METHODS OF TEACHING LANGUAGE

Defination of key concepts

Concept of language methods

Meaning of language methods

Content of language methods

Language skills

Meaning of language skills

Categorization of language skills

Oral akills

Meaning and characteristics of oral skills

Hearing

Meaning of hearing

Screening for hearing ability

Signs of a child with hearing problems

Categories of auditory skills

Auditory discrimination skills and memory skills

Listening

Meaning of listening

Factors that affect listening

General barriers to listening

General methods of improving listening

Learning a listening programme

Listening activities and teachers role in listening activities

Speaking skills
Meaning of speaking and components of speech

Speaking activities

Activities for developing speaking skills in early childhood

Barriers to speaking

Deficts in oral skills

Meaning of speech deficts

Speech retardation

Speech fluency disorder

Alphasia

Autism and speech development

Factors leading to language difficulties in children

Literacy skills

Reading skills

Pre reading work

Reading disorders

Beginning reading

Methods of teaching reading

Interest in reading

Teaching principles

Beginning writing

Meaning of writing

Pre writing

Introduction to handwriting

How should the child sit at the desk

Differences between left and right hand writing

Stages of writing development

Writing difficulties

Assessment of language skills

Importance of evaluation

Assessment of learning of oral skills

DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS

1. Language

Language is a dynamic and evolving system of symbols—spoken, written, signed, or gestured—

that humans use to represent thoughts, convey meaning, and share experiences. In the context
of teaching, language is both a medium and a subject; it is the vehicle through which instruction
is delivered and also the core of what is being taught. Language enables learners to interpret
the world, interact socially, express identity, and participate in cultural traditions. Effective
language teaching goes beyond vocabulary and grammar to include the social, cultural, and
cognitive dimensions of communication.

2. Communication

Communication is the intentional and meaningful exchange of information, emotions, ideas, or

intentions between individuals or groups. It is not limited to spoken words but encompasses
gestures, facial expressions, symbols, and written text. In language teaching, communication is
the ultimate goal—empowering learners to interact and function effectively in various settings.
Teaching methodologies increasingly emphasize communicative competence, not just accuracy,
enabling learners to navigate real-life contexts confidently.

3. Verbal Communication

Verbal communication refers to the use of spoken or written words to convey messages. It
includes not only the content of speech but also aspects such as tone, pitch, fluency, and
articulation. In language teaching, verbal communication is a primary focus—students are
guided in the effective use of vocabulary, grammar, and phonology to express themselves
clearly and appropriately in different situations. It is also shaped by sociolinguistic norms, which
learners must understand to avoid miscommunication.

4. Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication involves the transmission of messages through gestures, facial
expressions, body language, posture, eye contact, and even silence. In teaching language,
understanding non-verbal cues is essential for both teachers and learners. These cues support
verbal messages, provide feedback, regulate interaction, and convey emotions or social roles.
Language teaching should integrate awareness of cultural differences in non-verbal behavior to
foster intercultural competence.

5. Literacy

Literacy is the ability to decode, comprehend, interpret, and use written and printed language
for various purposes in life—from reading books to navigating digital content. Beyond reading
and writing, literacy includes critical thinking, communication, and problem-solving skills. In
language teaching, developing literacy is a foundational goal that supports academic
achievement and lifelong learning. Modern approaches recognize multiliteracies, incorporating
digital, media, and cultural literacies in diverse formats.

6. Pre-literacy

Preliteracy refers to the foundational skills and understandings that precede formal reading and
writing. These include recognizing print concepts, listening to stories, rhyming, oral language
development, vocabulary exposure, and phonological awareness. In early language teaching,
fostering preliteracy involves interactive storytelling, song, play-based learning, and rich
language exposure. It sets the stage for later literacy success by establishing a love of language
and confidence in communication.

7. Acuity

Acuity, in the context of language learning, typically refers to sensory sharpness—especially

auditory acuity—which is crucial in distinguishing subtle differences in sounds, tones, and
phonemes. Phonemic awareness depends on auditory acuity, as learners must hear and
process sound distinctions that may not exist in their native language. Teaching methods often
include listening exercises, minimal pairs, and sound discrimination drills to enhance acuity and
aid pronunciation and comprehension.

8. Discrimination (Auditory and Visual)

Discrimination is the ability to perceive and respond to differences between stimuli. In language
instruction:
Auditory discrimination is crucial for distinguishing between similar sounds or words (e.g., /b/
vs /p/), supporting phonological awareness and accurate speech.

Visual discrimination helps learners differentiate letters, punctuation, and word shapes,
supporting reading and writing.

Teachers use games, phonics activities, visual aids, and sensory integration techniques to
develop these skills.

9. Receptive Language

Receptive language is the ability to understand and process incoming information—what is

heard or read. It includes listening comprehension, vocabulary recognition, and the
interpretation of syntax and context. In language teaching, developing receptive language
involves exposure to rich input through stories, dialogues, instructions, and multimedia. It’s
essential to teach strategies such as predicting, questioning, and summarizing to enhance
comprehension.

10. Expressive Language

Expressive language is the ability to formulate and convey thoughts through spoken or written
language. It includes grammar, vocabulary, sentence structure, and pragmatic use. In teaching,
expressive language is developed through speaking and writing tasks, storytelling, role-play,
and interaction. It reflects not just linguistic ability but also the learner’s cognitive and
emotional engagement with the content.

11. Speech Therapist

A speech therapist (or speech-language pathologist) is a trained professional who assesses,

diagnoses, and treats communication disorders, including speech, language, voice, and fluency
issues. In the context of language teaching, especially for children or learners with special
needs, a speech therapist may collaborate with teachers to create individualized support plans,
help with language delays, or intervene in articulation and phonological disorders that impede
learning.

12. Speech Disorders

Speech disorders are conditions that affect a person’s ability to produce sounds correctly or
fluently, or affect voice quality. These may include:

Articulation disorders (e.g., lisping),Fluency disorders (e.g., stuttering),Resonance or voice

disorders (e.g., hoarseness),Apraxia or dysarthria (motor speech disorders).
In teaching, understanding these disorders helps educators provide inclusive and empathetic
instruction, identify when referral to specialists is needed, and apply speech-friendly classroom
strategies.

13. Reading Readiness

Reading readiness is the stage at which a child is prepared to begin learning to read. It
encompasses a combination of cognitive, language, motor, and emotional factors. Signs include
interest in books, understanding print directionality, letter recognition, phonemic awareness,
vocabulary development, and the ability to follow stories. Teaching methods focus on creating
a language-rich environment, using play, songs, and shared reading to build motivation and
foundational skills.

Meaning of Language Method: A Detailed and Unique Explanation

Language method refers to the systematic approach used to teach a language, especially in a
formal or educational setting. It is the framework or blueprint that guides how a language is
introduced, practiced, and mastered. The language method determines what is taught, how it is
taught, and in what order.

Think of the language method like a roadmap for a journey:

The destination is language proficiency,

The vehicle is the teaching strategy, and

The route is carefully selected based on the needs of learners and the goals of the curriculum.

Unlike a mere technique or a lesson plan, a method is a whole philosophy of teaching, often
rooted in theories of psychology, linguistics, and pedagogy. It includes beliefs about how people
learn languages, how grammar and vocabulary should be presented, how mistakes should be
handled, and how learners should be assessed

Content of a Language Method:

What It Entails:
The content of a language method refers to the components that make up the method — the
knowledge, principles, and practices it includes. These elements can be broken down into the
following:

1. Theoretical Foundations

Every language method is based on some theory of:

Language (What is language? How is it structured?)

Learning (How do people learn?)

Acquisition (How is a second or foreign language internalized?)

> Example: The Audio-Lingual Method is based on behaviorist psychology, believing language is
a set of habits formed through repetition and reinforcement.

2. Goals and Objectives

To develop specific language skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing

To achieve fluency or accuracy

To promote communicative competence (not just grammar, but the ability to use language
appropriately in context)

3. Content Selection and Organization

What should learners study? This includes:

Vocabulary (word lists, topics)

Grammar (sentence structures, tenses)

Functions (e.g., making requests, giving opinions)

Culture (language in its social and cultural setting)

The method decides which content comes first, how much repetition is needed, and how
progressive the difficulty should be.

4. Techniques and Strategies

These are the practical classroom procedures. For instance:

Drills and dialogues (used in the Direct or Audio-Lingual Methods)

Problem-solving and role plays (used in Communicative Language Teaching)

Translation and grammar explanation (used in Grammar-Translation Method)

> The technique is the action, but the method is the philosophy behind the action.

5. Role of the Teacher and Learner

Language methods define:

What role the teacher plays (controller, guide, co-communicator?)

What role the learner plays (passive recipient, active participant, autonomous explorer?)

> In the Silent Way Method, the teacher speaks very little, encouraging students to figure things
out.

6. Materials and Resources

This includes:

Textbooks, audio recordings, flashcards, realia (real objects)

Digital tools: apps, online exercises

Authentic materials: newspapers, videos, songs

Each method may prefer different materials. For example, the Natural Approach favors
authentic input over structured drills.

7. Assessment and Feedback

How is progress measured?

Is the focus on tests, performance, or peer feedback?

How are errors handled — corrected immediately, or left for natural development?

Different methods approach assessment differently:

> For instance, in Communicative Language Teaching, fluency is prioritized over accuracy, so
mistakes are sometimes tolerated in favor of natural use.
The language method is more than a recipe for teaching — it is the philosophical and practical
soul of the classroom. Just like a builder needs a blueprint, or a musician needs a composition, a
language teacher needs a method. The content of that method is rich with theories, goals,
materials, techniques, and roles, each woven together to create a meaningful learning
experience.

A teacher may even blend methods based on learners’ needs — this flexibility and informed
creativity is what transforms teaching from a routine into an art.

Language Skill

Language skill refers to the ability to use a language effectively and appropriately for
communication. It involves understanding (receptive skills) and producing (expressive skills)
spoken or written language. These skills are essential in learning, social interaction, emotional
expression, and cognitive development.

Categorization of Language Skills

Language skills are typically categorized into four core areas:

a. Listening (Receptive Oral Skill)

Understanding spoken language.

Requires attention, memory, and comprehension.

b. Speaking (Expressive Oral Skill)

Producing spoken language to convey meaning.

Involves pronunciation, grammar, fluency, and vocabulary.

c. Reading (Receptive Written Skill)

Understanding written texts.

Involves decoding, comprehension, and vocabulary knowledge.

d. Writing (Expressive Written Skill)

Producing meaningful written text.

Includes grammar, spelling, structure, and clarity.

These four skills fall into two major categories:

Category Skills

1.Receptive -Listening, Reading

2.Expressive -Speaking, Writing

Oral Skills

Oral skills are the abilities involved in speaking and listening. These skills are critical for
communication and are foundational in early childhood development.

Oral Language Includes:

Vocabulary development

Pronunciation and articulation

Fluency

Grammar usage

Conversational skills

Active listening

Characteristics of Oral Skills

Key characteristics of effective oral skills include:

a. Clarity:

Speaking clearly with correct pronunciation and tone.

b. Fluency:

Speaking smoothly without frequent pauses or repetition.

c. Appropriateness:

Using the right language for the audience and context.

d. Listening Actively:

Paying attention to the speaker, asking questions, and giving feedback.

e. Turn-Taking:

Respecting conversation rules such as listening when others speak and knowing when to speak.
f. Non-Verbal Cues:

Using facial expressions, gestures, and eye contact effectively.

g. Comprehension:

Understanding what others say and responding appropriately.

Hearing

Hearing is the ability to perceive sounds through the ears. It is a fundamental part of language
acquisition and development. Without good hearing, a child may struggle to learn language,
speak properly, or understand others.

Screening for Hearing Ability

Hearing screening is a quick, non-invasive test to check if someone—especially a child—has

normal hearing or potential hearing loss. Early screening helps identify problems that can affect
speech and language development.

Methods of Hearing Screening:

Otoacoustic Emissions (OAE): Measures sound waves produced in the inner ear.

Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR): Measures how the brain responds to sound.

Pure-Tone Audiometry: The person listens to tones at different pitches and volumes.

Tympanometry: Measures movement of the eardrum to detect fluid or infections.

Signs of a Child with Hearing Problems

In Infants (0–12 months):

Not startled by loud sounds.

Does not turn toward sound after 6 months.

No babbling by 6–9 months.

Does not respond to name or familiar voices.

In Toddlers and Older Children:

Delayed speech or unclear speech.

Frequently asks “What?” or “Huh?”

Turns the volume very high on devices.

Doesn’t respond when called, especially from another room.

Difficulty following directions.

Speaks loudly or in a monotone voice.

Misunderstands questions or instructions.

Watches others to copy what they do (visual cues).

How teachers can help a child who has hearing difficulties :

-Identify the degree of hearing difficulty through medical referral to audiologists to understand
the child’s specific needs

-Sit the child in front where they can easily see the teacher’s face and mouth to support lip-
reading and facial cues

-Use gestures, facial expressions, and body language during communication to enhance
understanding of spoken messages

-Incorporate visual aids like diagrams, written notes, and pictures to reinforce verbal
information

-Repeat important instructions and check for comprehension to ensure the child understood
what was said

-Speak clearly, not loudly, and face the child directly to allow for clearer reception of sounds
and speech

-Use assistive listening devices such as hearing aids or FM systems when prescribed to support
auditory input

-Provide transcripts or summaries of spoken content to ensure the child can review missed
information

-Establish peer buddy systems to help the child during group tasks or when the teacher is
unavailable

-Encourage use of sign language or visual symbols for communication where necessary to
reduce frustration and confusion
-Create a quiet and structured classroom environment to minimize background noise and
distractions

Categories of auditory skills:

1.auditory discrimination skills

2.auditory memory skills

1. Auditory discrimination skills

-The ability to detect differences and similarities between sounds which helps in identifying
words and phonemes

-Crucial for learning to read, spell, and pronounce words accurately

-Helps children distinguish between similar-sounding words like “bat” and “pat”

Activities for auditory discrimination

-Pairing similar and different sounds where children listen to word pairs and decide if they are
the same or different

-Matching games using environmental or instrumental sounds to help distinguish non-speech

sounds

-Playing rhyming games to help identify similar end sounds and improve phonological
awareness

-Segmenting spoken words into individual sounds to develop sound-letter connection

-Pronouncing minimal pairs and asking children to identify which word was spoken

-Clapping syllables of spoken words to build awareness of word structure

-Listening to a series of words and identifying the word that sounds different

-Using audio recordings and asking learners to circle pictures that match the heard word

2. Auditory memory skills

-The ability to store and recall information that is heard over time

-Helps children follow verbal instructions, retain spoken content, and develop language
comprehension

-Essential for remembering details in spoken stories and responding appropriately to questions

Listening

-The process of actively focusing on and interpreting spoken language for meaning

-Requires auditory attention, sound discrimination, short-term memory, and comprehension

-Includes both hearing and understanding spoken words and context

Factors that affect listening

-Noise levels in the classroom such as traffic, fans, or talking which distract from focusing on the
speaker

-The clarity of the teacher’s speech including pace, volume, and articulation which affects
comprehension

-The health condition of the child such as colds or ear infections that impact hearing ability

-Child’s emotional state such as anxiety or sadness which can reduce focus on listening tasks

-Age and developmental stage which influence concentration span and language understanding

-Background knowledge and vocabulary which help in making sense of what is heard

-Level of interest in the topic which can increase or reduce the child’s listening attention

-Teaching strategies used such as one-way talk versus interactive methods that keep students
engaged

General barriers to listening

-Environmental distractions like noise from outside or classroom movement that shift attention
away
-Poor classroom acoustics which cause echo or unclear sound transmission

-Language differences such as unfamiliar vocabulary or accents making it hard to understand

-Emotional stress like fear, hunger, or fatigue that takes mental energy away from listening

-Lack of motivation or boredom with the topic which reduces the desire to pay attention

-Overly fast or slow speech by the teacher which breaks understanding or interest

-Multitasking or doing other activities while listening which divides attention

-Unclear instructions or lack of visual support which makes it hard to follow

General methods of improving listening

-Use of storytelling with voice variation and expressive tone to hold interest and model good
speech patterns

-Incorporating songs, chants, and rhymes to make sound patterns memorable and fun

-Using listening comprehension exercises such as listening to a short story and answering
questions

-Practicing following multi-step oral instructions to improve auditory processing

-Playing games that require careful listening like Simon Says or musical chairs

-Using multimedia audio resources such as language learning apps and audiobooks

-Teaching listening strategies such as predicting, questioning, and summarizing what is heard

-Giving learners visual clues like pictures, objects, or gestures to reinforce spoken language

-Repeating and rephrasing instructions to ensure understanding

-Encouraging pair and group discussions to practice active listening and response skills

Planning Listening Programmes

1. Physical Preparation

Quiet learning space: Ensure minimal noise and avoid background disturbances.
Proper seating arrangement: Learners face the teacher/audio source; use
semi-circle/horseshoe layout.

Audio equipment check: Test speakers/headphones, ensure clarity and adjustable volume.

Lighting and ventilation: Use bright lighting and good airflow to improve focus.

Learner physical readiness: Start with short relaxation activities; avoid lessons right after
physical exertion or meals.

2. Psychological Preparation

Motivate with purpose: Explain real-life benefits of listening tasks.

Activate prior knowledge: Use pre-listening questions and preview key vocabulary.

Reduce anxiety: Foster a non-judgmental, encouraging environment.

Focus attention: Give clear objectives and use cues or prompts to direct focus.

🎧Listening Activities

Predictive listening: Learners guess the content using titles or images.

Listening for gist: Focus on general understanding, not specific words.

Listening for specific details: Identify facts, numbers, or key terms.

Dictogloss: Listen to a passage and reconstruct it in groups.

Listening and responding: Follow instructions, participate in conversations or answer questions.

Speaking Skills

Pronunciation and articulation: Emphasize clarity, rhythm, and stress.

Grammar and sentence formation: Encourage natural use of correct structures.

Vocabulary usage: Promote active use of new and familiar words.

Confidence and fluency: Use repetition and practice to boost natural expression.

Interactive communication: Practice turn-taking, questioning, and feedback.

Speaking Activities

1.Storytelling
Involves children narrating events, real or imagined, in a logical sequence

-Enhances vocabulary, sentence formation, and expressive language

-Encourages imagination, memory recall, and organization of thoughts

-Can be done using personal experiences, folk tales, or picture prompts

2.Drama

Involves role-playing and acting out situations or stories

-Promotes use of dialogue, expression of feelings, and creative thinking

-Helps children understand emotions, body language, and communication in context

-Builds confidence and encourages cooperation through group performance

3.Pictures

-Uses visual aids like flashcards, illustrations, or photo charts to prompt speech

-Children describe, ask questions, or tell stories based on images

-Encourages descriptive vocabulary and grammar use

-Supports comprehension and oral fluency development

4.Walks and Visits

-Involves taking children on guided tours or nature walks

-Promotes real-life vocabulary acquisition and situational language use

-Children talk about what they see, hear, smell, and feel

-Helps with observation, narration, and sequencing of events

5.Puppets

-Children use puppets to express ideas or act out scenes

-Provides a safe and engaging way to communicate, especially for shy learners

-Enhances voice modulation, turn-taking, and storytelling

-Stimulates imagination and interaction through pretend play

6.Masks

-Children wear masks to take on different roles or characters

-Reduces inhibition and encourages dramatic expression

-Allows exploration of dialogue, emotion, and character development

-Fosters oral confidence and imaginative use of language

7.Play Activities

-Includes pretend play like “house,” “market,” or “doctor” games

-Involves use of real-life vocabulary and dialogue structures

-Encourages social interaction, negotiation, and verbal problem-solving

-Promotes spontaneous and purposeful language use

8.Self-Care Activities

-Activities like dressing, brushing, or toileting routines involve spoken instructions and self-
expression

-Children describe what they are doing or need help with

-Builds vocabulary around body parts, clothing, and hygiene

-Encourages independence and expressive communication

9.Eating Activities

-Includes mealtime conversations, naming foods, and expressing needs

-Develops vocabulary related to taste, temperature, utensils, and meals

-Encourages manners, requesting, and expressing likes or dislikes

-Provides natural opportunities for verbal interaction

10.Classroom Activities

-Daily routines like answering attendance, giving instructions, or sharing news

-Structured speaking tasks such as show and tell, question and answer, or circle time

-Promotes turn-taking, clarity, and classroom-related vocabulary

-Reinforces communication skills in a structured environment

11.Self Talk

-Involves children talking aloud to themselves during play or tasks

-Helps them organize thoughts, plan actions, or express feelings

-Encourages language practice without social pressure

-Supports cognitive and language development through inner speech becoming spoken
language

Handling Barriers to Speaking

Creating a Safe Environment: Encourage children by avoiding criticism and showing patience to
build confidence in expressing themselves.

Modeling Good Speech: Speak clearly and correctly to serve as a verbal model for the child to
imitate.

Using Visual Aids and Prompts: Use pictures, story cards, or real objects to stimulate speaking.

Engaging in Interactive Activities: Encourage role-play, drama, and storytelling to promote

verbal participation.

Providing Adequate Time: Allow children enough time to process and express their thoughts
without rushing.

Reducing Anxiety: Avoid putting children on the spot; use group activities to lessen
performance pressure.

Building Vocabulary: Integrate new words into daily routines and classroom settings.

Involving Parents: Collaborate with parents to reinforce oral language at home.

Deficits in Oral Skills

Limited Vocabulary: The child may struggle to find the right words or use very few words.

Poor Pronunciation: Sounds are mispronounced, which affects understanding.

Grammatical Errors: Frequent mistakes in sentence structure and tenses.

Difficulty in Organizing Thoughts: Child may speak in fragments or incomplete ideas.

Lack of Fluency: Hesitations, repetitions, or pauses are frequent.

Weak Listening Comprehension: Difficulty understanding and responding appropriately.

Stuttering

Stuttering is a speech disorder where the flow of speech is disrupted by involuntary repetitions,
prolongations of sounds, or blocks in speaking.

Signs of Stuttering

Repeating sounds or syllables (e.g., "b-b-boy")

Prolonging sounds (e.g., "ssssun")

Silent blocks (getting stuck before a word comes out)

Tension or tightness in face and neck while speaking

Avoidance of speaking or fear of talking

Use of filler words like “uh” or “um” frequently

Cluttering

Cluttering is a fluency disorder where speech becomes too fast or jerky, making it hard to
understand. It involves poor speech rhythm and organization of thoughts.

Signs of a Cluttering Child

Speaking too fast, especially under stress

Leaving out sounds or syllables in words

Irregular or jerky speech rhythm

Mixing up or organizing ideas poorly while talking

Frequent fillers and interjections (e.g., “you know,” “like”)

Listener has difficulty understanding the speech content

Differences between Stuttering and Cluttering

1.Stuttering involves blocks, repetitions, and tension while

Cluttering involves rapid, jerky, and disorganized speech.

2.Stuttering is often recognized by the speaker as a problem while

Cluttering may go unnoticed by the speaker themselves.

3.Stuttering often causes fear and anxiety in speaking while

Cluttering is more related to language processing and organization.

4.Stuttering can involve physical tension and visible struggle while

Cluttering usually lacks physical signs of struggle but causes confusion in content.

Dealing with a Stuttering or Cluttering Child

Be Patient: Let the child finish without interruption or correction.

Maintain Eye Contact: Show that you are listening without judgment.

Slow Down Your Own Speech: Model calm and clear talking pace.

Avoid Completing Their Sentences: This discourages self-confidence.

Use Positive Reinforcement: Praise their efforts, not just fluency.

Involve a Speech Therapist: Refer for professional support early.

Create Relaxed Speaking Opportunities: Include singing, poetry, or group reading.

Avoid Pressure: Don’t force speaking in stressful situations.

Aphasia

Aphasia is a language disorder caused by brain damage, especially in areas responsible for
language. It affects the ability to speak, understand, read, or write.

Types of Aphasia

Broca’s Aphasia (Non-Fluent Aphasia): Characterized by broken, effortful speech with relatively
good comprehension. The person knows what they want to say but struggles to say it.

Wernicke’s Aphasia (Fluent Aphasia): Speech is fluent but often nonsensical, with poor
understanding. The person may not realize their words are incorrect.

Global Aphasia: Severe form affecting both speech production and comprehension, usually
after major brain injury.
Anomic Aphasia: Difficulty in finding words, especially names of objects, while other language
skills remain mostly intact.

Conduction Aphasia: The person can understand and speak fluently but struggles to repeat
words or sentences.

Handling Aphasia: A Guide for Caregivers, Teachers, and Support Persons

1. General Strategies for Communicating with Someone with Aphasia

Be patient: Give the person time to speak. Don’t rush or complete their sentences.

Use simple language: Speak in short, clear sentences.

Speak slowly: Not loudly, but at a measured pace to aid comprehension.

Use gestures and facial expressions: Support words with hand motions, pictures, or actions.

Use yes/no questions: Easier than open-ended ones (e.g., “Do you want tea?”).

Write key words or draw: Visual aids can reinforce understanding.

Encourage any form of communication: Speech, gestures, drawing, or writing.

2. Emotional and Social Support

Treat them with dignity: Talk to them like an adult. Avoid talking down or ignoring them.

Encourage participation: Let them join in conversations, even if it takes time.

Avoid correcting too much: Focus on the message, not the mistakes.

Be supportive: Acknowledge their frustration and celebrate small successes.

3. Therapeutic Approaches

Speech and Language Therapy: A speech therapist (SLP) can help improve language skills and
provide customized exercises.

Group therapy: Practicing communication in group settings can boost confidence.

Use of AAC (Augmentative and Alternative Communication):

Picture boards

Apps (e.g., Proloquo2Go, Lingraphica)

Gestures or sign language

4. For Teachers and Professionals

Prepare visuals in advance: Charts, labeled images, or simplified instructions.

Give extra time: Especially for responses or written tasks.

Use peer support: Partner students to help each other.

Modify assignments: Focus on understanding rather than speaking or writing ability alone.

Monitor frustration levels: Watch for signs of anxiety or fatigue and allow breaks.

5. Creating a Supportive Environment

Minimize background noise: Choose quiet settings to aid focus.

Maintain eye contact: Helps build connection and shows you’re listening.

Establish routines: Predictability reduces the language load.

Include the person: Don't isolate them in decision-making or daily activities.

Autism and Speech Development

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects

communication, behavior, and social interaction. Speech and language development in children
with autism can vary widely, ranging from no speech at all to highly developed verbal skills with
unique communication patterns.

Speech Development Patterns in Autism

Children with autism may show:

a) Delayed Speech Onset

Speech may begin later than in typically developing children.

Some may not speak at all or have very limited vocabulary (non-verbal autism).

b) Atypical Language Use

Repeating words or phrases (echolalia).

Repeating questions instead of answering them.

Talking in a monotone or robotic voice.

Reversing pronouns (e.g., saying "you" instead of "I").

c) Limited Social Use of Language (Pragmatics)

Difficulty starting or maintaining conversations.

Not using language to interact socially (e.g., no greetings or requests).

Talking only about their interests (narrow or repetitive topics).

2. Factors Affecting Speech in Children with Autism

Cognitive level: Intellectual disabilities can co-occur and affect language development.

Sensory issues: Sensitivities may affect attention and response to speech.

Motivation to communicate: Some children may not see the need to use speech to get what
they want.

Neurological differences: Affect how the brain processes sounds, words, and meanings.

3. Signs of Speech Difficulties in Autism

Lack of babbling or cooing in infancy.

No pointing or gesturing by 12 months.

No single words by 16 months.

No two-word phrases by 24 months.

Regression or loss of speech that had already developed.

4. Interventions to Support Speech Development

a) Speech and Language Therapy

Individualized plans by a speech-language pathologist (SLP).

Focus on improving vocabulary, sentence structure, and social communication.

May use play-based or structured methods.

b) Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

For non-verbal or minimally verbal children.

Tools include picture boards, sign language, PECS (Picture Exchange Communication System), or
speech-generating devices/apps.

c) Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

Breaks skills into small steps with repetition and reinforcement.

Often used to teach language, social, and daily living skills.

d) Social Skills Training

Helps children understand conversational rules (e.g., turn-taking, eye contact).

May include role play, modeling, or peer group interaction.

5. How Teachers and Caregivers Can Help

Model clear and simple speech.

Use visuals (pictures, objects, gestures) when speaking.

Repeat and reinforce communication efforts.

Celebrate attempts to communicate, even if imperfect.

Create communication-rich environments: label items, describe actions, narrate daily routines.

Be patient and attentive: Wait longer for responses and avoid interrupting.

6. Prognosis and Development

Some children with autism become verbal later in life.

Early intervention significantly improves speech and language outcomes.

Progress depends on individual ability, early support, and consistent therapy.

Literacy Skills
Literacy skills refer to the ability to read, write, and communicate effectively. These skills begin
developing early through speaking, listening, and exposure to print. They are the foundation for
school learning and lifelong communication.

1. Reading Skills

Reading skills involve decoding and understanding written text. Key components include:

Phonemic awareness – recognizing and manipulating sounds in words

Phonics – understanding letter-sound relationships

Vocabulary – knowing the meaning of words

Fluency – reading smoothly with expression

Comprehension – understanding and interpreting what is read

2. Pre-reading Work

Pre-reading activities are essential for preparing children to read. They help develop the
cognitive and perceptual skills necessary for reading success.

a) Visual Skills

Visual skills help children recognize shapes, letters, and patterns, and are crucial for reading
readiness.

Signs of Children with Visual Skill Difficulties:

Difficulty recognizing letters or numbers

Confusing similar letters (e.g., b/d, p/q)

Trouble following lines or tracking print

Skipping words or lines while reading

Poor eye-hand coordination

What to Do:

Use visual games like memory cards, matching shapes, and picture puzzles

Encourage activities like coloring, drawing, and tracing

Provide large-print books and clear, uncluttered visuals

Seek advice from an eye specialist if problems persist

b) Left-Right Orientation Skills

Understanding directionality (left to right, top to bottom) is important for reading in languages
like English and Kiswahili.

Signs of Children with Orientation Difficulties:

Writing letters or numbers backwards

Confusing directions (e.g., turning pages the wrong way)

Reversing letters (e.g., writing 3 as E or b as d)

Trouble following lines in a book

What to Do:

Practice directional games (e.g., “touch your right ear”)

Use arrows and visual cues on paper and books

Highlight starting points for reading or writing tasks

Use tracing activities that follow the left-to-right pattern

Practice writing letters and numbers in sand, air, or with finger paints

c) Visual Discrimination Skills

These are the abilities to notice differences and similarities in shapes, letters, and patterns—
crucial for distinguishing between words and letters.

Visual Discrimination Activities:

i) Sorting and Matching Activities

Match socks, shapes, or picture cards

Sort buttons by size, color, or shape

Match letters and numbers

ii) Jigsaw Puzzles

Help children see how parts fit into a whole

6Build attention to detail and spatial relationships

iii) The Odd One Out Game

Show groups of pictures or objects with one different item

Ask children to identify which one doesn’t belong and explain why

iv) Incomplete Pictures

Provide drawings with missing parts (e.g., half a house, missing tail)

Ask children to identify what’s missing and complete it

Visual Memory and Visual Memory Activities

d)Visual Memory

Visual memory is the ability to see something, retain the image in your mind, and recall it later.
It is essential in reading, spelling, writing, and recognizing letters, numbers, shapes, and
symbols.

Signs of Children with Poor Visual Memory:

Difficulty copying shapes, letters, or words from the board

Forgetting how letters or words look

Trouble remembering what they read

Difficulty remembering visual patterns (e.g., sequences or images)

Slow progress in reading or spelling

Visual Memory Activities

Here are engaging activities to strengthen visual memory in children:

1. Memory Matching Games

Use cards with matching pictures or letters.

Place them face down, and children take turns flipping two cards to find a match.

Boosts short-term memory and attention to detail.

2. "What’s Missing?" Game

Place several objects on a tray.

Let the child look at them for a few seconds.

Cover the tray and remove one item.

Ask the child to recall the missing item.

3. Picture Recall

Show a picture for 30 seconds.

Hide it and ask questions like:

What was in the picture?

What color was the car?

How many people were there?

4. Copy the Pattern

Show a pattern made with colored blocks or beads.

Let the child observe for a moment, then cover it.

Ask them to recreate the same pattern from memory.

5. Flashcards

Show a flashcard with a letter, word, or shape for a few seconds.

Hide it and ask the child to draw or describe what they saw.

6. Find the Difference

Give two similar pictures with slight differences.

Ask the child to spot the differences.

Enhances attention to small visual details.

7. Drawing from Memory

Show a simple drawing or geometric shape for a few seconds.

Ask the child to draw it from memory.

Gradually increase complexity as memory improves.

8. Visual Sequencing Activities

Show a short sequence of pictures or colored objects.

Ask the child to recall and arrange them in the correct order.

Reading disorders

Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder that affects a person’s ability to read, write, and spell
accurately and fluently, despite having normal intelligence and proper education.

Under reading disorders, dyslexia is the most common type. It mainly affects the decoding of
words, which means breaking down written words into sounds.

Key Features of Dyslexia :

Difficulty in recognizing words quickly

Problems with spelling and writing

Trouble with phonological awareness (hearing and manipulating sounds in words)

Slow and effortful reading

Reading comprehension may also be affected due to decoding struggles

Poor reading habits

i) Head Movement

Excessive or noticeable head movement while reading suggests difficulty tracking words with
the eyes alone.

Children with reading disorders may move their heads side-to-side to help guide their vision
due to poor eye coordination or weak visual memory.

It's a compensatory strategy for trouble in maintaining focus on a line of text.

ii) Finger Pointing (Figure Pointing)

Common in early readers, but if it persists beyond early years, it signals reading difficulty.
Used by struggling readers to track words, stay focused, and avoid skipping lines or words.

In dyslexia, it helps them deal with letter reversals or confusing word sequences.

iii) Vocalization

Involves reading aloud or mouthing words even during silent reading.

A coping method for those with poor phonological awareness, often seen in dyslexia.

Shows that the reader relies heavily on auditory feedback to decode words.

iv) Regression (Skip Back)

Frequent backward eye movement to re-read words or lines.

Sign of poor comprehension or decoding problems—the reader doesn’t understand or misreads

and needs to confirm.

Common in both dyslexia and poor readers who struggle with fluency and meaning.

v) Subvocalization

Silent speech or saying the words in the mind while reading.

Normal to a degree, but in poor readers it can be excessive and slow down reading.

Indicates heavy reliance on phonological processing rather than automatic word recognition.

Beginning Reading

Beginning reading refers to the stage when learners are introduced to how to read. At this
stage, children learn to recognize letters, understand sounds, blend them to form words, and
begin to read sentences. The goal is to build basic reading skills, such as letter-sound
recognition, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension.

Methods of Teaching Reading

i) Phonetic Method (Phonics Method)

This method teaches children to read by associating letters with their sounds and blending
these sounds to form words.

Advantages:
Helps children decode unfamiliar words

Builds strong sound-letter awareness

Improves spelling and pronunciation

Encourages independent reading

Disadvantages:

Can be boring if taught without creativity

May be hard for children with hearing or speech difficulties

Focuses more on sounds than meaning, which may affect comprehension

ii) Word Method (Look and Say/Whole Word Method)

Children learn by memorizing entire words as visual units, often with the help of pictures and
repetition.

Advantages:

Quick recognition of frequently used words

Encourages reading of meaningful content early

Suitable for young learners who can’t blend sounds yet

Disadvantages:

Relies heavily on memorization

Hard to read new or unfamiliar words

Poor understanding of phonics and decoding skills

iii) Sentence Method (Whole Sentence Method)

Children are taught to read entire sentences from the start. Words are learned in context,
promoting meaning.

Advantages:

Develops comprehension early

Words are learned in meaningful context

Encourages a natural flow of reading

Disadvantages:

Difficult for children who don’t know the individual words

Weakens spelling and decoding skills

Children may guess words from pictures without actually reading

Interest in Reading

To encourage interest in reading:

Use colorful storybooks and pictures

Read aloud with expression and excitement

Let children choose books they like

Use games, songs, and puppets during reading

Create a reading corner or library in the classroom

Offer praise and encouragement to build confidence

Beginning of Writing

Writing begins as part of language development, starting from scribbles and marks that
represent ideas

It is closely linked with fine motor development, visual perception, and cognitive readiness

Early exposure to drawing, storytelling, and letter recognition helps a child prepare for writing

Stages of Writing

1. Pre-writing Stage

Children explore with crayons, chalk, and pencils to make random marks

Scribbling is a key activity and a sign of motor and cognitive development

They begin to assign meaning to their marks, e.g., “This says ‘mama’”

2. Emergent Writing Stage

Children write with letter-like shapes and strings of letters

Writing may include both uppercase and lowercase letters randomly

They begin to understand directionality (left to right) and spacing

3. Transitional Writing Stage

Spelling becomes more phonetic (e.g., “kat” for “cat”)

Sentences may emerge with some punctuation

Awareness of grammar, sentence structure, and writing rules grows

4. Fluent Writing Stage

Children write clear sentences and organize ideas logically

They use conventional spelling and grammar more correctly

Writing is used to express thoughts, share stories, and complete task

Introduction to Handwriting

Handwriting includes learning how to form letters, use correct spacing, and develop legibility

Children should be taught correct pencil grip, posture, and the movement of fingers and wrists

Basic strokes (vertical, horizontal, diagonal) are taught before letters

How Should the Child Sit at the Desk

The child should sit upright with their feet flat on the floor

Knees should be at a 90-degree angle, hips level, and back supported

The desk height should allow elbows to rest comfortably at 90 degrees

The paper should be slightly tilted (right for right-handed, left for left-handed)

The non-writing hand should stabilize the paper

Differences Between Left Hand and Right Hand Writing

Left-handed children push the pencil as they write, may smudge ink, and need a different paper
tilt
Right-handed children pull the pencil and find it easier to see what they write

Left-handed children may need specially designed scissors or tools

Teachers must avoid forcing a child to switch handedness

Writing Difficulties

1. Dysgraphia

A neurological disorder affecting writing ability and fine motor skills

Signs include poor handwriting, inconsistent spacing, difficulty holding a pencil, and slow
writing

Children may struggle with spelling, organizing thoughts on paper, and letter formation

Support includes occupational therapy, use of technology (keyboards), and extra time for
writing tasks

Poor Writing Habits:

-Poor spelling and grammar: frequent spelling mistakes and incorrect sentence structures

-Disorganized ideas: lack of logical flow in writing, jumping from one idea to another

-Repetition: repeating the same point unnecessarily

-Limited vocabulary: using the same basic words repeatedly, lacking variety

-Lack of punctuation: omitting full stops, commas, or using them incorrectly

-Informal language: using slang or text language in formal writing

-Incomplete sentences: writing sentence fragments that lack meaning

-Copying: relying too much on other sources without personal input or originality

Assessment of Language Skills:

-Involves evaluating learners’ abilities in listening, speaking, reading, and writing

-Uses both formal and informal methods like oral questioning, written tests, or observation
-Assesses comprehension, vocabulary, grammar, fluency, and communication effectiveness

-Can be diagnostic, formative, or summative depending on purpose

Formative Evaluation:

-Ongoing assessment during the learning process

-Helps teachers adjust instruction based on student progress

-Includes quizzes, oral questioning, observations, peer reviews, and group work

-Provides feedback to improve learning before final grades

Summative Evaluation:

-Evaluation at the end of a learning period to measure outcomes

-Usually formal and graded, such as end-of-term exams or final projects

-Determines if learning objectives have been met

-Used for reporting performance to stakeholders like parents or school heads

Assessment of Learning of Oral Skills:

-Focuses on evaluating how well learners can listen and speak

-Includes observing participation in discussions, oral presentations, storytelling, or dialogue

1. Listening Skills:

-Can be assessed through oral questions, listening comprehension tests, following directions,
and summarizing spoken content

-Observe attention, ability to interpret messages, and retention of spoken information

2. Speaking Skills:
-Assessed through oral presentations, reading aloud, role plays, interviews, and spontaneous
speech

-Check fluency, pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, coherence, and confidence in

communication

3. Assessment of Literacy Skills:

-Includes reading and writing abilities

-Reading assessment involves comprehension questions, fluency checks, vocabulary usage, and
understanding texts

-Writing assessment looks at handwriting, sentence structure, grammar, punctuation, and

ability to organize ideas clearly

Writing Skills

These are the abilities required to express ideas through written symbols (letters, words, and
sentences). Writing skills involve:

Handwriting – forming letters and words clearly.

Spelling – writing words using correct letters.

Grammar and punctuation – using correct sentence structure and marks like full stops,
commas, and question marks.

Vocabulary – using the right words to express ideas.

Sentence construction – forming meaningful sentences.

Organization of ideas – arranging thoughts in a logical order.

Editing and rewriting – reviewing and correcting mistakes.

Pre-Writing Abilities

These are the basic skills a child needs before they can begin formal writing. They include:

Fine motor skills – control of small hand muscles (e.g., using crayons, cutting with scissors).

Hand-eye coordination – ability to guide hand movements using vision.

Pencil grip – holding writing tools properly.

Tracing shapes and lines – practicing movement patterns needed in writing.

Recognizing letters and sounds – knowing alphabet letters and the sounds they make.

Directionality – understanding left-to-right writing and top-to-bottom flow.

Visual memory – remembering shapes of letters and words.

Actual Writing Activities

These are exercises that develop real writing skills:

Copying letters and words – helps children learn proper formation.

Tracing over dotted lines – strengthens control and accuracy.

Writing own name – builds personal interest in writing.

Drawing and labeling pictures – combines creativity and word usage.

Filling in blanks in simple sentences – encourages sentence structure.

Writing short sentences and stories – helps develop expressive language.

Dictation – the teacher reads, and the learner writes what they hear.

Journaling – daily or weekly writing about experiences or thoughts.

Language Professional Records

These are documents or logs kept by language teachers or speech/language professionals to

track a learner’s progress. They may include:

Individual language profiles – record of each learner’s strengths and challenges in language use.

Progress reports – summaries of improvement over time in writing, speaking, or listening.

Assessment records – results from tests or observation checklists.

Lesson plans – what was taught and how it connects to learner needs.

Samples of learner work – kept in portfolios to show development.

Referral forms – used when learners are sent to specialists (e.g., speech therapist).
Communication logs – records of interactions with parents or caregivers about language
progress.