution Data: Generates topographic data with resolutions
ranging from 3 to 10 meters, enabling precise mapping.
●​ Temporal Resolution: Repeats observations every 6 days, facilitating the
monitoring of changes over time.

Artemis Accords
●​ The Artemis Accords are a set of international agreements outlining principles
for peaceful cooperation in exploring the Moon, Mars, and other celestial bodies.
●​ Established by the US (NASA) with several other countries.
●​ India is a member! It became the 27th nation to sign on.
●​ Key points:
○​ Promotes peaceful exploration and scientific discovery.
○​ Encourages transparency and public awareness.
○​ Establishes guidelines for resource utilization in space.
○​ Not a binding treaty, but promotes collaboration.

Mission SCOT​

●​ It is the world’s first commercial satellite for surveillance of Resident Space

Objects (as small as 5cm) orbiting the Earth to ensure safer space operations. .
 ●​ It aims to improve space safety, optimise traffic management and strengthen
national security initiatives.
●​ The SCOT satellite has been launched onboard SpaceX Transporter-12 mission.
●​ SCOT will be deployed in a sun-synchronous orbit. This will enable it to track
objects in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) with greater efficiency as compared to the
existing sensors.

PUNCH Mission​

●​ NASA is gearing up for a new and first-of-its-kind solar mission called PUNCH
mission that will closely observe the solar atmosphere
●​ The Polarimetry to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH) mission will be
launched by SpaceX.
●​ Time Period: The expected mission life is two years.
●​ It is the first time that a solar mission has been specifically designed to make
use of the polarisation of light to measure the corona and solar wind, that
too, in 3D.
●​ It will provide scientists with new information which could lead to more accurate
predictions about the arrival of space weather events on Earth and impact on
humanity’s robotic explorers in space.
●​ It will measure polarised light using polarising filters, enabling scientists to
look into the inner solar system.

GAIA Mission​

●​ The European Space Agency (ESA) has officially decommissioned its Global
Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics (GAIA) mission.
●​ It aimed to create the largest and most precise 3D map of the Milky Way by
surveying about 1% of its 100 billion stars.
●​ It was launched in 2013.
●​ Position: Gaia orbits the Sun at Lagrange Point 2, about 1.5 million kilometers
(930,000 miles) from Earth.

Moonlight Programme

●​ The European Space Agency has launched the Moonlight Lunar

Communications and Navigation Services (LCNS) programme.
●​ Objective: To support over 400 moon missions planned by space agencies and
private companies over the next 20 years.
●​ Structure: A constellation of five satellites orbiting the Moon.
 ●​ Benefits:​
▪ Enable precise and autonomous lunar landings and surface mobility.​
▪ Facilitate high-speed communication and data transfer between Earth and the
Moon.​
▪ Provide coverage at the Moon’s South Pole.
●​ Timeline: Initial services to begin by the end of 2028, with full operational
capacity by 2030.

Analog Space Mission

●​ ISRO has launched India’s first analog space mission in Leh, Ladakh, to
prepare for lunar mission experiments.
●​ It was developed in collaboration with ISRO’s Human Spaceflight Center,
AAKA Space Studio, the University of Ladakh, and IIT Bombay.

About Analog Missions

●​ Analog space missions simulate the physical and operational conditions of space
environments on Earth.
●​ Purpose:​
▪ Testing new technologies, equipment, and vehicles.​
▪ Training astronauts for future missions.​
▪ Studying the behavioral and psychological effects of isolation and
confinement.​
▪ Conducting experiments in space-like conditions.
●​ Why Leh (Ladakh)? Its dry, cold climate, barren land, high altitude, and
isolation resemble Martian and lunar landscapes.

RISE Mission

●​ RISE, the European Space Agency’s first in-orbit servicing mission, represents
a major step toward enabling refueling, refurbishment, and in-orbit
assembly— key elements for building a circular economy in space.
●​ Launch Year: 2028
●​ Capabilities: Docking with geostationary satellites and controlling their orbits.
●​ Mission Scope: RISE will ascend to the geostationary graveyard orbit, about
100 km above the active satellite zone, where decommissioned satellites are
parked.

Note: The circular space economy mirrors the principles of a circular

economy, focusing on reducing waste and improving resource efficiency
in space.
ADITYA-L1 MISSION

●​ ISRO’s Aditya-L1 completes its first halo orbit around the Sun-Earth L1 point

Key Highlights:

●​ Aditya-L1 was placed into its halo orbit in early 2024

●​ It took 178 days to complete one revolution around the Lagrange L1 point
●​ Lagrange Points:
○​ Positions where the gravitational pull of two large masses equals the
centripetal force required for a small object to move with them
○​ There are five Lagrange points in a two-body system: L1, L2, L3, L4, and
L5
○​ L4 and L5 are considered stable

About Halo Orbit

●​ A halo orbit is a repeating, three-dimensional orbit around one of the L1, L2, or
L3 Lagrange points in a three-body system

Advantages of placing Aditya-L1 in a Halo Orbit:

●​ Ensures a mission lifetime of 5 years

●​ Minimizes fuel usage by reducing station-keeping maneuvers
●​ Maintains a clear, uninterrupted view of the Sun

About Aditya-L1 Mission (Launched in 2023)

●​ India’s first space mission dedicated to studying the Sun

●​ Objectives:
○​ Investigate the Sun’s corona, solar emissions, solar winds, flares, and
Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)
○​ Enable continuous imaging of the Sun
●​ Payloads:
○​ Equipped with 7 payloads, including:
■​ Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC)
■​ Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT)
■​ And others

Dragonfly Mission

●​ It is the fourth mission in NASA's New Frontiers Program, alongside New

Horizons, Juno, and OSIRIS-REx
 ●​ Objective: It is an astrobiology mission to Titan aimed at evaluating its potential
for microbial life and examining its prebiotic chemistry at multiple sites
●​ It marks the first time NASA will fly a vehicle for science on another planetary
body
●​ It will reach Titan in 2034

Technical Specifications

●​ Design: Dragonfly is a "dual quadcopter" about the size of a car, capable of

traveling tens of kilometers on Titan in under an hour
●​ Power Source: Dragonfly will use a radioisotope power system, like the one used
by the Curiosity rover on Mars

About Titan

●​ It is Saturn’s largest moon, featuring an Earth-like cycle of liquid flowing across

its surface and being the only moon with a dense atmosphere

ISRO’S RLV LEX-02 Mission

About Reusable Landing Vehicle (RLV) LEX-02 developed by ISRO

●​ It is the second in a series of test flights designed to showcase the autonomous

landing capability of a reusable launch vehicle (RLV)
●​ The mission featured a winged vehicle named Pushpak, which was lifted to an
altitude of 4.5 kilometers by an Indian Air Force Chinook helicopter
●​ Pushpak was released and had to autonomously execute a series of maneuvers
to land accurately on the runway

About Reusable Landing Vehicle

●​ The reusable launch vehicle is essentially a spaceplane with a low lift-to-drag

ratio, which means it must approach at steep glide angles and land at high
speeds of 350 km/h

Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX) Mission

●​ It is a joint mission of Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and Indian

Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
●​ Objective: To explore the Moon's southern polar region for water and other
elements, possibly in the form of surface ice
 ●​ Contributions: For the LUPEX mission, the launch vehicle and rover are
supposed to be contributed by the Japanese agency, while the lander will come
from ISRO
●​ It will also carry instruments from NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA)

Defence

Weapons/Systems in News (India)

Pinaka Multiple Rocket Launch Systems (MRLS)

●​ It is a battle-proven, all-weather, indirect area fire Artillery Weapon System.

●​ Developed by DRDO’s Armament Research and Development Establishment
(ARDE).
●​ First used during the Kargil War, where it successfully neutralized Pakistan
Army positions on the mountain tops.
●​ It delivers a variety of warheads, including high-explosive and submunitions.
●​ It has a range of 60 to 75 kilometers.

Nag Mark-2

●​ It is an indigenously developed anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) that works in

all weather conditions.
●​ It is a fire-and-forget missile with lock-on after launch capability.
●​ Developed by: Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
●​ The missile is launched from NAMICA (Nag Missile Carrier), an anti-tank
armored vehicle used by the Indian Army.
●​ Estimated range: 7 to 10 kilometers.

Vertically Launched Short-Range Surface-to-Air Missile (VL-SRSAM)

●​ Developed by: Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).

●​ This quick-reaction missile is capable of neutralizing various aerial threats at
close ranges, including sea-skimming targets.
●​ Initially designed for the Indian Navy with a strike range of 40 km, it has now
been enhanced to attack targets up to 80 km.
●​ Additionally, it is being developed for the Indian Air Force to safeguard its air
bases.
●​ It is capable of reaching Mach 4.5 and can achieve a maximum altitude of 16
km.
Bhargavastra
●​ India's first indigenous micro-missile system, developed by Economic
Explosives Ltd., is specifically designed to counter the threat posed by swarm
drones.
●​ This system can be rapidly deployed on mobile platforms and effectively target
threats over 2.5 km.
●​ It has the capability to detect small flying objects from distances exceeding 6
km and neutralize them using guided micro munitions.
●​ The system is capable of launching more than 64 micro missiles
simultaneously.
●​ It is built to operate across diverse terrains, including high-altitude regions, it
meets the specialized needs of the armed forces.

SANJAY System

●​ Sanjay is an automated surveillance system that combines real-time data

from ground and aerial sensors to create a unified view of the battlefield.
This helps commanders make quick, informed decisions during both
conventional and unconventional warfare.
●​ Developed by: Indian Army and Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).

Advanced Ballistic for High Energy Defeat (ABHED) Jackets

●​ These jackets are made from polymers and indigenous boron carbide ceramic
material.
●​ Developed by DRDO and IIT Delhi.
●​ They offer 360-degree protection with modular design and front/rear armour
plates.
●​ Their weight ranges from 8.2 kg to 9.5 kg for different BIS levels.​

India’s Fourth Nuclear Submarine

●​ India’s fourth nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), referred to as

S4, was launched into water at the Ship Building Centre in Visakhapatnam.
●​ S4 features about 75% indigenous content.
●​ It is armed exclusively with K-4 nuclear ballistic missiles (range: 3,500 km).
●​ India currently has two SSBNs operational: INS Arihant (commissioned in 2016)
and INS Arighaat (commissioned in 2024).
●​ The third SSBN Aridhman is undergoing sea trials and is expected to be
commissioned next year.
INS ARIGHAAT

●​ It is India’s second indigenously built nuclear-powered ballistic missile

submarine (SSBN).
●​ It joins INS Arihant to strengthen India’s nuclear triad.
●​ It was constructed at the Indian Navy’s Ship Building Centre (SBC) in
Visakhapatnam.

Features:

●​ It has a length of 111.6 meters and a submerged displacement of 6,000 tons.

●​ It has a seven-blade propeller powered by an 83-MW pressurised light water
reactor using enriched uranium.
●​ It can carry up to 12 K-15 SLBMs, each with a range of 750 km.​

RHUMI-1

●​ India’s first reusable hybrid rocket RHUMI-1 was launched from Thiruvidandhai
in Chennai.
●​ RHUMI-1 was developed by Tamil Nadu-based startup Space Zone India in
collaboration with the Martin Group.
●​ It was launched into a sub-orbital trajectory using a mobile launch system.

Key Features of RHUMI-1

●​ RHUMI-1 is a hybrid rocket engine that integrates both solid and liquid
propellants.
●​ It is equipped with an electrically triggered parachute system, which is an
advanced and eco-friendly descent mechanism.
●​ It has an adjustable launch angle (0 to 120 degrees), allowing for precise
trajectory control.
●​ It is completely free of pyrotechnics (fireworks) and TNT (Trinitrotoluene),
making it environmentally friendly.

Zorawar Tank

●​ It has been indigenously developed by the Defence Research and Development

Organisation (DRDO) along with Larsen & Toubro (L&T).
●​ It is named after the great military general Zorawar Singh Kahluria.
●​ It is a lightweight tank with a maximum weight of 25 tonnes.
●​ It features advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and drone
integration.
 ●​ It is amphibious and can operate in varied terrain.

Rudram-1 Missile

●​ It is an air-to-surface missile developed by the Defence Research and

Development Organisation (DRDO).
●​ The IAF’s Sukhoi-30MKI fighter jets serve as its launch platform.
●​ It can be launched from altitudes ranging from 500 meters to 15 kilometers, with
a range of up to 250 kilometers.
●​ It is equipped with Inertial Navigation System (INS), GPS navigation, and a
Passive Homing Head to precisely strike radiation-emitting targets.

Astra Mark 1 Missile

●​ It is a Beyond-Visual-Range (BVR) air-to-air missile.

●​ It will be deployed on fighter jets of the Indian Air Force and Indian Navy.
●​ It has been indigenously developed by DRDO and manufactured by Bharat
Dynamics Limited (BDL).
●​ It has a range of 80 to 110 km in a head-on chase.
●​ It can travel at a speed of Mach 4.5.

GAURAV

●​ It is an air-launched, 1000-kg glide bomb capable of precisely hitting

long-distance targets.
●​ It uses an Inertial Navigation-based guidance system.
●​ It can be integrated with fighter jets.
●​ It has been designed and developed indigenously by the Research Centre
Imarat (RCI), Hyderabad.

Indigenous Technology Cruise Missile (ITCM) Flight Tested

●​ It has been developed by the Aeronautical Development Establishment of DRDO,

with contributions from other laboratories and Indian industries.
●​ It is a long-range subsonic cruise missile designed to hit targets with precision.
●​ It is powered by an indigenous propulsion system.​
✓ A subsonic cruise missile flies at a speed lower than that of sound (<1 Mach).

Agni Prime Successfully Flight-Tested

●​ It is a surface-to-surface ballistic missile.

●​ It is a nuclear-capable, two-stage canisterised missile with a maximum range of
1,000 to 2,000 km.
 ●​ It is lighter than all previous missiles in the Agni series.

Submersible Platform for Acoustic Characterisation and Evaluation (SPACE)

●​ It is a premier testing and evaluation hub for sonar systems for the Indian Navy.
●​ It has been set up by DRDO.
●​ It consists of two distinct platforms:​
A) Floating Platform​
B) Submersible Platform (submersible up to 100m depth)
●​ It will bolster anti-submarine warfare research capabilities.

Project 28

●​ Objective: To build four indigenous Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) corvettes,

also known as Kamorta-class corvettes.
●​ These four ASWs are: INS Kamorta, INS Kadmatt, INS Kiltan, and INS Kavaratti.
●​ These ships can be deployed in nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare
conditions.
●​ Designed by: Indian Navy’s Directorate of Naval Design
●​ Built by: Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE), Kolkata

Nagastra-1

●​ It is India’s first indigenous loitering munition (suicide drone).

●​ It has been developed by Solar Industries, Nagpur.
●​ It has the capacity to carry a 1-kilogram warhead.
●​ It can carry out GPS-enabled precision strikes with an accuracy of up to 2
meters.
●​ It has an indigenous content of over 75%.
●​ It features a parachute recovery mechanism.

RudraM-II Missile

●​ It is an indigenously developed, solid-propelled, air-launched missile system.

●​ It has been designed for air-to-surface operations.
●​ It has been developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO).

Weapon Development in News – World

Dragon Drone
 ●​ Dragon drones are powerful UAVs equipped with thermite and rain down fire
from the sky
●​ Thermite is a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide.
●​ When ignited, it produces a self-sustaining reaction that is extremely difficult to
extinguish.
●​ Dragon Drones were used by Ukraine against Russia in the ongoing
Russia-Ukraine War.

THAAD Missile Defence System

●​ It is an advanced defense system that can destroy short, medium, and

intermediate-range ballistic missiles.
●​ Developed by Lockheed Martin Corporation.
●​ Employs a ‘hit-to-kill’ approach to target missiles.
●​ Its target range varies between 150–200 kilometers.

Crystal Maze 2 (also known as ROCKS)

●​ It is a medium-range ballistic missile.

●​ It has been developed by Israel.
●​ It is an air-to-surface missile with a strike range of over 250 km.
●​ It has the capability to strike high-value stationary and relocatable targets in
GPS-denied environments.

C-Dome Defense System​

• It has been developed by Israel.​
• It is a naval version of Israel’s Iron Dome air defense system.​
• It is designed to shield against missile and rocket attacks.​
• Unlike the Iron Dome which features its own radar, C-Dome is integrated into ship’s
radar to detect incoming targets.

Hermes-900​
• It is an advanced, Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) unmanned aerial vehicle.​
• It is of Israeli origin.​
• It is also known as Drishti-10 drone.​
• It features Automatic Take Off and Landing (ATOL) capability, Terrain Avoidance
Warning System (TAWS), Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR).​
• It can be employed for Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition and
Reconnaissance (ISTAR) missions.

Igla-S Air Defense System​

• It is a man-portable air defense system (MANPADS).​
 • It has been developed by Russia.​
• It is a handheld, very short range defense system (VSHORAD).​
• It has an interception range of up to 6 kms and can destroy targets at altitudes of up
to 3.5 km.

MQ-9B Drones

●​ These drones are Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) with high altitude and long
endurance capabilities, created for surveillance, reconnaissance, and precision
strike operations.
●​ They have a maximum endurance of 40 hours and can hit targets on land, sea,
and air.
●​ They have two variants: SkyGuardian and SeaGuardian.

Exercises in News

●​ Dharma Guardian – Joint military exercise between India and Japan.​

●​ Ekuverin – Bilateral military exercise between India and the Maldives.​

●​ Cyclone 2025 – Joint military exercise between India and Egypt.​

●​ La Perouse – Multilateral naval exercise hosted by France, involving India,

Australia, Canada, USA, Indonesia, Malaysia, UK, and Singapore.​

●​ KAZIND 2024 – Joint military exercise between India and Kazakhstan.​

●​ Naseem Al Bahr – Bilateral naval exercise between India and Oman.​

●​ Garud Shakti – Joint special forces exercise between India and Indonesia.​

●​ VINBAX 2024 – Bilateral army exercise between India and Vietnam.​

●​ SIMBEX-2024 – Bilateral maritime exercise between India and Singapore.​

●​ Poorvi Prahar – High-intensity tri-services exercise conducted by the Indian

Army.​

●​ Sanyukt Vimochan 2024 – Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR)

exercise conducted by the Indian Army.​
●​ SAREX-24 – National maritime search and rescue exercise conducted by the
Indian Coast Guard (ICG).​

●​ Exercise Antariksha Abhyas 2024 – India’s first-ever space exercise conducted

by the Defence Space Agency under the Ministry of Defence.​

●​ Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC)- World's largest biennial maritime exercise, held in
Hawaii.Led by the US Navy; 29 countries participated, including India.​

●​ Exercise Pitch Black- Biennial multinational air exercise hosted by the Royal
Australian Air Force.​

●​ Exercise Mitra Shakti- Annual joint exercise between India and Sri Lanka.​

●​ Exercise Tarang Shakti- India’s first multinational air exercise, inspired by the
US Red Flag.​

●​ Exercise Udara Shakti- Bilateral air exercise between India and Malaysia.​

●​ Exercise Eastern Bridge- Bilateral air exercise between IAF and Oman’s RAFO.​

●​ Exercise Al Najah- Biennial joint military exercise between India and Oman
since 2015.​

●​ Tarkash Exercise- India–US joint counter-terrorism exercise. ​

●​ Shakti Exercise- Biennial India–France military exercise​

●​ HOPEX Exercise- Type: India–Egypt Air Force joint exercise​

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