ABSTRACT

The study assessed the perceived effects of COVID-19 pandemic on rice production in Abakaliki
Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling procedure involving
purposive and random sampling techniques were used in the selection of 150 respondents for the
study. Primary data collected through the aid of a well-structured questionnaire were used for the
study. Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics such as frequency
tables, mean scores, multiple regression and factors analyses. Results showed that majority
(69.3%) of the rice farmers in the study area were male while few (30.7%) of the rice farmers
were female. Majority (65.3%) of the rice farmers’ fall within the age bracket of 41-50 years
while least (9.4%) were above 51years of age. The average age of the sampled rice farmers was
42 years. 73.3% of the rice farmers was married while few (2.7%) were divorced. However,
majority (52.0%) of the rice farmers had secondary education while few (10.0%) had tertiary
education with mean educational level of 8years. It was observed that majority (61.3%) of the
rice farmers had between 6-10 household size while least (5.4%) had above 15 household size.
Their average household size was 7 persons with mean farm size of 2 hectares. Majority
(59.3%) of the rice farmers in the study area have annual income of between N300,001 –
N400,000, while few (2.0%) had annual income of above N400,000. Their mean annual income
was N320, 000.00 and the average farming experiences of rice farmers in the study area was 11
years. Furthermore, the major perceived effects of Covid-19 pandemic on rice production in the
study area were COVID-19 has reduced the ability to obtain essential food items ( x = 2.98),
COVID-19 has reduced the household income ( x = 2.83) and COVID-19 has led to a decrease in
the revenue of rice farming ( x = 2.80). Followed by COVID-19 has reduced the availability of
inputs used in rice farming ( x = 2.78), COVID-19 has reduced ability to replant during the
growing season ( x = 2.76), COVID-19 pandemic has threatened the health of farmers ( x = 2.74)
and COVID-19 pandemic has caused difficulty to commercialize the rice crop ( x = 2.70).
However, the rice farmers had mean output of 400.9 before Covid-19 while their outputs
decreased to 150.3 during Covid-19 which implies that Covid-19 has direct negative impact on
output of the rice farmers in the study area. The result of the multiple regression analysis
revealed that the coefficient of multiple determination (R 2) value was 0.881 which implies that
88% variation in the dependent variable (rice production output) was explained by the
independent (COVID-19 variables). Furthermore, the major coping strategies adopted by rice
farmers to cushion the effect of Covid-19 in the study area were wearing a nose mask ( x = 3.60),
use of hand sanitizer ( x = 3.22) and regular hand washing ( x = 3.00). Followed by
confinement/lockdown ( x = 2.92), prohibition of intra-regional movement ( x = 2.89) and social
distancing ( x = 2.82). The study recommends that there is need for soft loan to be giving to
farmers so as to encourage them to boost food production in the country, there should be
distribution of good medical facilities, personnel and free treatment to the affected persons in the
rural areas to improve their healthy conditions and there is need for sensitization and training of
farmers on modern methods of agriculture that will involve social distancing to improve the
health conditions of the farmers.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

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 Agriculture is a key sector of the economy in many developing countries and thus

remains the basis of any development strategy. It provides employment for about two-thirds of

the continent’s working population and for each country contributes an average of 30 to 60% of

gross domestic product and about 30% of the value of exports (World Bank, 2020). Agriculture

can help reduce poverty, raise incomes and improve food security for 80% of the world's poor,

who live in rural areas and work mainly in farms (World Bank, 2020). Agricultural development

is one of the most powerful tools to end extreme poverty, boost shared prosperity and feed a

projected 9.7 billion people by 2050. Analyses in 2016 found that 65% of poor working adults

made a living through agriculture (World Bank, 2020). It can therefore contribute towards

sustainable development goals and major continental priorities, such as eradicating poverty and

hunger, boosting intra-Africa trade and investments, rapid industrialization and economic

diversification, sustainable resource and environmental management, and creating jobs, human

security and food security. In the agricultural sector, cereal production especially rice have

become essential to food security as they provide more than 60% of daily calory in developing

countries.

Rice is an important staple crop that plays an important economic role and feeds

approximately half the world’s population (Fahad et al., 2019). Rice represents the staple food

for more than 750 million people in Sub‐Saharan Africa (USDA, 2018). West Africa consumes

more rice than any part of Africa as regional demand has continued to grow at almost 6%

annually, driven by the growing population, urbanization and changing in consumer behavior in

the region. However, local production has not kept pace with the increase in demand and the gap

is being filled through importation of Asia rice whose characteristics are more preferred by

consumers (Demont et al., 2013). In West Africa, 310 million people derived about 20% of their

3
daily calorie from rice. Also, in this region, the annual per capita consumption levels rose five-

fold in the last six decades and are currently the highest on the continent. Production increased

less during the same period (USDA, 2019) and the region increasingly relies on rice imports

(Mendez del Villar and Lançon, 2015). This renders West Africa very vulnerable to international

trade disruptions such as the ones currently inflicted by the corona virus disease (COVID-19)

crisis (Arouna et al., 2020).

The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) disease was first identified in Wuhan, a city in China

late 2019 and had spread rapidly to almost every region of the world (Aifuwa, Saidu and Aifuwa,

2020). On February 27, 2020, Nigeria recorded her first case of the dreaded coronavirus

(COVID-19) through an Italian citizen who travelled into the country, the reality that woke the

federal and state governments to protect its citizens (Saidu and Aifuwa, 2020). Governments of

nations are using different measures and strategies to contain it spread. Containment measures

and strategies, such as (frequent washing of hands, keeping good hygiene, social distancing, use

of a face mask in public places and hand sanitizers), the authorization of the use of

hydroxylchloroquine and other drugs to fight the virus (Aifuwa et al., 2020). The symptoms of

the virus on infected individuals include, fever, cough, shortness of breath or difficulty breathing,

chill, repeated shaking with chill, muscle pain, headache, sore throat, and recently, loss of taste

or smell (Worldometers, 2020).This dreaded virus has caused negative impact on the global

economy, and has led to the crisis in different businesses or enterprise across the globe. Aifuwa,

et al. (2020) submitted that coronavirus has negatively affected both the agricultural and non-

agricultural businesses in Nigeria.

Segal and Gerstel, (2020) forecasted in their study and suggested that there will be a

deceleration of economic growth starting from March 2020 onwards without a precise ending

4
date and some countries entering a recession. Seth et al., (2020) opined that impact of the

COVID-19 pandemic will have a likely severe impact on agricultural production. This study

analyzes the COVID-19 situation in Nigeria, the economic crisis and the structural causes. The

COVID-19 pandemic has had far-reaching effects on the global economy (Ozili and Arun,

2020). It affected the global travel business, national health care systems, the food industry,

events industry, education and global trade. Due to globalization, there are expectations of

spillover effects to emerging and developing countries due to their dependence on developed

countries for the importation of goods and services (Ozili and Arun, 2020).

Disease outbreak and global pandemics have been the greatest threat for the sustainability

of human existence on earth. Mankind has witnessed many pandemics over the course of human

history that killed millions of people and ravaged the global economy (Poudel, et al, 2020).

Covid-19 has impacted global food security and agriculture due to the lockdown and movement

restriction across many countries of the world (Poudel, et al, 2020; PWC, 2020). Lockdown was

imposed to control the spread of the Covid-19 by various governments in the world (Khan, et al,

2020; United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization {UNESCO}, 2020). Both

lives and livelihoods were at risk from the Covid-19 pandemic (FAO, 2020). These measures

have had huge immediate effects on the economies of countries in the African continent, the

worst since the 2008 global financial crisis (UNESCO, 2020). The spread of the Covid-19 affects

significant elements of food supply due to the disease’s impact on people’s lives and well-being,

also posing serious challenges for the sustainable functioning of agri- food markets (Jambor, et

al, 2020, Food and Agricultural Organization {FAO}, 2020).

A recession caused by COVID-19 has resulted in additional adjustments to a functional

food supply system. Changes in consumer incomes impacted food demand across all product

5
lines. Global changes in demand and exchange rates altered agricultural trade flows (Anderson,

et al, 2020). Disruptions caused by COVID-19 led to financial stress, supply disruptions, closed

and/or restricted markets and altered marketing strategies for crop producers. School and

restaurant closures have eliminated many existing direct markets for farmers (Anderson, et al,

2020). In many countries, farmers are not in the condition of transporting products to market

because of the lockdown and they have suddenly found themselves in desperate conditions

(World Farmers Organization {WFO}, 2020). Because of all the challenges they are facing, like

other economic actors, farmers are bearing the society costs of this pandemic on their own

shoulders. This is not sustainable in many cases, so farmers are having big losses in their income,

which also affects the economic conditions of their families and communities (World Farmers

Organization {WFO}, 2020).

The coronavirus pandemic is causing a global health emergency as well as an economic

slowdown. Investment, employment, trade, and economic growth are all adversely impacted on

by the crisis, and it is bound to negate the achievement of a country’s food production. As

restrictions on movement have increased, farmers have become increasingly apprehensive about

the consequences for agricultural production in Nigeria. It has become exceedingly clear that as

the health-centered response to Coronavirus increase, agricultural production in Nigeria will face

significant difficulties in their operations, from the increased costs of production and distribution

to pressures on the supply chain. Even if COVID-19 eventually fade away, the impact on

businesses will last longer than expected; hence it is necessary to investigate the effects and to

formulate viable responses to enable the stability and sustainability of agricultural production in

Nigeria (Imanche, Dalibi and Tasind, 2020).

1.2 Problem Statement

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 In Nigeria, agriculture plays a critical role in the economy and has a significant role to

play in sustainable development of the country. It is the largest employer of labour in the

country, providing jobs for more than one-third (35%) of the total work force (World Bank,

2020) and contributes about 24% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (National Bureau of

Statistics (NBS), 2020) The Nigerian agricultural sector remains the key to the country’s

economic diversification plan (PWC, 2020). Despite, the significance of the agricultural sector to

the Nigerian economy it has been bedeviled by a number of challenges such as climate change,

limited agricultural inputs, outdated systems of agriculture, poor infrastructure, lack of access to

finance, absence of value chain and supply chain linkages, widespread insecurity including the

Boko Haram crisis, armed banditry and cattle rustling in the North as well as incessant farmer-

herder clashes in the South and Middle Belt (PWC, 2020). However, the emergence of COVID

19 pandemic has further exacerbated these already existing problems.

On December 31st, 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) was informed of a

cluster of cases of pneumonia of unknown cause detected in Wuhan City, Hubei Province,

Republic of China. This was subsequently confirmed as an outbreak of a new type of

coronavirus, 2019 novel Coronavirus (2019-nCOV) by the China and the World Health

Organization (WHO). Since then, the world is facing unprecedented challenges caused by the

coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19), one of the most serious public health emergencies since last

century.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), as of March 1st, 2021, more than

114,795,908 and 3,872,085 cases of COVID-19 have been reported in the world and Africa,

respectively, with about 2,550,334 and 102,286 deaths, respectively (WHO, 2021). Since the end

of the second world-war, the COVID-19 pandemic is the first international health crisis which is

7
likely to result simultaneously to economic, social and food crisis. The COVID-19 pandemic has

severely impacted the world economy. In general, the economic downturn and recession

impacted society in various ways, including rising food prices, diminishing purchasing power,

the threat of losing their employment, and the necessity for more government social assistance

(Pulighe & Lupia, 2020). Due to regional border closures, lockdowns, and traffic cutbacks,

COVID-19 has significantly impacted supply chains and logistics, both for producers and

consumers. This poses a major danger to society's access to different goods and services.

The agricultural sector is also directly challenged by the policy of limiting movement

space, particularly in terms of stabilizing commodity prices, disrupting input and output supply

chains, disrupting production owing to labour shortages, and subsequently affecting food

security (Adhikari, Timsina, Khadka, Ghale, & Ojha, 2021; Gu & Wang, 2020; Kumar et al.,

2021; Poudel et al., 2020; Rivera-Ferre et al., 2021; Siche, 2020; Workie, Mackolil, Nyika, &

Ramadas, 2020).

Around the world, governments and populations continue to grapple with the effects of

the coronavirus outbreak. Concerns are the potential impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and

related lockdown measures on agriculture and food security. Nigeria with confirmed cases of

COVID-19 pandemic is among the African countries with the highest toll of confirmed COVID-

19 cases (WHO, 2021). To slow down the speed of contamination, movement restrictions,

maintenance of strict hygiene practices, social distancing rules, wearing of face masks, travel

restrictions, quarantines, curfews and complete lockdowns were imposed in many countries of

Africa including Nigeria. While these measures are important to contain the pandemic and arrest

the spread of coronavirus, they are, however, adversely impacting on livelihoods, jobs, food and

nutrition security and economic activities.

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 A recent literature has emerged that examine the effect of COVID-19 on economic

activities (Fernandes, 2020; Atkeson, 2020; McKibbin and Fernando, 2020; Altig et al, 2020;

Ozili and Arun, 2020). But none seems to capture the effect of COVID-19 pandemic on rice

production in the study area, hence, the need for this study. Thus, this study tends to assess the

effect of COVID-19 pandemic on rice production in Abakaliki Local government area, Ebonyi

State.

In view of the above stated problem, it is pertinent to ask the following fundamental

research questions: What are the socio-economic characteristics of the rice farmers? What are

rice farmers perceived effects of COVID-19 pandemic on rice production? What are the effects

of COVID-19 on rice production in the area? What are the coping strategies adopted by rice

farmers to cushion the effect of COVID-19? What are the constraints to mitigating the effects of

Covid-19 on rice production?

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of the study is to assess the perceived effects of COVID-19 pandemic on

rice production in Abakaliki Local Government Area, Ebonyi State. The specific objectives are

to;

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 i. describe the socio-economic characteristics of the rice farmers;

ii. analyze rice farmers perceived effects of COVID-19 pandemic on rice production ;

iii. analyze the effects of COVID-19 on rice production.

iv. identify the coping strategies adopted by rice farmers to cushion the effect of

COVID-19;

v. analyze constraints to mitigating the effects of Covid-19 on rice production.

1.4 Research Hypotheses

Ho: COVID-19 pandemic do not significantly influence rice production in the study area.

1.5 Justification for the Study

The findings of the study will help the rice farmers in combating the effect of COVID-19

pandemic. The out of this study will also help to unravel the best coping strategies adopted by

rice in combating the adverse effect of COVID-19 pandemic in Ebonyi State, especially

Abakaliki Local Government Area. Also, the study will expose various effects of COVID-19 on

rice production and the possible ways of overcoming them. Lastly, this study is important

because it will serve as a resource material and an addition to existing literature or knowledge

and it will also provide farmers with information that will help them to reduce the adverse effect

of COVID-19 pandemic.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature is reviewed according to the following headings;

 An Overview of COVID-19 Pandemic;

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  Effects of COVID-19 on Agriculture;

 Rice Production in Nigeria;

 Status of Rice Production;

 Importance of Rice;

 Impact of Coronavirus-COVID-19- on Nigerian SMEs;

 Role of Government in Mitigating the Effect of COVID-19 on Farmers

2.1 An Overview of COVID-19 Pandemic

This section explicates on coronavirus or otherwise known as COVID-19 which started in

Wuhan in China in the late 2019. The pandemic of COVID-19 has been affecting all spheres of

human endeaviour in the recent time. As the coronavirus affects public health services at global

level, it also does to global economies. The pandemic of COVID-19 is worrisome because it is

inevitable in leading to the global economic recession. World Health Organization (2020) notes

that, the victim of COVID-19 will surely experience respiratory illness and older people and

more importantly, people with medical or health problems such as diabetes, cancer respiratory

disease among others are likely to be infected with COVID-19. It is reiterated that COVID-19

can spread easily through the nose or mucus discharge and droplets of saliva especially through

sneezes and coughs (World Health Organization, 2020). Nonetheless, the most common

symptoms of the disease are fever, dry cough and tiredness. The severe symptoms are chest pain,

loss of speech and difficult breathing. Globally, many lives have been taken as a result of the

prevalence of coronavirus. Hence, it is important to adhere to preventive measures especially by

washing hands, using sanitizers etc. as directed by the health workers (World Health

Organization, 2020). Currently, there is no actual treatment and or vaccine to be taken by

someone infected with the virus. Nonetheless, there are several efforts at the international level

11
especially China, US, UK, Japan, Canada, Germany, France etc. pertaining to trail vaccines for

treatment of COVID-19.

Nonetheless, the foregoing explanation shows the trends of COVID-19 and it has

economic implications in different countries. Reports given by UN analysts show that $80

trillion economy of the world will tremendously decline by $ 1 trillion to $2 trillion. This

scenario of the global level will surely affect the economy of Nigeria especially the cases of

coronavirus in the country plus direct business contact of the country with China. At the

international level, it has caused a lot of disruptions to social and economic activities of citizens.

For instance, the United States of America has initially budgeted $350 billion as relief fund for

sustaining small businesses in the country. However, recently, the country is seeking for

additional amount of $250 billion in order to provide loans for the citizens to be able to cater for

the economic sector (Odinaka & Josephine, 2020). With the global trend of COVID-19 which

undoubtedly affects various facets of human endeavours, it therefore needs to be addressed

especially by looking inwardly in exploring how to strengthen Small and Medium Enterprises

(SMEs) in the country as literature advocates (Odinaka & Jesephine, 2020).

2.2 Effects of COVID-19 on Agriculture

Like in many developing countries, the effect of COVID-19 on agriculture in Nigeria has

been enormous due to the limited mechanization and high labour intensity in agriculture in the

country. Over one-third (35%) of the country’s total labour force is employed in the agricultural

12
sector (World Bank, 2020). Amankwah et al. (2021) reported that about 76% of households in

Nigeria are involved in agriculture. The COVID-19 pandemic and the measures put in place by

the Nigerian government to curb the spread of the disease affected farmers and agricultural

workers in several ways. These measures while they were critical to saving lives also

significantly caused a disruption in agricultural activities and value chain such as inputs supply

into agriculture, production, distribution, transportation, marketing and consumption of

agricultural products (Aromolaran et al., 2020; Oseni et al., 2020). It contributed to shortage of

labour for agricultural production (Ilesanmi et al., 2021). Given the limited mechanization and

high labour intensity in agriculture in Nigeria, there is usually high demand for labour during

peaks of farming season, but the lockdown and restriction of movement limited access to farm-

lands by farmers and laborers (Nnodim, 2020). Consequently, there was a decrease in

agricultural production throughout the country (Ilesanmi et al., 2021).

The effect of the pandemic on agriculture in Nigeria was very severe because the timing

of the lockdown of the economy due to the outbreak coincided with the planting and harvesting

seasons (March and July) of many crops such as maize, cucumber, tomatoes, millet, sorghum,

rice, etc. Therefore, the shortage of hired labour for harvesting, resulted in high post-harvest

losses by farmers, food shortages in the market and increased cost of food items (Nnodim, 2020).

For instance, the price of a piece of egg increased from ₦42.78 in August 2020 to ₦55 in

October 2020 as a result of increase in the price of poultry feeds (Nnodim, 2020). Labour

shortages has been blamed to have contributed to the reduction in the availability of maize for

poultry feed formulation leading to a rise in price of maize from $0.23 per kg in March 2020 to

$0.47 per kg in August 2020 (Berthout, 2020). It is because of this that the President,

13
Muhammadu Buhari on the 3rd of September, 2020 directed that 30,000 tonnes of maize from

the national reserve be released to the poultry feed millers (Ojewale, 2020).

The pandemic also disrupted transportation of agricultural products and supply chains in

different parts of the country due to the travel restrictions put in place. Although, the guidelines

announced by the PTF Covid-19 allowed the movement of persons providing essential services

such as health workers, movement of agricultural produce, petroleum products and some

manufactured goods, movement restrictions were implemented by the security operatives

indiscriminately and recklessly. Also, obtaining the necessary permit often proved difficult as

offices were closed or had restricted working hours or limited personnel available to process

requests (FAO, 2021). This had some effects on small-scale farmers as many farmers’ access to

their farms and markets were restricted. Also, since, most small-scale farmers do not have

storage facilities, they incurred a lot of post-harvest losses forcing some to sell their produce at

very cheap prices (Small-Scale Women Farmers Organization in Nigeria, SWOFON, 2020).

Even after the relaxation of the lockdown, security operatives kept harassing the farmers and

where the farmers refuse to pay bribes, they stand the danger of having their produce destroyed

and seized. This also discouraged many of the transporters from operating and the few who did

ended up transferring the additional cost to farmers (SWOFON, 2020). These events resulted in

increased wastage of perishable food items, low income to farmers and hike in prices of food

items in the market.

The situation was further aggravated because the Nigerian government in August 2019,

prior to the lockdown occasioned by COVID-19 had closed its land borders with neighboring

Benin, Cameroun, Chad and Niger in order to stem the smuggling of goods particularly rice

(Kassa and Zeufack, 2020). In addition, the closure of markets and borders affected inter and

14
intra-country trade in agricultural inputs such as seeds, chemical fertilizers, and farm equipment

and hindered farmers from selling there produce. The decline in trade in food and agricultural

inputs affected the availability of food in most parts of the country and subsequent price spikes.

Farm gate prices declined. So, farmers were making lower profits by selling in local markets

while urban consumers were paying higher prices because of reduced supplies to the urban

markets. Even with the relaxation of the lockdown, food prices have continued to increase (FAO,

2021). For instance, a 50 kg bag of rice that use to be sold for ₦15,000 earlier in the year 2020

increased to about ₦25,806 by September 2020 (Nnodim, 2020). SWOFON (2020) reported that

one bag of fertilizer which sold for ₦7,500 in May, 2020 jumped to ₦17,000 in August 2020.

2.3 Rice Production in Nigeria

The Nigerian government is not left out as it has pursued and implemented various

agricultural policies at the State and Federal levels on the rice transformation agenda to boost

Nigeria’s rice production over the years. Among these is the Agricultural transformation agenda

(ATA) with the success recorded in local rice production of 4.8 million tonnes per annum (FAO,

2016). Harold and Tabo (2015) further noted that similar rice-sector promotion programs have

been embarked upon in other African countries like Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. These align with

the ECOWAS Agricultural Policy-ECOWAP (Olayiwola et al., 2015). Given the rise in food

consumption (rice inclusive), some have argued that the production of rice in large quantities

(that is, large-scale) should be considered as one of the major ways of ensuring food security for

the teaming population in Nigeria (Herrmann, Jumbe, Bruentrup and Osabuohien, 2017;

Osabohien, Osabuohien & Urhie, 2017). Others hold contrary view, stressing the need to

empower small-holder farmers. Against that backdrop, Juliano (2016) stated the importance of

rice over other crops, in terms of its total production in the developing countries and the number

15
of consumers that are dependent on it as a staple food. This has also been stressed by Gyimah-

Brempong, Johnson and Takeshima (2016). While Umeh, Joshi and Ukwungwu (1992)

discussed that a holistic, broadly based, multidisciplinary pest-management research approach is

required due to the immense benefits that integrated pest management (IPM) can provide.

Another important aspect of rice production that requires attention is the issue of

technological advancement in rice processing since it has be observed that most of the processes

utilized by the rural rice farmers are mostly traditional that are both labour intensive and time

consuming. With higher level of technology, the farmers will be able to achieve a higher volume

of yield with the best quality of products that will enhance consumer preference for locally

produced rice. Technological advancement in the production and harvesting will promote

commercialization and profitability of the rice production. Application of modern technology in

the production and processing will further guarantee a better packaging of local rice to make it

more appealing to consumers and will attract more buyers of the product. The use of modern

harvesters suitable to our own ecology will further enhance the standard of the rice production

process by reducing the rate of breaking and eliminating contamination by stone and shafts.

Kareem (2016) has pointed out that the major obstacle facing the attainment of the potential

benefits of agricultural production in many African countries is inadequate science and

technological advancement.

Adewumi, Olayanju and Adewuyi (2007) observed that rice production and processing

are profitable ventures in Nigeria and what is required is to encourage investment in rice

processing activities. Aside the nutritional value of rice and high inclination of people towards its

consumption, the by-product of rice could serve as a source of energy generation for domestic

purposes. This could serve as a source of biofuel for cooking especially in rural settings where

16
most of the rural dwellers could not readily afford the cost of kerosene or gas for cooking and

heating purposes. Yan, Ngadi and Kok (2016) in their study stressed that rice generates large

amount of by-products that could be used to produce energy and reduce the amount of firewood

required to meet the daily cooking needs. This is crucial in Nigeria where rural dwellers use local

means of cooking such as firewood and charcoal. The connotation of the above is that modern

processing of rice at the milling centres could help in preserving the rice hub which servers as

firewood to the locality thereby reducing the cost of buying kerosene for cooking.

For optimum output to be attained in rice production, it is necessary that ecological

consideration be factored in the production process, especially in the choice of land as well as the

typological components of the area. In this respect, the method of land preparation plays a

significant role in the rice production process. In relation to this, Amb and Ahluwalia (2016)

observed that zero tillage in rice-wheat cropping system could have major benefits, such as:

improved water usage efficiency, reduced investment cost, higher yield, reduced weed

population and a positive environmental effect. In production system with no-tillage or

conservation tillage, the crop residues are buried in the soil and thus, the release of

allelochemicals from both the growing plants and residue decomposition might act

synergistically. This is because rice fields have versatile ecotones that comprise aquatic habitats

as well as dry lands and a large group of biodiversity. Other significant factors that affect rice

production include: weeds and pests and diseases infestations. Thus, the control method

employed in the rice farm and the timing of the weeding is of essence to prevent its devastating

effects in the rice farm development.

Rice is cultivated in virtually all the agro ecological zone in Nigeria. It is an increasingly

important Crop in Nigeria. It is relatively easy to produce and is grown for sale and for home

17
consumption (Osinaeme, 2002). Despite this the area cultivated to rice still appears small. In the

year 2000 out of about 25 million hectares of land cultivated to various crops only about 6.37%

was cultivated to rice (Adewale et-al, 2007). During this period the average national yield was

1.47 tons per hectare (Okeke, 2001). Significant improvement in rice production in Nigeria

occurred in 1980 when output increased to 1 million tons while area cultivated and yield rose to

550 thousand per hectares and 1.98 tons per hectares respectively (Ahmadu, 2000). Throughout

the 1980 rice output and yield increased. But in 1990 while rice output increased the yield of rice

declines suggesting extensive rice cultivation (Akande, 2002).

Rice contributes a significant proportion of the food requirement of the population.

Production capacity is far below the national requirement. The output of local rice was estimated

to be 3 million tons while the demand amounted to be 5 million tons in Nigeria (Heiko and

mathias, 2007). In order to meet the increasing demand the Nigeria federal government in an

attempt to boost rice production allocated N 1.5 billion for certified seeds multiplication and

distribution to rice farmers (Olaf; 2003). Also resort importation to milled rice to bridge the gap

between domestic demand and supply. Rice importation was very significant in 1960’s and early

1970’s.

However there was phenomenal rise in import since the mid 1970’s. Rice import begins

to decline in 1981 as a result of measures put in place to check the importation of the

commodity. The quantity imported on an annual basis was over 300 thousand tons, import

dropped significantly from 1985 when embargo was instituted (IRRI world rice statistics, 2010).

Given the precarious balance of payment position of the country especially in the late 1980’s rice

imports become a major source of concern (Akpokodje et-al, 2003). Tunji (2012) reported that

Nigeria spent about $0.1million on rice importation in 1970 and by 1999 the value of import was

18
$ 259 million on average annual import value of $ 1.2 million. This implies that between 1961

and 1999 Nigeria spent $ 4 million.

Odusina (2008) stated that rice (Oryza Sativa) establishment is always manual with three

modes of establishment reported, drilling, board casting and transplanting. Transplanting mode

of establishment is ecological dependent, in upland rice fields, drilling is the prevalent practice

and in irrigated field transplanting. Lowland rice field presents a more varied picture with

emphasis on broadcasting and drilling, and to a lesser degree transplanting (Agbo, 2010). Rice

seeds are generally kept from the previous harvest. The reported seed rate average was 75kg per

hectare (USAID, 2013).

The mode of crop establishment determines the corresponding labour use with

broadcasting being the least labour intensive and transplanting the most (Adewale et-al 2007).

Over all rice tends to be cropped as a sole crop. Rice intercropping was reported in 30% of the

upland rice field and 3% of low land rice fields (Olaf, 2013). Two varieties of rice are being

used by farmers traditional and improved varieties. In low land irrigated fields it is common for

farmers to use traditional varieties. As a result it is only in upland fields that use of high rate of

improved varieties clearly surpassed traditional varieties .Upland ecology are more

heterogeneous compared to low land (WARDA, 2014).

2.4 Status of Rice Production

In recent times, rice has been identified as one of the six major cash crops that Ebonyi

State has comparative advantage in producing, and therefore has started drawing attention. The

other cash crops apart from rice are: cassava, cocoa, cotton, kola-nut, and oil palm. In spite of the

preparation and adoption of Ebonyi State’s document on cash crop policy, there have not been

significant improvements in the level of rice production in the State. Current estimates suggest
19
that Ogun State’s rice output revolves between 15,000 and 20,000 tons per annum. The area

under cultivation is about 12,000 hectares which accounts for a share of 0.7% of national area

cultivated to rice (Onabanjo, 2011).

From the interview conducted, it was observed that some of the rice farmers come

together to form clusters with a view to creating a kind of self-assistance and boost their

production level. Each farmer within these rice farmers’ clusters usually cultivates an average of

2 hectares of farmland per planting season. The major reason behind this idea is traceable to the

capital intensive nature of cultivating large hectares of rice farm which is beyond the reach of

many small-scale farmers. Hence, they make effort to pool resources such as renting tractors

together to during land preparation. Some of the respondents were of the opinion that the

replication of such rice farmers clusters in different communities within the State will increase

the level of rice production. For instance, a farmer needs a total of about 10 workers per hectare

to work during the process of rice production, harvesting and processing. According to the

Deputy National Chairperson of RGAN, there is very low availability of farming labour resulting

to high labour cost and aging farming population. The reasons are not far-fetched, the process is

both unattractive to the youth and there is low level of ‘tractorisation’. This is worsened by the

fact that the method of rice production by the peasant farmers is labour intensive and

characterized by drudgery.

The above necessitates the essence of embarking on a research of this nature, given the

vast amount of resources and opportunities Ebonyi State has for rice production. These

opportunities include: huge ready market for rice paddy; growing market for OFADA rice,

available land for lowland rice cultivation; availability of land for expansion of upland rice

cultivation; rich human resource; high yielding rice varieties; and increasing numbers of

20
agricultural service providers. In addition, it has been emphasised that the establishment of the

Ofada/Veetee rice mill in Itori, Ogun State can strategically position the State as a major player

in rice production. With an installed capacity of 75,000 tons per annum, it is expected to expand

up to 200,000 tons per annum at full capacity, which will substantially boost the market for

paddy rice in Ogun State. This has the potential of increasing food supply, income of the

farmers, employment as well as reducing Nigeria’s high demand for foreign exchange,

strengthening of her currency, and reducing inflation, and so on (Onabanjo, 2011; OSG, 2016).

Rice can be said to be an increasingly important crop in Ogun State (as in other rice

producing States such as: Ebonyi, Osun and Niger) as it has become part of the staple food items

that people consume as daily diet.

In some areas (e.g. Ofadav village in Obafemi Owode LGA) of Ogun State, there is a

long tradition of rice cultivation. Regarding the rice varieties grown in Ogun State, some of them

are considered traditional varieties, others are recently introduced two decades ago usually

grown in paddies or on upland fields, depending on the particular variety. It has also been

reported that, in the last 20 years, new varieties of rice are produced and disseminated by

research institutes, or imported from Asian countries -. Consumption of Ofada rice has gained

more prominence possibly due to the health awareness of many Nigerians who relate its taste and

natural flavour, higher nutritive value to the significance on their health compared to imported

rice varieties. The Ofada rice variety has been reported to have higher fibre content and better

health consideration. Consequently, it now attracts high market price given its relative scarcity

compared to other rice varieties including the imported ones.

2.5 Importance of Rice

21
 Rice is one of the leading food crops in the world. It directly supply more than 507 of all

the calories consumed by the entire human population (Odusina, 2018). Area harvested of rice

per year is 154 million hectares in Nigeria. Human consumption accounts for 85% of total

production of rice. Rice provide 21% of global human per capita energy and 15% of per capita

protein. Although rice protein ranks high in nutritional quantity among cereals protein content is

modest (Saturnina, 2014). Oniah et-al (2008) reported that rice also provides minerals, vitamins

and fibre. Although all constituents accepts carbohydrates are reduced by milling, rice is

important crop to millions of small farmers who grow it on million of hectares throughout the

region and to many landless workers who derive income from working on these farms. Rice

processing techniques have produced breakfast and snacks foods for retail markets. Deficient in

gluten, rice cannot be used to make bread unless its flour is mixed with flour made from other

grains (Akpokodje et-al, 2013).

About 3 million people nearly half the world’s population depends on rice for survival. In

Asia as a whole much of the population consumes rice in every meal (IRRI, 2013). In many

countries rice account for more than 70% of human caloric intake. (WARDA, 2004). Nigeria in

total just over 30% of all calories come from rice because of high domestic consumption of rice

in rice producing countries beyond providing sustenance, rice plays an important cultural role in

many countries. Products of the rice plant are used for a number of different purposes such as

fuel, thatching, industrial starch and artwork (IRRI, 2001).

Growing, selling and eating rice is integral to culture of many countries. In Japan rice

was historically a product for the wealthy and is now a highly prized crop many rituals surround

the preparation of the rice beds, the sowing of the crop and the harvest (FAO, 2008). In China it

has been suggested that rice has been cultivated for 3000 – 4000 years where it gradually rose to

22
become an important part of aristocratic life. China’s rural culture has developed around the

growing of rice and food made from rice are the basis of festival such as the land opening

festival which marks the start of the rice cultivation season and the spring festival (IRRI, 2003).

In Nigeria also rice is an important part of culture. Rice is used in almost all the important

ceremonies in, wedding ceremony traditional marriage ceremony, in coronation and in many

other notable occasions (Agbo, 2012).

2.6 Impact of Coronavirus-COVID-19- on Nigerian SMEs

Indeed, SMEs immensely contribute to the overall economic development of Nigeria but

it has not efficiently expanded and strengthened. Nonetheless, literature posits that that are

different resources such as oil which significantly have impact on the economic policy

formulation in Nigeria and the policy is expected to support the economic condition of the poor

citizens in order to achieve sustainable economic growth in the country (Adedipe, 2004; Akinlo,

2012). Notably, the Nigerian government has solely replied on the oil as the source of revenue

and overwhelming studies have canvassed for the diversification of the economy (Okonkwo &

Madueke, 2016). Nevertheless, COVID-19 has affected the decline in the oil price which is the

prime source of revenue to the government. The outbreak of COVID-19 in Nigeria has virtually

affected all facets of life such as: education, social activities, political, governance, and economic

dealings. Most business transaction since the outbreak of COVID-19 recorded low sales whereby

most SMEs reported decline in the source of income. However, prior to the outbreak of COVID-

19, literature has shown a concern about the challenges of financing of SMEs towards its

effective performance (Adebisi et al., 2015).

More importantly, the economic experts have noted that, the impact of COVID-19

pandemic has gone beyond what SMEs can cater for in Nigeria. Hence, the government is

23
expected to provide support and assistance in form of palliative measures to the citizens. At the

global level, there has been advocacy for collective effort in addressing multifarious challenges

emanating from COVID-19. It has been interestingly asserted by the Director-General of

International Labour Organization (ILO), Ryder (2020) that: Workers and businesses are facing

catastrophe, in both developed and developing economies. We have to move fast, decisively, and

together. The right, urgent measures could make the difference between survival and collapse.

The above quotation is true because there is for measure that will serve as response to the

contention of the director-General of International Labour Organization (ILO), Ryder (2020)

who posits that, if there is no meaningful policy measures during this trying period, many

workers are at high risk of falling into abject poverty. Prior to the current scenario of COVID-19

in Nigeria, the country’s economy is still evolving and the evolvement has been affected by the

COVID-19 which requires urgent measures to address it. According to the National President,

Association of Small Business Owners of Nigeria (ASBON), coronavirus has created negative

impact on the overall operations of SMEs in the country. It is due to this negative consequence

that, there are a lot of cut downs in the production. It is observed that, many businesses

especially Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Nigeria have collapsed as a result of

negative effect of the COVID-19 pandemic. There is vulnerability with regard to the business

transactions especially SMEs despite the fact that, priority has been given to protection of life

and health conditions of the citizens.

Furthermore, the government has been making tremendous effort in getting support for

strengthening production at the manufacturing industries as a way of post-COVID-19 economy

recovery strategy. For instance, it has been earlier mentioned that, manufacturers of pure water

used to get supply of polyethylene meant for making sachet and bottle water because they used

24
to import most of the materials from China which has stopped since outbreak of COVID-19.

Businesses are shutting down as a result of the unavailability of raw materials for production.

Currently, there is no ship from China to Nigeria and there are many containers at the seaports in

China for shipping them to the country but unfortunately COVID-19 has caused more damage to

the business transaction in the country (Odinaka & Josephine, 2020).

More importantly, the production factories have actually stopped as a result of the

prevalent coronavirus pandemic. In addition, as a result of lack of supply of raw materials, small

and medium businesses cannot triumph and consequently, there is no supply of goods in the

market. This situation has two major consequences on the SMEs. First, there are closed down of

most manufacturing industries. Second, the factories with available materials for production

surely will increase the price of the product whereby inflation is ensured. This situation is

worrisome and even becomes unbearable to most citizens because there is no sufficient money to

cater for their basic needs.

Further still, it must be reiterated that, priorities should be given to the recovery of

economy after COVID-19 specifically through stimulation of economy and creation of more

employment opportunities. In addition, significant attention and support should be given to

sustainability and viability of SMEs because it plays paramount roles for the growth and

development of the country’s economy (Chile, 2016; Pulka et al., 2017; MSEMs, 2020). This

position is in line with provision of a framework by the government which will harmonize non-

interest window for several intervention programmes of the government such as Targeted Credit

Facility (TCF), Anchor Borrowers’ Programme (ASAP) etc. which are meant to support the

households and Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) that are more specifically affected by

25
COVID-19. Thus, it is essential to explain strategies for post-COVID-19 economic recovery in

the country.

2.7 Role of Government in Mitigating the Effect of COVID-19 on Farmers

Commissioners of agriculture can play the following roles to help cushion the effect of

COVID-19 on farmers and agri-food systems:

• It is the role of governments both at the national and state levels to support farmers by

providing palliatives such as free improved seedlings and other agro-inputs, basic farm

implements and tractors at subsidized rates, free or cheaper extension services, cash- based

intervention etc. to help cushion the negative impact of COVID 19. However, commissioners of

agriculture can support this move by ensuring that palliatives are well distributed to the right

persons. They should appoint personnel who have good track record for transparency,

accountability and integrity to supervise these tasks to avoid situation where items or funds

provided are diverted to private pockets. Commissioners of agriculture should collaborate with

small scale farmer-based organizations in the disbursement for greater reach to smallholder

farmer in remote rural areas.

Also, they should push for bill to integrate social protection mechanisms, like cash

transfers, access to loans, credit-life insurance products and weather index insurance into the

Nigerian legal framework. These social safety nets are important for agri-food enterprises,

especially when there are temporary drops in their economic activity as a result of the COVID-

19 pandemic. For instance, countries such as Malaysia, Dominican Republic, Thailand and South

Africa have used unemploy- ment protection scheme to support enterprises in retaining workers

in employment as well as workers who have lost their jobs (ILO, 2020). In post COVID-19

26
pandemic era, such mechanisms can play a vital role in protecting agribusinesses and agricultural

households especially in rural areas from crop failures, injecting finance into often cash-starved

rural economies.

• Commissioners of agriculture in collaboration with civil organizations should continue

to push and lobby for the budgetary allocation to the agri- culture sector to be increased to the

recommended 10% of the total budget as set by the Maputo Declaration on Agriculture and Food

security to which Nigeria is a signatory to. The annual budgetary allocation to the sector has

remained at abysmal level of below 2% for the past seven years (PWC, 2020). If this is achieved

then more funds can be available and channeled to providing infrastructure to help boost

agricultural production and support farmers so as to ensure that food production is sustained and

food crisis averted.

• Commissioners of agriculture should help formulate good agricultural policies and

provide adequate infrastructures such as good road networks, storage and processing plants,

irrigation facilities, etc. Many smallholder farmers incur a lot of post-harvest losses and often are

forced to sell their produce at low prices due to lack of storage facilities. Therefore, provision

and maintenance of rural infrastructure will go a long way in minimizing post-harvest losses and

enhancing product evacuation.

• About 80% of farmers in Nigeria are small holder farmers and produce about 90% of

the country’s agricultural output (Unah, 2018). Therefore, Commissioners of agriculture can help

organize these farmers into farming clusters to help stimulate agglomeration economies by

integrating agricultural value chains such as farmers, agro-input dealers, agro-processors,

industrial manufacturers etc. The CBN’s Anchor Borrowers Programme (ABP) is one attempt to

27
bring back farming clusters in Nigeria. To ensure the efficiency of this farming clusters there

must be adequate facilities (such as storage, processing, farm machineries, irrigation,

distribution) provided at each cluster.

• To ensure a sustainable economic recovery post COVID-19 pandemic, commissioners

of agriculture should promote mechanized farming by adopting smart technologies. Subsistence

agriculture is not adequate to meet the challenges of the agricultural sector. To bring about

agricultural transformation they should promote the use of technology and innovation to revamp

agriculture as a pathway to speed up the post COVID-19 economic recovery.

• Commissioners of agriculture should ensure that there is free flow of agricultural inputs,

such as seedlings, fertilizers as well as produce from the farm to markets by removing all

logistical bottle- necks. They should also, provide guidance around actions for safe and resilient

markets and food supply chains and short-term emergency responses.

• Commissioners of agriculture should support the federal government’s effort to develop

strategies, frameworks and initiatives that will ensure a seamless transition from emergency

response to resilience building. They should support early recovery and resilience to shocks

through asset creation and preservation, increased livelihood opportunities and enhance

agricultural value chains.

•They should seek collaboration with international agencies and development partners for

capacity building, secure funding and integrate technological innovations into the agricultural

industry in the country.

28
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Area

The study was carried out in Abakaliki Local Government Area of Ebonyi State. The

Local Government Area is one of the thirteen (13) Local Government Areas of Ebonyi State. It is

29
made up of seven (7) autonomous communities. These are Enyigba, Amegu, Okpuitumo, Ndiegu

Okpuitumo, Amachi, Edda and Nkaleke Unuhu. Abakaliki Local Government Area has a land

area of 584km2 and a total population of 149,683 peoples (NPC, 2006). Geographically, The

L.G.A lies within latitude 40N and Longitude 80E of Ebonyi state.

The mean temperature is between 27 0C and 280C and the prominent climatic seasons are

rainy season, lasting from April to October, and dry season, lasting from November to March.

The vegetation of the area is the derived Savanna type. The trees in the area are usually drought

resistant. The topography of the area is characterized mainly by level land except for some part

of the area where chains of rolling hills and valleys define the landscape.

Farming constitute the major occupation of the people in the study area, though

significant number of the population engaged in non-farm occupation such as civil and public

services, building and construction, trading and transportation among others. Major

crops grown in the area include cassava, rice, yam, vegetable, maize, oil palm, and sweet

potatoes. Others include: pumkin (telferia occidentalis), pepper, soyabeans, citrus, banana,

plantain, and various tree crops. Farmers also engage in livestock production such as sheep and

goat, poultry, cattle and swine.

30
 = Abakaliki LGA

Figure: 3.1 Map of Ebonyi State Showing Study Area

3.2 Sampling Techniques

31
 Multi-stage random and purposive sampling procedure was used for the selection of the

rice farmers.

Stage 1: Out of the seven (7) communities that made up the L.G.A of study, five (5) communities

(Edda, Nkaleke Unuhu, Amegu, Okpuitumo and Ndiegu Okpuitumo) were purposively selected

based on the level of rice farming activities in the area.

Stage II: Two (2) villages were randomly selected from each of the 5 communities already

selected to make a total of 10 villages.

Stage III: Fifteen (15) rice farmers were randomly selected from each of the 10 villages already

selected to make a total of 150 respondents that were used for the study.

3.3 Data Collection

Primary data were used for the study. This data were collected through the use of

structured questionnaire that were administered to the rice farmers as interview schedule.

3.4 Data Analysis

Data will be analyzed using relevant analytical techniques such as descriptive and

inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, mean and percentages were used to

actualize objectives i. Objective ii and iv were actualized using four point likert type scale while

objective iii and v were achieved using multiple regression and factor analyses respectively..

3.5 Test of Hypothesis

32
 The null hypothesis which states that COVID-19 pandemic do not significantly influence

rice production in the study area was tested using F-test

3.6 Model Specifications

3.6.1 Multiple Regression Analysis

Y = f (x1, x2, x3, x4, x5) (1) Implicit

Y = a0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + a4 x4 + a5 x + et (2) Explicit

Where,

Y = Rice output (Kg)

X1 = Partial lockdown (Yes = 1, No = 2)

X2 = Total lockdown (Yes = 1, No = 2)

X3 = Social distancing (Yes = 1, No = 2)

X4 = Quarantines (Yes = 1, No = 2)

X5 = Wearing of face masks (Yes = 1, No = 2)

a0 = Constant

a1 – a5 = Parameters

et = Error term

3.6.2 Mean Score Analysis

33
 fx
X =∑
N

Where;

X = mean score

∑ = summation

X = likert value

F=frequency

N = number of respondent.

Decision point for the four point likert scale;

4= strongly agree, 3 = agree, 2 = disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree.

4+ 3+2+1 10
X= = = 2.5
4 4

This implies that using 2.5 as decision point, any item that has mean score less than 2.5 was

rejected while those with mean score of 2.5 and above were accepted.

3.6.3 Factor Analysis Model

In order to obtain the factor loadings of each of the variables necessary for achieving

aspects of objective v, factor analysis model presented below were used.

Each dependent variable (Y) can be expressed as a weighted composite of a set of latent

variables (F) such as:

Y = α1 F1 + α2 F2 + ----------- + αn Fn

34
Where:

Y = Dependent variable

α = Constant

F = Independent variable

n = Number of independent variable

For this study, factors of 0.40 and above were selected and used for the analysis and

otherwise ignored. This is line with the studies of Nwibo, Mbam and Ibiam (2016) who worked

on determinants of agripreneurship among the rural households of Ishielu Local Government

Area of Ebonyi State.

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

35
 This chapter discussed the result of the analysis conducted based on the specific

objectives of the study; which include to: describe the socio-economic characteristics of the rice

farmers, analyze rice farmers perceived effects of COVID-19 pandemic on rice production,

analyze the effects of COVID-19 on rice production, identify the coping strategies adopted by

rice farmers to cushion the effect of COVID-19 and analyze constraints to mitigating the effects

of Covid-19 on rice production.

4.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents

This section is described the socio-economic attributes of the rice farmers such as sex,

age, marital status, educational level, household size, farm size, annual income, farming

experience and others. The result obtained was presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Percentage Distribution of the rice Farmers based on their Socio –Economic
Characteristics
Variable Frequency Percentage (%) Mean ( x )

36
 (N = 150)
Sex
Male 104 69.3
Female 46 30.7
Age
Less than 40 38 25.3
41-50 98 65.3
51 and above 14 9.4 42
Marital status
Single 20 13.3
Married 110 73.3
Divorced 4 2.7
Separated 6 4.0
Widowed 10 6.7
Level of Educational Attained
No formal education 22 14.7
Primary education 35 23.3
Secondary education 78 52.0
Tertiary education 15 10.0 8
Household size
1-5 38 25.3
6-10 92 61.3
11-15 12 8.0
Above 15 8 5.4 7
Farm Size
≤1 45 30.0
2-3 95 63.3
4-5 8 5.3
Above 5 2 1.4 2
Annual Income
≤ 100,000 31 20.7
100,001-200,000 7 4.7
200,001-300,000 20 13.3
300,001 – 400,000 89 59.3
Above 400,000 3 2.0 320,000
Years of Farming
1-10 6 4.3
11-20 105 70.0
21-30 35 25.0
above 30 4 2.8 11
Primary Occupation
Farming 133 88.7
Non-farm 17 11.3
Source: Field Survey, 2023

Sex

37
 Result of the analysis in Table 1 showed that majority (69.3%) of the rice farmers in the

study area were males while few (30.7%) of the rice farmers were females indicating that male

dominated rice production in the area. This finding agrees with Onubuogu et al., (2014) who

was of the opinion that males are more involved in rice production.

Age
The result further revealed that majority (65.3%) of the rice farmers’ fall within the age

bracket of 41-50 years while least (9.4%) were above 51years of age. This result suggests that

most of the farmers are young people who are still strong and full of energy to make meaningful

impact in agricultural production. The average age of the sampled rice farmers was 42 years.

This was the same to the research finding of Okoruwa and Ogundele (2013) which put the

average of Nigerian rice farmers at 42 years.

Marital Status

The study also showed that the largest proportion (73.3%) of the rice farmers was

married while few (2.7%) were divorced. This implies that married farmers are more

“advantaged” in agricultural production and improved agricultural technology utilization because

spouses and children of married farmers constitute the major labour force in rice production. The

finding is in consonance with the research finding of Kolawole et al. (2012) which affirms that

most rice farmers in the study area are married.

Educational level

Table 1 showed that majority (52.0%) of the rice farmers had secondary education while

few (10.0%) had tertiary education with educational level of 8years. This implies that most rice

farmers in the area completed their secondary education, which is likely to improve their

understanding of COVID-19's impact on rice farms and the numerous techniques to combat these

new dangers (Esiobu, 2020). This supports the findings of Amaza and Tashikalma (2013),
38
Kolawole et al. (2012) and Agbamu (2015) who stated that the literacy level of farmers enhances

the rate of utilization of improved technology.

Household size

Majority (61.3%) of the rice farmers had between 6-10 household size while least (5.4%)

had above 15 household size. Their average household size was 7 persons. This implies that rice

farmers in the area have considerable family labour. This is consistent with the findings of

Dontsop et al. (2011) which found the average household size of rice farmers in the three major

rice ecologies of Nigeria to be 7 persons. Family labour is important in rice production as it

reduces the amount spent on hired labour, as opined by Garba et al. (2011).

Farm Size
Majority (63.3%) of the rice farmers had farm size of between 2 - 3 hectares in the area

with mean farm size of 2 hectares. This implies that the study area comprises mostly small-scale

farmers. This agrees with Olayide (2012) that Nigerian farmers are small-scale farmers that

cultivated small areas of land. According to the findings, the farmers in the area are

predominantly smallholder farmers, who are particularly vulnerable to COVID-19. Small

business owners have been proven in studies to be unable to pay ongoing expenses and survive

the closure policy regulations (Akbay, Khalil, & Odel, 2021)

Annual Income

Result of the analysis also showed that majority (59.3%) of the rice farmers in the study

area have annual income of between N300,001 – N400,000, while few (2.0%) had annual

income of above N400,000. Their mean annual income was N320,000.00 which is less than

N30,000 per month in spite of large families which they supported. The marginal propensity to

consume and the produce of these rice farmers far exceeds their propensity to save, making the

39
generation of working capital as well as expected to be earning marked fund almost impossible.

This further perpetuates the vicious cycle of poverty that had engulfed these rice farmers and

their inability to eat good food in their houses. This agrees with Onikoyi (2016) and Onubuogu et

al., (2014) who reported that peoples with the higher annual income will easily realize more

yield than their counterparts who have poor annual income.

Farming Experience

Most (70.2%) of the rice farmers have been growing rice between 11-20 years, while

2.8% had been into rice farming for above 30 years. The average farming experiences of rice

farmers in the study area was 11 years. This therefore tallies with the findings of Njoku and Odi

(2011) that farming experience promote efficient use of scarce resources. This demonstrates that

the farmers were well-versed in rice farming and had begun implementing many COVID-19

epidemic tactics to boost their farm productivity and revenue in the area. According to one study,

farmers with more experience are more likely to adopt innovations to increase farm productivity

and profitability during the COVID- 19 pandemic than farmers with less experience (Esiobu,

2020).

Primary occupation

Most of the respondents were full time farmers. This was shown by the majority (88.7%)

who were into farming alone while 11.3% of the respondents engage in other forms of

occupation. This finding agrees to the findings of Okoye and Onyenweaku (2017) which

reported that farming was a rural base activity with little of the small holder farmers engaging in

other forms of livelihood other than farming alone.

4.2 Rice Farmers Perceived Effects of Covid-19 Pandemic on Rice Production in the Area

40
 The perceived effect of Covid-19 pandemic on rice production in the study area was

analyzed in this section with the help of mean score. The result obtained is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Mean Score Distribution of the Rice Farmers based on their Perceived Effects of
COVID-19 Pandemic on Rice Production in the Area
Perceived Effects Mean ( x ) Decision
COVID-19 pandemic has threatened the health of farmers 2.74 Accepted
COVID-19 pandemic has caused difficulty to commercialize the rice crop 2.70 Accepted
COVID-19 has reduced ability to replant during the growing season 2.76 Accepted
COVID-19 has reduced the availability of inputs used in rice farming 2.78 Accepted
COVID-19 has led to a decrease in the revenue of rice farming 2.80 Accepted
COVID-19 has reduced the household income 2.83 Accepted
COVID-19 has reduced the ability to obtain essential food items 2.98 Accepted
COVID-19 has led to a shortage of farm labours 1.43 Rejected
Source: Field Survey, 2023
Result of the analysis in Table 2 showed that the major perceived effects of Covid-19

pandemic on rice production in the study area were COVID-19 has reduced the ability to obtain

essential food items ( x = 2.98), COVID-19 has reduced the household income ( x = 2.83) and

COVID-19 has led to a decrease in the revenue of rice farming ( x = 2.80). Followed by COVID-

19 has reduced the availability of inputs used in rice farming ( x = 2.78), COVID-19 has reduced

ability to replant during the growing season ( x = 2.76), COVID-19 pandemic has threatened the

health of farmers ( x = 2.74) and COVID-19 pandemic has caused difficulty to commercialize the

rice crop ( x = 2.70).

This result strongly confirmed that COVID-19 pandemic is seriously affecting rice

farmers in the area. Since March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused a partial closure of

all agricultural institutions in the country. It disrupts rice activities such as harvesting for the

2019/2020 planting season, which runs from November 2019 to March 2020, and land

preparations in April 2020 for the first planting season of 2020/2021. As a result of the weak

transportation system and partial shutdown, supply chains for purchasing inputs have been

41
disrupted. As the consequence, rice farmers are having trouble starting to plant the crop. This

contributed to a decline in rice production in the in 2020 (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2020).

Furthermore, partial lockdown as a tactic to contain the spread of the COVID-19 has

severely curtailed market access, preventing farmers from selling their products outside of the

province. Farmers' earnings from rice farming activities are reduced due to lower productivity

and limited market access. Farmers' revenue from non-farming activities has also decreased as a

result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Rice farmers in the area typically take part-time or seasonal

jobs as construction laborers or in the home industry. Farmers have lost their side jobs as a result

of the implementation of activity restriction policies. This had a detrimental influence on the

income of the farmers' households as a whole. Farmers have had difficulty obtaining basic food

supplies as a result of income losses and increasing food prices. Small-scale farmers' revenues

are already far below the amount required for an essential existence even before COVID-19 hit

(Segal and Minh, 2019). As a result, the present COVID-19 pandemic exacerbates the situation.

According to Janssens et al., (2021), the COVID-19 pandemic has intensified food insecurity in

low-income families and caused many poor households to adopt less healthful diets.

4.3 Effect of Covid-19 Pandemic on Rice Production in the Area

42
 The effect of Covid-19 pandemic on rice production in the area was analyzed in this

section and the result obtained is presented in Table 3 and 4.

Table 3: Mean Score Distribution on Output of the Farmers Before and During Covid-19
in the Study Area
Variables Mean Output
Before Covid-19 400.9079
During Covid-19 150.2533
Source: Field Survey, 2023

The result of the analysis as shown in Table 3 revealed that the rice farmers had mean

output of 400.9 before Covid-19 while their outputs decreased to 150.3 during Covid-19. This

implies that Covid-19 has direct negative impact on output of the rice farmers in the study area.

This could be attributed to the fact that during Covid-19 many precautionary and safety measures

were introduced and this has direct impact on rice production in the area. Also, the drop in farm

output could be that the Covid-19 made farmers unable to farm frequently and also sell their

farm produce which could get spoilt if not sold on time and this would mean more loses for

them. This support the findings of Joseph (2015) who reported that during Covid-19 people

abandon their farms and this invariably affects their farming activities and outputs.

Table 4: Multiple Regression Analysis on Effect of Covid-19 Pandemic on Rice Production

in the Area

Variables Estimated Standard error T-value Level of

coefficients significance
Constant 12.613 17.959 0.702 0.034**
Partial lockdown -0.004 0.004 -1.000 0.015**
Total lockdown -0.347 2.567 -1.135 0.081*
Social distancing -0.381 0.265 -1.438 0.028**
Quarantine -0.595 4.910 -0.121 0.018**
Wearing of face masks -0.581 5.029 -0.116 0.039**
2
R 0.881
Adjusted R2 0.802
F-ratio 18.839
SEE 0.22584
Source: Field survey, 2022. *, **= Significant 10%, and 5% respectively.

43
 Table 4 showed the results of the multiple regression analysis on effect of Covid-19

pandemic on rice production in the study area. From the regression analysis in Table 4, the F-

statistics value was found to be 18.839 at 1% level of significance indicating the goodness of fit

of the model. The coefficient of multiple determination (R 2) value was 0.881 which implies that

88% variation in the dependent variable which was rice production output was explained by the

independent variables included in the model, while unaccounted 12% could be due to non-

inclusion of some explanatory variables and errors due to estimation.

Results of the analysis revealed that the coefficient of partial lockdown was negatively

related to rice production output and was statistically significant at 5% (P=0.5) level of

significance. This shows that rice production output decreases with increase in partial lockdown.

Hence, rice production output has inverse relationship with Covid-19 pandemic. This

corroborates Ban, (2017) that Covid-19 pandemic have negatively affected rice production in

Nigeria.

The result further showed that the coefficient of total lockdown was negative and

significant at 10% (P = 0.1) level of significance. This implies that increase in total lockdown

caused by Covid-19 will bring about a corresponding decrease in rice production output in the

study area, since most of the produce may not be sold or used.

The coefficient of social distancing was also negative and significant at 5% (P = 0.05).

This implies that increasing social distancing will lead to 34.7% decrease in rice crop production.

This support the findings of Adeola and Oluyemi, (2012).

The coefficient of quarantine was negative and significant at 5% (P = 0.05) level of

probability. This implies that increase in quarantine will result to decrease in rice production.

44
Covid-19 have a strong effect on production especially food crops as farmers will not have time

to carry out the required cultural practices on the farm during the period such as weeding and

application of chemicals and fertilizer at the required time.

The result further showed that the coefficient of wearing of face mask was negative and

significant at 5% (P=0.05) level of significance. This implies that wearing of face mask has

inverse relationship with rice production.

The final regression equation is estimated as

Y= 12.613 - 0.004X1 - 0.347X2 – 0.381X3 – 0.595X4 - 0.581X5

4.4 Coping Strategies Adopted by Rice Farmers to Cushion the Effect of Covid-19 in the

Study Area

The coping strategies adopted by the rice farmers to cushion the effect of Covid-19 in the

study area was considered and analyzed in this section and the result presented in Table 5.

Table 5: Mean Score Distribution on Coping Strategies Adopted by Rice Farmers to

Cushion the Effect of Covid-19 in the Study Area
Coping Strategies Mean ( x ) Decision
Quarantine 2.64 Accepted
Self-isolation 2.66 Accepted
Confinement/Lockdown 2.92 Accepted
Prohibition of intra-regional movement 2.89 Accepted
Cough or sneeze into the elbow of the hand 2.56 Accepted
Closure of places of worship 2.78 Accepted
Regular hand washing 3.00 Accepted
Wearing a mask 3.60 Accepted
Social distancing 2.82 Accepted
Use of hand sanitizer 3.22 Accepted
Source: Field Survey, 2023
The result of the analysis in Table 5 showed that the major coping strategies adopted by

rice farmers to cushion the effect of Covid-19 in the study area were wearing a mask ( x = 3.60),

use of hand sanitizer ( x = 3.22) and regular hand washing ( x = 3.00). Followed by

45
confinement/lockdown ( x = 2.92), prohibition of intra-regional movement ( x = 2.89) and social

distancing ( x = 2.82). Others were closure of places of worship ( x = 2.78), self-isolation ( x =

2.66), quarantine ( x = 2.64) and cough or sneeze into the elbow of the hand ( x = 2.56). This

implies that wearing a mask, use of hand sanitizer and regular hand washing were the major

coping strategies adopted by rice farmers to cushion the effect of Covid-19 in the study area.

4.5 Constraints to Mitigating the Effect of Covid-19 on Rice Production

In order to identify constraints to mitigating the effect of covid-19 on rice production in

the study area, factor analysis was conducted. The result obtained is shown in Table 6.

Table 6: Varimax Rotated Component Matrix on Constraints to Mitigating the Effect of

Covid-19 on Rice Production
Constraints Factor 1 Factor 2
Institutional Individual
Unpredictable conditions of Covid-19 0.886 0.345
Lack of information on early warning signs of Covid-19 0.824 0.223
Inadequate government support 0.786 0.318
Poor Covid-19 information 0.761 0.227
Poor access to information sources on Covid-19 -0.312 0.656
Inadequate knowledge of how to cope or build resilience -0.435 0.616
Cost of controlling Covid-19 0.745 0.336
Government irresponsiveness to Covid-19 management 0.635 0.276
Lack of information from extension agents 0.624 0.226
Cultural barriers -0.461 0.610
Source: Field Survey, 2023
Table 6 showed the varimax rotated component matrix on constraints to mitigating the

effect of covid-19 on rice production in the Study area. From the field data collected, two (2)

major constraints were extracted based on the responses of the rice farmers’. Only variables with

constraints loading of 0.40 and above at 10% overlapping variance (Ashley, et al, 2006,

Madukwu, 2004) were used in naming the constraints. Variable that loaded in more than one

46
constraint were discarded while variables that have constraints loading of less than 0.40 were not

used.

Factor 1 was considered and named institutional constraints due to the variables that

loaded high under it. These high loading variables include unpredictable conditions of Covid-19

(0.886), lack of information on early warning signs of Covid-19 (0.824), inadequate government

support (0.786), poor Covid-19 information (0.761), cost of controlling Covid-19 (0.745),

government irresponsiveness to Covid-19 management (0.635) and lack of information from

extension agents (0.624).

Also, Factor 2 was considered and named individual constraints due to the variables that

loaded high under it. These high loading variables include poor access to information sources on

Covid-19 (0.656), inadequate knowledge of how to cope or build resilience (0.616) and cultural

barrier (0.610). In conclusion, the major constraints to mitigating the effect of covid-19 on rice

production in the Study area were institutional and individual constraints.

4.6 Hypothesis Testing

Ho: the null hypothesis which stated that COVID-19 pandemic do not significantly

influence rice production in the study area was tested using F-test at 5% level of significance and

the result showed that F-cal = 18.839, F-tab = 2.12.

Decision Rule: if F-cal ˃ F-tab reject null hypothesis, otherwise accept the alternative.

Since F-cal (18.839) > F-tab (2.12), the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternative

accepted. This implies that COVID-19 pandemic significantly influence rice production in the

study area.

47
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

The study assessed the perceived effects of COVID-19 pandemic on rice production in

Abakaliki Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling procedure

involving purposive and random sampling techniques were used in the selection of 150

respondents for the study. Primary data collected through the aid of a well-structured

questionnaire were used for the study. Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential

statistics such as frequency tables, mean scores, multiple regression and factors analyses.

Results showed that majority (69.3%) of the rice farmers in the study area were males

while few (30.7%) of the rice farmers were females. Majority (65.3%) of the rice farmers’ fall

within the age bracket of 41-50 years while least (9.4%) were above 51years of age. The average

age of the sampled rice farmers was 42 years. Largest proportion (73.3%) of the rice farmers was

married while few (2.7%) were divorced. However, majority (52.0%) of the rice farmers had

secondary education while few (10.0%) had tertiary education with educational level of 8years.

It was observed that majority (61.3%) of the rice farmers had between 6-10 household size while

least (5.4%) had above 15 household size. Their average household size was 7 persons. Majority

(63.3%) of the rice farmers had farm size of between 2 - 3 hectares in the area with mean farm

size of 2 hectares. Majority (59.3%) of the rice farmers in the study area have annual income of

between N300,001 – N400,000, while few (2.0%) had annual income of above N400,000. Their

mean annual income was N320, 000.00. Most (70.2%) of the rice farmers have been growing

rice between 11-20 years, while 2.8% had been into rice farming for above 30 years. The

average farming experiences of rice farmers in the study area was 11 years. Lastly, 88.7% of the

48
rice farmers were into farming alone while 11.3% of the respondents engage in other forms of

occupation.

Furthermore, the major perceived effects of Covid-19 pandemic on rice production in the

study area were COVID-19 has reduced the ability to obtain essential food items ( x = 2.98),

COVID-19 has reduced the household income ( x = 2.83) and COVID-19 has led to a decrease in

the revenue of rice farming ( x = 2.80). Followed by COVID-19 has reduced the availability of

inputs used in rice farming ( x = 2.78), COVID-19 has reduced ability to replant during the

growing season ( x = 2.76), COVID-19 pandemic has threatened the health of farmers ( x = 2.74)

and COVID-19 pandemic has caused difficulty to commercialize the rice crop ( x = 2.70).

However, the rice farmers had mean output of 400.9 before Covid-19 while their outputs

decreased to 150.3 during Covid-19. This implies that Covid-19 has direct negative impact on

output of the rice farmers in the study area.

The result of the multiple regression analysis revealed that the coefficient of multiple

determination (R2) value was 0.881 which implies that 88% variation in the dependent variable

which was rice production output was explained by the independent (COVID-19 variables)

included in the model, while unaccounted 12% could be due to non-inclusion of some

explanatory variables and errors due to estimation.

Furthermore, the major coping strategies adopted by rice farmers to cushion the effect of

Covid-19 in the study area were wearing a mask ( x = 3.60), use of hand sanitizer ( x = 3.22) and

regular hand washing ( x = 3.00). Followed by confinement/lockdown ( x = 2.92), prohibition of

intra-regional movement ( x = 2.89) and social distancing ( x = 2.82). Others were closure of

places of worship ( x = 2.78), self-isolation ( x = 2.66), quarantine ( x = 2.64) and cough or sneeze

into the elbow of the hand ( x = 2.56).

49
 Result of the factor analysis revealed that the major constraints to mitigating the effect of

covid-19 on rice production in the Study area were institutional and individual constraints.

Lastly, the null hypothesis tested at 5% level of significance was rejected indicating that

COVID-19 pandemic significantly influence rice production in the study area.

5.2. Conclusions

The study concluded that the major perceived effects of Covid-19 pandemic on rice

production in the study area were COVID-19 has reduced the ability to obtain essential food

items ( x = 2.98), COVID-19 has reduced the household income ( x = 2.83) and COVID-19 has led

to a decrease in the revenue of rice farming ( x = 2.80).

5.3. Recommendations

Based on the findings of this research, the following recommendations were made.

1. There is need for soft loan to be giving to farmers so as to encourage them to boost food

production in the country,

2. There should be distribution of good medical facilities, personnel and free treatment to

the affected persons in the rural areas to improve their healthy conditions

3. There is need for sensitization and training of farmers on modern methods of agriculture

that will involve social distancing to improve the health conditions of the farmers.

50
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 APPENDIX I

QUESTIONNAIRE

Department of Agricultural Economics

Management and Extension
Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki.

PERCEIVED EFFECTS OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON RICE PRODUCTION IN

ABAKALIKI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF EBONYI STATE, NIGERIA
Dear Sir/ Madam,

I am a final year student of the above department currently carrying a research on the
above topic.

Please, I want you to supply the information contained in the questionnaire to enable me
carry out the project research.

Any help rendered in answering the questionnaire will be treated confidentially and will
be used for the purpose of this study only.

Thanks for your anticipated cooperation.

Yours faithfully,

ONWE FAVOUR OLUEBUBE

53
 SECTION A

SOCIO –ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESPONDENTS

Please tick as applicable.

1. Sex (a) Male ( ) (b) Female ( )

2. What is your age? …………………………….

3. Marital status (a) single ( ) (b) married ( ) (c) Divorced ( ) (d) separated ( )

(e) widowed ( )

4. Level of education attained (a) No formal education ( ) (b) Primary education (c)

Secondary education ( ) (d) Tertiary education ( )

5. Household size…………………………………

6. Farm size ………………………………………………..

7. What is your annual income (N) …………………………………

8. Years of farming …………………………………years

9. What is your primary occupation (a) farming ( ) (b) Non-farming ( )

54
 SECTION B

RICE FARMERS PERCEIVED EFFECTS OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON RICE

PRODUCTION IN THE AREA

1. To the best of your knowledge indicate the perceived effects of Covid-19 on rice production

in your area?

Perceived Effects SA A D SD
COVID-19 pandemic has threatened the health of farmers
COVID-19 pandemic has caused difficulty to commercialize the rice
crop
COVID-19 Has reduced ability to replant during the growing season
COVID-19 Has reduced the availability of inputs used in rice farming.
COVID-19 has led to a decrease in the revenue of rice farming

COVID-19 has reduced the household income

COVID-19 has reduced the ability to obtain essential food items

COVID-19 has led to a shortage of farm labours

Others (Specify)
Note: SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, D=Disagree, SD=Strongly Disagree

55
 SECTION C

EFFECT OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON RICE PRODUCTION IN THE AREA

1. What is your rice output?

a. Before Covid-19 …………………..Kg

b. During Covid-19…………………….Kg

2. Do any of the following Covid-19 measures influence your rice production?

Covid-19 Effect Yes No

Partial lockdown

Total lockdown

Social distancing

Quarantines

Wearing of face masks

Others (specify)

56
 SECTION D

COPING STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY RICE FARMERS TO CUSHION THE EFFECT

OF COVID-19 IN THE STUDY AREA

3. Which of the following coping strategies was adopted by rice farmers to cushion the effect of
COVID-19 in your area?

Coping Strategies SA A D SD
Quarantine
Self-isolation
Confinement/Lockdown
Prohibition of intra-regional movement
Cough or sneeze into the elbow of the hand

Closure of places of worship

Regular hand washing

Wearing a mask
Social distancing
Use of hand sanitizer
Others (Specify)
Note: SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree, D=Disagree, SD=Strongly Disagree

57
 SECTION E

CONSTRAINTS TO MITIGATING THE EFFECT OF COVID-19 ON RICE

PRODUCTION

4. Indicate the perceived constraints to mitigating the effect of COVID-19 on rice production in
your area?

Constraints SA A D SD

Unpredictable conditions of Covid-19

Lack of information on early warning signs of Covid-19

Inadequate government support

Poor Covid-19 information

Poor access to information sources on Covid-19

Inadequate knowledge of how to cope or build resilience

Cost of controlling Covid-19

Government irresponsiveness to Covid-19 management

Lack of information from extension agents

Cultural barriers

Others (specify)

5. SA=Strongly Agree, A=Agree, D=Disagree, SD=Strongly Disagree.

GOD BLESS YOU.

58