MODULE IV

Energy Storage:
&

Charging stations

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• Energy Storage: Introduction to energy storage requirements
in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles- Battery based energy storage
systems,Battery Management System, Types of battery- Fuel
Cell based energy storage systems- Supercapacitors-
Hybridization of different energy storage devices (3 hrs)
Overview of Electric Vehicle Battery Chargers - On-board
chargers, Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) - Grid to
EVSE to On-board chargers to battery pack power flow block
schematic diagrams – Types of charging stations - AC Level 1 &
2, DC - Level 3 – V2G concept-Types of Connectors -
CHAdeMO, CCS Type1 and 2, GB/T - PIN diagrams and
differences (4hrs)
 Introduction to Energy Storage Requirements in Hybrid and Electric
Vehicles

• “Energy storages” are defined as the devices that store energy, deliver

energy outside (discharge), and accept energy from outside (charge).

• There are several types of energy storages that have been proposed for

electric vehicle (EV) and hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) applications.

• These energy storages, so far, mainly include chemical batteries,

ultracapacitors or super-capacitors, and ultrahigh-speed flywheels.

• The fuel cell, which essentially is a kind of energy converter.

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 Energy Storage Requirements
• There are a number of requirements for energy storage applied in an
automotive application, such as

 specific energy,

 specific power,

 efficiency,

 maintenance requirement,

 management, cost,

 environmental adaptation and friendliness,

 and safety.
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 (Specific Energy , Specific Power )
• For an EV, specific energy is the first consideration since it limits the vehicle
range.

• On the other hand, for HEV applications, specific energy becomes less important
and specific power is the first consideration, because all the energy is from the
energy source (engine or fuel cell) and sufficient power is needed to ensure vehicle
performance, particularly during acceleration, hill climbing, and regenerative
braking.

• Of course, other requirements should be fully considered in vehicle drive train

development

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Specific energy

• Specific energy is the amount of electrical energy stored for every kilogram of

battery mass. It has units of Wh.kg−1.

Specific power

• Specific power is the amount of power obtained per kilogram of battery.

• It is a highly variable and rather anomalous quantity, since the power given out by

the battery depends far more upon the load connected to it than the battery itself.
 Introduction to Energy Storage Requirements in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles(battery)
• A battery consists of two or more electric cells joined together.

• The cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy.

• The cells consist of positive and negative electrodes joined by an

electrolyte.

• It is the chemical reaction between the electrodes and the electrolyte which
generates DC electricity.

• In the case of secondary or rechargeable batteries, the chemical reaction

can be reversed by reversing the current and the battery returned to a
charged state.

• The ‘lead acid’ battery is the most well known rechargeable type, but there
are others.
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 Introduction to Energy Storage Requirements in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles(history)

• The first electric vehicle using rechargeable batteries preceded the

invention of the rechargeable lead acid by quarter of a century, and there
are a very large number of materials and electrolytes that can be combined
to form a battery.

• However, only a relatively small number of combinations have been

developed as commercial rechargeable electric batteries suitable for use in
vehicles.

• At present these include lead acid, nickel iron, nickel cadmium, nickel
metal hydride, lithium polymer and lithium iron, sodium sulphur and
sodium metal chloride.
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 Next topic
• Batterybased energy storage and its analysis
 Performance Criteria/factor affects the
battery performance.
 From the electric vehicle designer’s point of view the battery can be treated as a
‘black box’ which has a range of performance criteria.

 These criteria will include:

• specific energy
cost,
• energy density
operating temperatures
• specific power
self-discharge rates
• typical voltages number of life cycles
• amp hour efficiency recharge rates

• energy efficiency

• commercial availability
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The designer also needs to understand how energy
availability varies with regard to:

• ambient temperature

• charge and discharge rates

• battery geometry

• optimum temperature

• charging methods

• Cooling needs.
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 Battery Parameters

Cell and battery voltages

• All electric cells have nominal voltages which gives the approximate voltage when
the cell is delivering electrical power.

• The cells can be connected in series to give the overall voltage required.

• The ‘internal resistance’ and the equivalent circuit of a battery is shown in Figure 1.

• The battery is represented as having a fixed voltage E, but the voltage at the
terminals is a different voltage V , because of the voltage across the internal
resistance R.

• Assuming that a current I is flowing out of the battery, as in Fig. 1, then by basic
circuit theory we can say that:

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 .
Simple equivalent circuit model of a battery

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Charge (or Ahr) capacity

• The electric charge that a battery can supply is clearly a most crucial parameter.

• The SI unit for this is the Coulomb, the charge when one Amp flows for one second.

• The capacity of a battery might be, say, 10Amphours.

• This means it can provide 1Amp for 10 hours.

Energy stored

• The energy stored in a battery depends on its voltage, and the charge stored.

• The SI unit is the Joule, but this is an inconveniently small unit, and so we use the Whr instead.

• Energy in Whr= V* Ahr

Specific energy

• Specific energy is the amount of electrical energy stored for every kilogram of battery mass. It has units of
Wh.kg−1.

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 Energy density

• Energy density is the amount of electrical energy stored per cubic metre of battery volume.

• It normally has units of Wh.m−3.

Specific power

• Specific power is the amount of power obtained per kilogram of battery.

• It is a highly variable and rather anomalous quantity, since the power given out by the battery
depends far more upon the load connected to it than the battery itself.

Ahr (or charge) efficiency

• In an ideal world a battery would return the entire charge put into it, in which case the amp
hour efficiency is 100%.

• However, no battery does; its charging efficiency is less than 100%. The precise value will
vary with different types of battery, temperature and rate of charge. It will also vary with the
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state of charge. 15
 Energy efficiency

• This is another very important parameter and it is defined as the ratio of electrical energy

supplied by a battery to the amount of electrical energy required to return it to the state

before discharge.

Self-discharge rates

• Most batteries discharge when left unused, and this is known as self-discharge.

• This is important as it means some batteries cannot be left for long periods without

recharging.

• The rate varies with battery type, and with other factors such as temperature; higher

temperatures greatly increase self-discharge.

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Battery temperature, heating and cooling needs
• Although most batteries run at ambient temperature, some run at higher temperatures and need heating to
start with and then cooling when in use.
• In others, battery performance drops off at low temperatures, which is undesirable, but this problem could
be overcome by heating the battery.
• When choosing a battery the designer needs to be aware of battery temperature, heating and cooling needs,
and has to take these into consideration during the vehicle design process.

Battery life and number of deep cycles

• Most rechargeable batteries will only undergo a few hundred deep cycles to 20% of the battery charge.
• However, the exact number depends on the battery type, and also on the details of the battery design, and
on how the battery is used.
• This is a very important figure in a battery specification, as it reflects in the lifetime of the battery, which in
turn reflects in electric vehicle running costs.

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 Example Lead Acid Batteries(working)
• The best known and most widely used battery for electric vehicles is the
lead acid battery.
• Lead acid batteries are widely used in IC engine vehicles and as such are
well known.
• However for electric vehicles, more robust lead acid batteries that
withstand deep cycling and use a gel rather than a liquid electrolyte are
used.
• These batteries are more expensive to produce.
• In the lead acid cells the negative plates have a spongy lead as their active
material, while the positive plates have an active material of lead dioxide.
• The plates are immersed in an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid.
• The sulphuric acid combines with the lead and the lead oxide to produce
lead sulphate and water, electrical energy being released during the process.

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 Reaction-Lead Acid Batteries
• The reactions on each electrode of the battery are shown in Fig. 2.
• In the upper part of the diagram the battery is discharging.
• Both electrode reactions result in the formation of lead sulphate.
• The electrolyte gradually loses the sulphuric acid, and becomes more dilute.
• When being charged, as in the lower half of Figure 2, the electrodes revert to
lead and lead dioxide.
• The electrolyte also recovers its sulphuric acid, and the concentration rises.
• The lead acid battery is the most commonly used rechargeable battery in
anything but the smallest of systems.
• The main reasons for this are that the main constituents (lead, sulphuric acid, a
plastic container) are not expensive, that it performs reliably, and that it has a
comparatively high voltage of about 2V per cell. The overall characteristics of
the battery are given in Table I.
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 Discharge Lead Acid Batteries

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 Charging -Lead Acid Batteries

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 Parameter analysis 1)Lead Acid Batteries
• The figure given in Table I of 0.022 Ω per cell is

a rule of thumb figure taken from a range of

good quality traction batteries.

• estimate of the internal resistance of a

lead acid battery is thus:

• The capacity indicated on the front panel of the

Lead-Acid Batteries module has been rated using

a 10-hour test (capacity c10)

C=safest maximum continuous discharge rate the battery

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 C rating
• C rating is a rating of how quickly energy can be discharged
from a battery.
• The rating is combined with a battery’s capacity to find
determine the maximum discharge.
• This is very important when you consider battery choices for
Quadcopters and ev because these machines draw very high
amps..
• The C rating is inversely proportional to the battery’s capacity
• For example, if you have a 1000mah 20C LiPo battery, the safe
maximum current draw would be 1000ma x 20C = 20A.
• The following factors affects the C-rating of a
LiPo battery:
• internal resistance of the cells – chemicals,
battery construction, age etc…
• connector
• thickness of the wires
 examples
• The formulas for the example are simple. If for any
reason I have not made it clear, comment for further
explanation. The following examples are based on
the first line in the table. 1600mAh battery with a
10C rating.
• Continuous Discharge
(mAh / 1000) x C Rate = Continuous Discharge
Amperage
(1600 / 1000) x 10 = 16A
• Run Time for Safe Continuous Discharge
60mins / C-Rate = Run Time
60mins / 10C = Discharge 16A for 6mins
 Lead Acid Batteries
Battery charging

• Charging a lead acid battery is a complex procedure and, as with any battery, if carried out

incorrectly it will quickly ruin the battery and decrease its life.

• As we have seen, the charging must not be carried out at too high a voltage, or water loss

results.

• There are differing views on the best way of charging lead acid batteries and it is essential

that, once a battery is chosen, the manufacturer’s advice is sought.

• The most commonly used technique for lead acid batteries is called multiple steps charging.

• In this method the battery is charged until the cell voltage is raised to a predetermined level.

• The current is then switched off and the cell voltage is allowed to decay to another

predetermined level and the current is then switched on again.

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 Battery based energy storage and its analysis
(2)Lithium Batteries
• Since the late 1980s rechargeable lithium cells have come onto the market.

• They offer greatly increased energy density in comparison with other rechargeable
batteries, though at greatly increased cost.

• It is a well-established feature of the most expensive laptop computers and mobile

phones that lithium rechargeable batteries are specified, rather than the lower cost
NiCad cells that we have been considering earlier.

• The lithium batteries are of following types:

 Lithium polymer batteries

 Lithium ion batteries

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 The lithium polymer battery

• In the following subsections each of the above two battery types are described.
The lithium polymer battery
• The lithium polymer battery uses lithium metal for the negative electrode and a
transition metal intercalation( insertion of a molecule) oxide for the positive.
• In the resulting chemical reaction the lithium combines with the metal oxide to
form a lithium metal oxide and release energy.
• When the battery is recharged the chemical reaction is reversed.
• The lithium is thus both a reactant and the mobile ion that moves through the
electrolyte.
• The overall chemical reaction is:

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 The lithium ion battery

The lithium ion battery was introduced in the early 1990s and it uses a lithiated
transition metal intercalation oxide for the positive electrode and lithiated
carbon for the negative electrode.

• The electrolyte is either a liquid organic solution or a solid polymer.

• Electrical energy is obtained from the combination of the lithium carbon and
the lithium metal oxide to form carbon and lithium metal oxide.

• The overall chemical reaction for the battery is:

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 2)Lithium Batteries-characteristic
• The essential features of the battery are shown in Table II.

• An important point about lithium ion batteries is that accurate control of

voltage is needed when charging lithium cells.

• If it is slightly too high it can damage the battery, and if too low the battery will
be insufficiently charged.

• Suitable commercial chargers are being developed along with the battery.

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 analysis 2)Lithium Batteries

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 Battery Management Systems (BMS)
• Automotive Battery Management Systems
(BMS) must be able to meet critical features
such as voltage, temperature and current
monitoring, battery state of charge (SoC) and
cell balancing of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries
• A battery pack with a BMS connected to an external
communication data transfer system or a data bus is
referred to as a smart battery pack. It may include
additional features and functions such as fuel gauge
integration, smart bus communication protocols,
General Purpose Input Output (GPIO) options, cell
balancing, wireless charging, embedded battery
chargers, and protection circuitry, all aimed at
providing information about the battery’s power
status. This information can help the device conserve
power intelligently.
• A smart battery pack can manage its own
charging, generate error reports, detect and
notify the device of any low-charge condition,
and predict how long the battery will last or its
remaining run-time. It also provides
information about the current, voltage, and
temperature of the cell and continuously self-
corrects any errors to maintain its prediction
accuracy.
 What are the main functions of a BMS?

• The main functions of a Battery Management System for

electric vehicles are:
• Battery protection in order to prevent operations outside its
safe operating area.
• Battery monitoring by estimating the battery pack state of
charge (SoC) and state of health (SoH) during charging and
discharging.
• Battery optimization thanks to cell balancing that improves
the battery life and capacity, thus optimizing the driving range
for hybrid (HEV), plug-in (PHEV) and full electric vehicles
(BEV).
• 4. Facilitating internal and external communication
• A BMS has controllers that communicate internally with the hardware at a
cellular level and externally with connected devices. These external
communications differ in complexity, depending on the connected device.
This communication is often through a centralized controller, and it can be
done using several methods, including:
• Different types of serial communications
• CAN bus communicators, often used in vehicles
• DC-BUS communications, which are serial communications over power
lines
• Various types of wireless communication including radio, pagers,
cellphones, and so on.
 Battery based energy storage and its analysis
(3)Metal Air Batteries
• The metal air batteries represent an entirely different development, in the sense

that the batteries cannot be recharged simply by reversing the current.

• Instead the spent metal electrodes must be replaced by new ones.

• The metal electrodes can thus be considered as a kind of fuel.

• The spent fuel is then sent to a reprocessing plant where it will be turned into

new ‘fuel’.

• The battery electrolyte will also normally need to be replaced.

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(3)Metal Air Batteries
 Battery based energy storage and its analysis
aluminum air battery
The basic chemical reaction of the aluminum air battery is essentially simple.

• Aluminum is combined with oxygen from the air and water to form aluminum
hydroxide, releasing electrical energy in the process.

• The reaction is irreversible. The overall chemical reaction is:

• The aluminum forms the negative electrode of the cell, and it typically starts as
a plate about 1cm thick.

• As the reaction proceeds the electrode becomes smaller and smaller.

• The positive electrode is typically a porous structure, consisting of a metal

mesh onto which is pressed a layer of catalysed carbon.
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• A thin layer of PTFE (Poly tetra fluoro ethylene) gives it the necessary
porosity to let the oxygen in, but prevent the liquid electrolyte getting out.

• The electrolyte is an alkaline solution, usually potassium hydroxide.

• The battery is recharged by replacing the used negative electrodes.

• The electrolyte will normally also be replenished, as it will be contaminated

with the aluminum hydroxide.

• The essential characteristics of the aluminum air battery are shown in Table III.

• The big drawback of the aluminum air battery is its extremely low specific
power.

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 Battery based energy storage and its analysis
aluminum air battery

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 Battery based energy storage and its analysis
zinc air battery
• The zinc air battery is similar in many ways to the aluminum air battery

but it has a much better overall performance, particularly with regard to

specific power which is nearly ten times that of the aluminum air

battery, making it suitable for use in road vehicles.

• The structure is similar, with a porous positive electrode at which

oxygen reacts with the electrolyte.

• The electrolyte is a liquid alkaline solution.

• The negative electrode is solid zinc.

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• The energy from the battery is obtained by combining zinc with the oxygen in the
air and forming zinc oxide.

• Alternatively, depending on the state of the electrodes and electrolyte, zinc

hydroxide may be formed, as for the aluminum-air cell.

• The process is normally irreversible.

• The general characteristics of the battery are shown in Table IV.

• A few manufacturers have claimed to produce electrically rechargeable zinc-air

batteries, but the number of cycles is usually quite small.

• The more normal way of recharging is as for the aluminum air cell, which is by
replacing the negative electrodes.

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 Battery based energy storage and its analysis
zinc air battery

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 Ultra capacitors
low energy density/highpower density
• Because of the frequent stop-and-go operation of EVs and
HEVs, the discharging and charging profile of the energy
storage is highly varied
• The average power required from the energy storage is much
lower than the peak power for acceleration and hill climbing in
a relatively short time span.
• The ratio of peak power to average power can reach over 10:1.
• In HEV design, the peak power capacity of the energy storage
is more important than its energy capacity and usually
constrains its size reduction.
Based on present battery technology, battery design must make a
trade-off among specific energy, specific power, and cycle
life
Basic Principles of Ultra capacitors
Next topic
 battery capacity
• The capacity (10Ahr) of a battery is reduced if the current is drawn more

quickly.

• Drawing 1A for 10 hours does not take the same charge from a battery as

running it at 10A for 1 hour.

• This phenomenon is particularly important for electric vehicles, as in this

application the currents are generally higher, with the result that the capacity

might be less than is expected.

• It is important to be able to predict the effect of current on capacity, both when

designing vehicles, and when making instruments that measure the charge left

in a battery:
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• The best way to do this is using the Peukert model of battery behavior.

• Although not very accurate at low currents, for higher currents it models battery behavior well
enough.

• The starting point of this model is that there is a capacity, called the Peukert Capacity, which
is constant, and is given by the equation:

• where k is a constant (typically about 1.2 for a lead acid battery) called the Peukert
Coefficient.
• Discharge rate example
• A lead acid battery is rated at 100Ah at C20, this means that this battery can deliver a total current
of 100A over 20 hours at a rate of 5A per hour. C20 = 100Ah (5 x 20 = 100).
• When the same 100Ah battery is discharged completely in two hours, its capacity is greatly
reduced. Because of the higher rate of discharge, it may only give C2 = 56Ah.

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 crating
• The rate at which a battery is being discharged is
expressed as the C rating.
• The C rating indicates how many hours a battery with
a given capacity will last.
• 1C is the 1h rate and means that the discharge
current will discharge the entire battery in 1 hour.
• For a battery with a capacity of 100Ah, this equates
to a discharge current of 100A.
• A 5C rate for this battery would be 500A for 12
minutes (1/5 hours), and a C5 rate would be 20A for
5 hours.
Fuel cell
 Fuel Cell based energy storage and its analysis
Fuel Cells

• A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity by means

of a chemical reaction, much like a battery.

• The major difference between batteries and fuel cells is that the latter can
produce electricity as long as fuel is supplied, while batteries produce
electricity from stored chemical energy and, hence, require frequent
recharging.

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• The basic structure of a fuel cell (Figure 4.1) consists of an anode and a cathode, similar
to a battery.
• The fuel supplied to the cell is hydrogen and oxygen. The concept of fuel cell is the
opposite of electrolysis of water, where hydrogen and oxygen are combined to form
electricity and water.
• The hydrogen fuel supplied to the fuel cell consists of two hydrogen atoms per molecule
chemically bonded together in the form H2.
• This molecule includes two separate nuclei, each containing one proton, while sharing
two electrons.
• The fuel cell breaks apart these hydrogen molecules to produce electricity.
• The exact nature of accomplishing the task depends on the fuel cell type, although what
remains the same for all fuel cells is that this reaction takes place at the anode.

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• The hydrogen molecule breaks into four parts at the anode due to the chemical reaction,
releasing hydrogen ions and electrons.

• A catalyst speeds the reaction, and an electrolyte allows the two hydrogen ions, which
essentially are two single protons, to move to the cathode through the electrolyte placed
between the two electrodes.

• The flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit is what
produces electricity.

• For the overall cell reaction to complete, oxygen or air must be passed over the cathode.

• The cathode reaction takes place in two stages. First, the bond between the two oxygen
atoms in the molecule breaks and then each ionized oxygen atom grabs two electrons
coming from the anode through the external circuit to become negatively charged.
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• The negatively charged oxygen atoms are balanced by the positively charged hydrogen atoms at the
cathode, and the combination produces H2O commonly known as water.

• The chemical reaction taking place in a fuel cell is as follows:

• The fuel cell was first developed for space applications as an alternative power source.

• The source was first used in a moon buggy and is still used in NASA’s space shuttles.

• There has been tremendous interest in fuel cells in recent years for applications in other areas, such as EVs
and stationary power systems.

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• .

• There are several different types of fuel cells, each with strengths and
weaknesses.

• Low operating temperature is desirable for vehicle applications, despite the

fact that higher temperatures result in higher reaction rates.

• Rapid operation and cogeneration capabilities are desirable for stationary

applications.

• Cogeneration refers to the capability to utilize the waste heat of a fuel cell
to generate electricity using conventional means.

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 Fuel Cell based energy storage and its analysis

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Voltage-current relationship of a hydrogen/oxygen cell. 67
 Fuel Cell Types

• The six major types of fuel cells are as follows: alkaline, proton exchange
membrane, direct methanol, phosphoric acid, molten carbonate, and solid oxide.

• A short description of the relevant characteristics of each type in the context of

vehicular and stationary applications is given below

Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)

• In an alkaline fuel cell (AFC), an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH)

is used as the electrolyte.

• Compared to some other fuel cells where acidic electrolytes are used, the
performance of the alkaline electrolyte is as good as the acid electrolytes, while
being significantly less corrosive toward the electrodes.

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• Alkaline fuel cells have been in actual use for a long time, delivering
electrical efficiencies of up to 60%.

• They require pure hydrogen as fuel and operate at low temperatures (at
80°C); therefore, they are suitable for vehicle applications.

• Residual heat can be used for heating, but the cell temperature is not
sufficiently high to generate steam that can be used for cogeneration.

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 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)

• The proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells use solid electrolytes and operate at
low temperatures (around 80°C). Nafion is an example of solid polymer electrolyte.

• These fuel cells are also known as solid polymer membrane fuel cells.

• The electrical efficiency of PEM fuel cells is lower than that of the alkaline cells (about
40%).

• However, a rugged and simple construction makes these types of fuel cells suitable for
vehicle applications.

• The PEM fuel cell and the AFC are currently being considered for vehicle applications.

• The advantage of PEM cells is that they can tolerate impurity in the fuel, as compared to
pure hydrogen which is needed in alkaline fuel cells.

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 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)

• The direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is a result of research on using methanol
as the fuel that can be carried on-board a vehicle and reformed to supply
hydrogen to the fuel cell.
• A DMFC works on the same principle as the PEM, except that the temperature
is increased to the range of 90 to 120°C such that internal reformation of
methanol into hydrogen is possible.
• The electrical efficiency of DMFC is quite low at about 30%.
• This type of fuel cell is still in the design stages, because the search for a good
electro-catalyst to reform the methanol efficiently and to reduce oxygen in the
presence of methanol is ongoing.

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Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

• Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are the oldest type with an origin that extends back to
the creation of the fuel cell concept.

• The electrolyte used is phosphoric acid, and the cell operating temperature is about
200°C, which makes some cogeneration possible.

• The electrical efficiency of this cell is reasonable at about 40%.

• These types of fuel cells are considered too bulky for transportation applications, while
higher efficiency designs exist for stationary applications

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 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
(MCFC)

• Molten carbonate fuel cells, originally developed to operate directly from coal,

operate at 600°C and require CO or CO2 on the cathode side and hydrogen on the

anode.

• The cells use carbonate as the electrolyte.

• The electrical efficiency of these fuel cells is high at about 50%, but the excess heat

can be used for cogeneration for improved efficiency.

• The high temperatures required make these fuel cells not particularly suitable for

vehicular applications, but they can be used for stationary power generation.

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 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC,
ITSOFC)

• Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a solid ionic conductor as the electrolyte rather than a
solution or a polymer, which reduces corrosion problems.
• However, to achieve adequate ionic conductivity in such a ceramic, the system must operate
at very high temperatures.
• The original designs, using yttria-stabilized zirconia as the electrolyte, required temperatures
as high as 1000°C to operate, but the search for materials capable of serving as the electrolyte
at lower temperatures resulted in the “intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cell”
(ITSOFC).
• This fuel cell has high electrical efficiency of 50 to 60%, and residual heat can also be used
for cogeneration.
• Although not a good choice for vehicle applications, it is at present the best option for
stationary power generation.

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 Fuel Cell based energy storage and its analysis
Hydrogen storage systems

Hydrogen storage systems

• The options for storage of hydrogen play a critical role in the future development of
infrastructure for fuel-cell-powered EVs and hybrid vehicles.

• The hydrogen gas at atmospheric pressure has a fairly low energy density and is not a suitable
fuel for storage.

• 1)Hydrogen could be stored as compressed or liquefied gas, or in a more advanced manner by

using metal hydrides or carbon nano tubes.

• 2)Gas storage in compressed form is an option that has been in use for a long time.

• 3)In this method, a large amount of energy is required to compress the gas to a level that will
make storage viable, usually at a pressure of several hundred atmospheres.

• 4)Generation of liquid H2 requires further compression, along with refrigeration to cryogenic

temperatures, and is not likely to become a viable means of storage for vehicle applications.
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 • Advanced methods for H2 storage include the use of metal hydrides or carbon
nanotubes.
• Here, the gas is compressed to a lower pressure level (a few to a few tens of
atmospheres) and fed into a container filled with a material that can absorb and
release H2 as a function of the pressure, temperature, and amount of stored
hydrogen in the system.
• The use of metal hydrides reduces the volumetric and pressure requirements for
storage, because when fully loaded, these metal hydrides can contain twice as many
hydrogen atoms than an equivalent volume of liquid hydrogen.
• The problem is that it is much heavier than the other solutions. However, current
efforts are under way by several automakers to include this in the structure of the

vehicle, which may result in an overall acceptable vehicle weight.

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 Carbon nanotube
• The prospect of using carbonnanotube- based materials for hydrogen storage is exciting,
because it could eliminate most of the weight penalty.

• However, it should be noted that the properties of carbon nanotubes regarding their usefulness
as H2 storage materials is still controversial.

• One of the myths that must be overcome to popularize fuel cell EVs is the safety of carrying
pressurized hydrogen on board.

• The safety of hydrogen handling has been explored by commercial entities as well as public
institutions, such as Air Products and Chemicals, Inc.5 and Sandia National Laboratories.6

• The recommendations for its safe handling have been issued.5 In addition, the Ford report
suggested that with proper engineering, the safety of a hydrogen vehicle could be better than
that of a propane or gasoline vehicle.

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Assignment 3
 Next topic
Fuel cell based EV
 Fuel cell based EV
• A fuel cell EV consists of a fuel storage system that is likely to include a fuel
processor to reform raw fuel to hydrogen, a fuel cell stack and its control unit, a
power-processing unit and its controller, and the propulsion unit consisting of
the electric machine and drive train.
• The fuel cell has current source type characteristics, and the output voltage of a
cell is low.
• Several fuel cells have to be stacked in series to obtain a higher voltage level,
and then the output voltage needs to be boosted in order to interface with the
DC/AC inverter driving an AC propulsion motor, assuming that an AC motor is
used for higher power density.
• The block diagram of a fuel cell EV system is shown in Figure 4.3

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 Fuel cell EV

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• .

• The power electronic interface circuit between the fuel cell and electric
motor includes the DC/DC converter for voltage boost, DC/AC inverter to
supply an AC motor, microprocessor/digital signal processor for controls,
and battery/capacitors for energy storage.

• The time constant of the fuel cell stack is much slower than that of the
electrical load dynamics.

• A battery storage system is necessary to supply the power during transient

and overload conditions and also to absorb the reverse flow of energy due

to regenerative braking.
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• The battery pack voltage rating must be high in order to interface directly with
the high-voltage DC link, which means that a large number of series batteries
will be needed.

• Alternatively, a bidirectional DC/DC converter link can interface a lower

voltage battery pack and the high-voltage DC bus.

• The battery pack can be replaced by ultra-capacitors in a fuel cell EV, although
the technology is not yet ready to replace batteries.

• Ultra-capacitors will be discussed in the next section

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 Fuel cell EV
• Fuel cell performance is sensitive to load variations because of the low voltage
and high current output characteristics.

• The fuel cell controller using voltage and current feedback information
regulates the flow of hydrogen into the fuel cell stack to achieve a reaction rate
that delivers the required electrical power with minimum excess hydrogen
vented.

• Attempts to draw more power out of the fuel cell without changing the flow
rate deplete the concentration of hydrogen, which reduces the output voltage
and may lead to damage to the fuel cell membrane.

• The fuel cell characteristic curves as a function of flow rate are shown in
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Figure .
 Fuel cell EV
• When the hydrogen utilization rate approaches 100%, the cell goes into the current limit mode

when it is dominated by high internal losses.

• The fuel cell controller must avoid operation in the current limit regime in order to maintain a

decent efficiency of operation.

• The output power deliverability of the fuel cell stack reduces with a reduced flow rate of

hydrogen, but if lower power is required for traction, then operating the fuel cell at a reduced

flow rate minimizes wasted fuel.

• The ideal controller delivers fuel to the cell at exactly the same rate at which it is consumed

by the cell to generate the electricity for the desired propulsion power.

• However, due to the slow response characteristics of the fuel cell, a reserve of energy is

required to provide uninterrupted operation

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 Fuel cell EV

Fuel cell characteristics as a function of flow rate.

• The by-product of the fuel cell reaction is water in the form of steam that exits the cell
along with any excess hydrogen.
• The water vapor can be used for heating the inside of the vehicle, but the hydrogen that
is vented out is a waste for the system.

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 Ultra-High-Speed Flywheels
• The use of flywheels for storing energy in
mechanical form is not a new concept
• More than 25 years ago, the Oerlikon
Engineering Company in Switzerland made the
first passenger bus solely powered by a
massive flywheel. This flywheel, weighing
1500 kg and operating at 3000 rpm, was
• recharged by electricity at each bus stop
 ultra-high-speed flywheel
• The traditional flywheel is a massive steel
rotor with hundreds of kilograms that spins on
the order of ten hundreds of rpm. On the
contrary, the advanced flywheel is a
lightweight composite rotor with tens of
kilograms and rotates on the order of ten
• thousands of rpm; it is the so-called ultra-
high-speed flywheel
• namely high specific energy, high specific
power, long cycle life,high energy efficiency,
quick recharge, maintenance-free
characteristics, cost effectiveness, and
environmental friendliness.
Operation Principles of Flywheels
• A rotating flywheel stores energy in the kinetic
form as

where Jf is the moment of inertia of the flywheel in kgm2/s and ωf is the

angular velocity of the flywheel in rad/s.
• The commonly used approach is to couple an
electric machine to the flywheel directly or
• through a transmission to constitute a so-
called mechanical battery
• A constant-stress principle may be employed
for the design of ultra-highspeed flywheels. To
achieve maximum energy storage, every
element in the rotor should be equally
stressed to its maximum limit. This results in a
shape of gradually decreasing thickness that
theoretically approaches zero as the radius
approaches infinity,
• Due to the extremely high rotating speed and
in order to reduce the aerodynamic loss and
frictional loss, the housing inside which the
flywheel is spinning is always highly
vacuumed, and noncontact, magnetic
bearings are employed.
• A switched reluctance machine (SRM) is also a
very promising candidatefor application in a
flywheel system. SRM has a very simple
structure and can operate efficiently at very
high speed. In addition, SRM presents a large
• extended constant-power speed region, which
allows more energy in the flywheel that can
be delivered (refer to Section 12.3.2). In this
extended speed region, only the machine
excitation flux is varied, which is easily realized
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 Next topic
Hybridization of different energy storage devices
 Hybridization of different energy storage devices
• The hybridization of energy storage is to combine two or more energy storages together
so that the advantages of each one can be brought out and the disadvantages can be
compensated by others.

• For instance, the hybridization of a chemical battery with an ultra-capacitor can

overcome such problems as low specific power of electrochemical batteries and low
specific energy of ultra-capacitors, therefore achieving high specific energy and high

specific power .
• Basically, the hybridized energy storage consists of two basic energy storages: one with
high specific energy and the other with high specific power. The basic operation of this
system is illustrated in Figure 1.

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 Hybridization of different energy storage devices
• In high power demand operations, such as acceleration and hill climbing, both
basic energy storages deliver their power to the load as shown in Figure 1(a).
• On the other hand, in low power demand operation, such as constant speed
cruising operations, the high specific energy storage will deliver its power to
the load and charge the high specific power storage to recover its charge lost
during high power demand operation, as shown in Figure.
• In regenerative braking operations, the peak power will be absorbed by the high
specific power storage, and only a limited part is absorbed by the high specific
energy storage.
• In this way, the whole system would be much smaller in weight and size than if
any one of them alone was the energy storage.
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 Hybridization of different energy storage devices

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 Hybridization of different energy storage devices

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 Hybridization of different energy storage devices
• Based on the available technologies of various energy storages, there are several
viable hybridization schemes for EVs and HEVs, typically, battery and battery
hybrids, and battery and ultra-capacitor hybrids.

• The latter is more natural since the ultra-capacitor can offer much higher power
than batteries, and it collaborates with various batteries to form the battery and
ultra-capacitor hybrids.

• During hybridization, the simplest way is to connect the ultra-capacitors to the

batteries directly and in parallel, as shown in Figure 2.

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 Hybridization of different energy storage devices

Direct and parallel connection of batteries and ultra-capacitors

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 Hybridization of different energy storage devices

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Variation of battery and ultra-capacitor currents and voltages with a step current output change
 Hybridization of different energy storage devices

Battery and ultra-capacitor currents during operation of HEV in an FTP 75 urban drive cycle

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 Hybridization of different energy storage devices

actively controlled hybrid battery/ultra-capacitor energy storage

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 Hybridization of different energy storage devices
• In this configuration, the ultra-capacitors simply act as a current filter, which can significantly
level the peak current of the batteries and reduce the battery voltage drop as shown in Figure 3
and Figure4.
• The major disadvantages of this configuration are that the power flow cannot be actively
controlled and the ultra-capacitor energy cannot be fully used.
• Figure 5 shows a configuration in which a two-quadrant DC/DC converter is placed between
the batteries and ultra-capacitors.
• This design allows the batteries and the ultra-capacitors to have a different voltage, the power
flow between them can be actively controlled, and the energy in the ultra-capacitors can be
fully used.
• In the long term, an ultrahigh-speed flywheel would replace the batteries in hybrid energy
storage to obtain a high efficiency, compact, and long-life storage system for EVs and HEVs.

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 Important questions
• What is energy storages explain the various energy storages used in electric and hybrid vehicle?5
• Explain requirements for energy storage applied in an automotive application,5
• What are the importance of specific energy , specific power in electric ,E.hybrid vehicle?3
• Explain the summary of various battery performance criteria 5/10
• Draw the equivalent diagram of battery with terminal voltage equation 3
• Explain the construction working principle of lead acid battery with necessary equations 10
• Analyze the performance of lead acid battery with equations 5
• Explain the construction working principle of lithium battery and its type with necessary equations 10
• Analyze the performance of lithium battery with equations5
• Explain the construction working principle of metal air battery and its type with necessary equations 10
• Analyze the performance of metal air battery with equations 5
• Explain the mathematical model of lead acid battery 5
• Explain the construction and working principle of fuel cell with suitable diagram 5/10
• What are the various types of fuel cell with suitable diagram10
• Explain the implementation of electric hybrid vehicle with fuel cell with suitable diagram 10
• Explain the various concepts of Hybridization of different energy storage devices 10
Overview of Electric Vehicle Battery
Chargers
 Charging technologies for Electric
Vehicles
• Electric vehicle chargers have evolved over the
years and presently various types of chargers
are available in the market to serve different
categories of EVs. Electric vehicle charging can
be classified into different types as shown in
Figure 2.1.
• Based on the technology used for charging, it
is classified into Conductive (plug-in),
Wireless, and Battery swapping.
• The charging infrastructure can be
distinguished in terms of speed of charging,
standardization of chargers, ownership,
process of charging and power flow
directionality, as shown in Figure 2.2
• 3.3Charger
• Power converter that performs the necessary functions for charging a
battery
• 3.3.1Class I -charger =Charger with basic insulation as provision for basic
protection and protective bonding as provision for fault protection NOTE:
Protective bonding consists of connection of all exposed conductive parts
to the charger earth terminal.
• 3.3.2Class II charger Charger with – Basic insulation as provision for basic
protection, and – Supplementary insulation as provision for fault
protection, or in which – Basic and fault protection are provided by
reinforced insulation
• 3.3.3Off-board charger Charger connected to the premises wiring of the
a.c. supply network (mains) and designed to operate entirely off the
vehicle. In this case, direct current electrical power is delivered to the
vehicle
• 3.3.3.1Dedicated off-board charger Off-board
charger designed to be used only by a specific
type of EV, which may have control charging
functions and/or communication
• 3.3.4On-board charger Charger mounted on
the vehicle and designed to operate only on
the vehicle
• 3.4.1AC Slow Charging Charging with 1 Phase, 15 A
Outlet with connector IEC 60309 and related safety
interlocks. For details refer 6.2.1
• 3.4.2AC Fast Charging Charging with 3 Phase, 63 A
Outlet with connector IEC 62196 and related safety
interlocks. For details refer 6.2.2

IEC 62196-1 provides a general description of the interface

between an electric vehicle and a charging station as well as general
mechanical and electrical
IEC 60309 is a series of international standards from the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) for "plugs, socket-outlets and couplers
 6.2 EV charging modes
• 6.2.1 AC Slow Charging Mode
• AC Connector Interface (Single Phase, 15 A)
Connection of the EV to the A.C. supply
network (mains) utilizing Single Phase EVSE–
AC Slow with Charging outlet IEC 60309
(Industrial Type) with ratings not exceeding 15
A and protective earth conductors, (RCD) and
including Mandatory AC Slow
 6.2.2 AC Fast Charging Mode
AC Connector Interface

• Connection of the EV to the A.C. supply network

(mains) utilizing with charging outlet IEC 62196 Type
2 with ratings not exceeding 63A and 415v +/- 10%
where the control pilot function extends to control
equipment in the a and Nominal Voltage* +/- 10%
utilizing the power and protective earth conductors,
system of personnel protection against electric shock
Mandatory safety functions
 Protections used in chargers
• 6.4.1.2Earth Continuity Check (EVSE-EV) Presence of earth
between EV and EVSE during charging session is to be
monitored. In AC Slow Charging, this is to be ensured at the
vehicle side.
• 6.4.1.3 Over-voltage Protection The EVSE should have
protection against Over-Voltage. 6.4.1.4 Under-Voltage
Protection The EVSE should have protection against Under-
Voltage.
• 6.4.1.5 Over Current and Short-Circuit Protection The EVSE
should have protection against Over-Current and Short-
Circuit. 6.4.1.6 Leakage Current Fault or leakage current inside
the EVSE is to be detected and protection is to be provided in
case of detection. Type of RCD (Type A minimum) and Fault
Current Limit 30 mA
• 6.4.1.7 Connector Presence & Locking It should be verified
that the connector is properly connected and Connector is
locked during charging period of the charge session to avoid
accidental/ unintentional disconnection. For AC Slow charging
connector, this is to be ensured by physical attributes.
6.4.1.8Environmental Protection The EVSE should have
protection againstenvironmental conditions like Solar
Radiation, Temperature, and Water. Note: The protection
against Environmental conditions will be checked under 11.4
and 11.11 6.4.1.9Protection when Phase -Neutral Interchange
occurs Charging function for vehicle may not be inhibited
provided Mandatory safety is fully functional even in case of
Phase-Neutral interchange condition
 6.4.2 Details of Optional Safety
functions
• 6.4.2.1Verification that the vehicle is properly connected The
EVSE-AC Fast shall be able to determine that the connector is
properly inserted in the vehicle inlet and properly connected
to the EVSE.Vehicle movement by its own propulsion system
shall be impossible as long as the vehicle isphysically
connected to the EVSE as required in ISO 6469-2.
• 6.4.2.2 Energization of the system Energization of the system
shall not be performed until the pilot function between EVSE
andEV has been established correctly.Energization may also
be subject to other safety conditions being fulfilled.
• 6.4.2.3 De-energization of the system If the pilot function is
interrupted, the power supply to the cable assembly shall be
interrupted but the control circuit may remain energized
• 6.4.2.4 Input Power Quality Monitor the AC supply (Rated Power, Voltage
& Frequency Tolerance) for possible faults and include necessary
corrective measures. 6.4.2.5 Fail Safe Handling Fail-safe operations should
function when certain faults occur 6.4.2.6Determination of ventilation
requirements during charging If additional ventilation is required during
charging, charging shall only be allowed if such ventilation is provided.
6.4.2.7Detection/adjustment of the real time available load current of
EVSE Means shall be provided to ensure that the charging rate shall not
exceed the real time available load current of the EVSE and its power
supply. 6.4.2.8Retaining/releasing of the coupler A mechanical means
shall be provided to retain/release the coupler. 6.4.2.9Selection of
charging rate A manual or automatic means shall be provided to ensure
that the charging rate does not exceed the rated capacity of the a.c.
supply network (mains), vehicle or battery capabilities.
 Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment
(EVSE)
• Electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) supplies
electricity to an electric vehicle (EV). Commonly
called charging stations or charging docks, they
provide electric power to the vehicle and use that to
recharge the vehicle's batteries. EVSE systems
include the electrical conductors, related equipment,
software, and communications protocols that deliver
energy efficiently and safely to the vehicle.
• EVSE equipment is classified as Level 1 (120
/240volts AC), Level 2 (240 /440volts, AC), and DC
Fast Charger (480 volts DC and higher).
 EVSE to Vehicle Connections
• • SAE J1772 – North America (Type 1) – 5-pin
AC charging port – Level 1 and Level 2 – 7-pin
DC charging port – Combined Charging
Standard (CCS1)
• • IEC 61851/62196 – Europe and other
emerging markets (Type 2) – 7-pin AC charging
port – 9-pin DC charging port (CCS2)
GB/T
CCS2
CHADEMO
Block diagram of EVSE
• The slow rate of charging is the result of using
low battery charge currents to avoid damage
(a problem that is constantly being improved),
as well as the energy capacity of the local grid
connection
• . Public charge stations are able to tap into
much .higher current capability
• Such problems are being mitigated through
Electric Vehicle Service Equipment (EVSE),
which controls the power flow into an electric
vehicle. Many vehicle manufacturers have
adopted the J1772 SAE standard for AC
electrical connections to a vehicle
• This EVSE operation is based on level 1 and level 2
devices, for which Table 1 describes the differences.
This single-line pilot wire enables negotiation with
the vehicle for power status, available power, and
charge state.
• In addition, the EVSE must be able to control AC
power delivery to the plug itself (up to 240-V AC and
80 A in some cases) to necessitate robust relay or
contactor driving. Additional functionality is often
included such as ground-fault circuit interrupter
(GFCI) protection and energy measurement
• A Level 1 EVSE uses commonly-available 120
VAC/230 VAC power sources, draws current in
the order of a 12 A to 16 A range and can take
anywhere from 12 to 17 hours to fully charge
a 24-kWh battery. L1 chargers can go up to a
maximum power of 2 kW and is used in
residential applications
• A Level 2 EVSE (typically used in commercial
spaces such as malls, offices, and so forth)
uses poly-phase 240 VAC sources to power a
more robust vehicle charger and draws
anywhere between 15 A and 80 A to
completely charge a 24-kWh battery in about
eight hours (power level up to 20 kW)
 DC Charging Station
• The DC charging station is a Level 3 charger which can cater
for very high power level in the range of 120 to 240 kW.
• The L3 chargers typically charge batteries to 80% State of
Charge (SOC) in under 30 minutes.
• To achieve such high power levels modular converters which
can be stacked are used. Stacking of converters inside the
vehicle makes the vehicle bulky.
• Hence, these stacked converters are placed outside the
vehicle and constitute the EV charging station.
• The EV charging station is directly interfaced with the battery
of the vehicle bypassing the onboard charger.
• Texas Instrument’s (TI) MSP430™ family of
microcontrollers (MCUs) offers a wide range of
devices that can be used to fulfill the
requirements of an EVSE.
 Pilot Signal Interface
• The pilot signal interface, requires a 1-kHz, ±12-V PWM signal
to be transmitted down the length of the charger cable to the
vehicle.
• The duty cycle communicates the power capability of the
EVSE to the vehicle. The EV returns its current state by placing
a load on the line, which causes a voltage drop.
• To facilitate this, the design requires an amplifier with a wide
dual-rail voltage input and sufficient drive strength to
facilitate the various line impedances.
• This design has selected the OPA171 amplifier based on its
input range characteristics (up to ±18 V) and ability to handle
various line impedance changes, even non-resistive changes
in the event of cable parasitics.
 V2G concept-
• Vehicle to grid’ technology, also referred to as V2G
enables energy stored in electric vehicles to be fed
back into the national electricity network (or 'grid')
to help supply energy at times of peak demand.
• Over 90% of cars are parked at any given time, which
is a lot of energy just sitting inside but doing nothing.
This energy can be used for balancing the grid so that
there is enough electricity on the network when we
all need it.
• This necessitates the need for having bidirectional
converters in EV charging stations
• Figure 5-2 shows an electric vehicle connected
to a charging station where bidirectional
converters inside the charging station enable
the energy stored in the battery to be used for
stabilizing the intermittencies in grid.
 Technical Details of EV charger
• The overall battery charger consist of all the supporting
components such as transformer, filter, switches, etc.
• The charging mode is selected as either constant current
constant voltage (CCCV) or constant power constant voltage
(CPCV). According to that, the PWM pulses are generated to
be given to the converter.
• The current or voltage is controlled according to the mode of
operation.
• The control algorithm for charging works in synchronization
with Battery Management System (BMS) to control the
charging mode during the charging and discharging process
and it establishes the current and voltage limits.
• In charging mode, the converter acts as a
rectifier and converts AC power to DC. The AC
filter and DC filter reduces the high-frequency
current harmonics and ripples, respectively
 Wireless Charging
• The Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) is achieved
using near-field electromagnetic coupling
(non-radiative).
• WPT has two types, namely inductive and
capacitive.
• In the inductive WPT, conducting coils are
coupled using the electromagnetic field,
whereas conducting plates are coupled using
an electric field in capacitive WPT
• The WPT technology has a transmitter side and a receiver side
power electronic system as illustrated in Figure 2.22. The
transmitter side consists of a high-frequency inverter with a
current gain and compensation network coupled to the
receiver side by a magnetic coil.
• The receiver side has a voltage gain and compensation
network connected to the high-frequency rectifier. The
inductive WPT requires ferrite cores for guiding and shielding
magnetic flux.
• The frequency of the system is kept under 100 kHz to limit
ferrite losses. This results in large coils, making it bulky;
hence, the cost and low power transfer density determine the
commercial viability of inductive WPT
 Capacitive WPT
• Due to the electric field’s directed nature, the need
for electromagnetic shielding is eliminated in
capacitive WPT and hence possesses a massive
advantage over inductive WPT.
• The absence of ferrite makes way to use high
frequency which results in smaller size, making it less
expensive.
• Whereas the use of high frequencies makes it
challenging to design the system. The main challenge
faced by the capacitive WPT is meeting the
electromagnetic safety with high-power transfer
density at high efficiency
 Battery swapping
• Battery swapping is a straightforward and rapid
process.
• It takes a few minutes to change the discharged
battery with a fully charged one. However,
depending on the vehicle model there are different
techniques of battery swapping methods.
• The two different types are Chassis type battery
swapping where the loading and unloading of
battery is carried out from underneath the vehicle.
• The battery packs are replaced from the side or rear
of the vehicle
End