PHYS 222 OPTICS AND WAVES

LABORATORY MANUAL

Prof. Dr. Nizami HASANLI

Revised by Kamil ÇINAR

JULY 2014
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. THIN LENS Experiment OW-1

2. PRISM SPECTROMETER Experiment OW-2

3. DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE Experiment OW-3

4. POLARIZATION Experiment OW-4

5. GRATING SPECTROMETER Experiment OW-5

6. MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER Experiment OW-6

7. MICROWAVE OPTICS 1 Experiment OW-7

8. MICROWAVE OPTICS 2 Experiment OW-8

9. REFLECTION Experiment OW-9

10. OPTICAL ACTIVITY Experiment OW-10

11. SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN

DIFFERENT FILTERS Experiment OW-11

 THIN LENS EXP. OW-1

PURPOSE
-To measure the focal lengths of converging and diverging thin lenses

GENERAL
A simple lens has two surfaces that enclose a medium of a refractive index different from the
medium in which it is used. It has the property of forming images. There are many types of
lenses. But they all can be classified into two types depending on whether they make parallel
light convergent or divergent. A ―converging lens‖ is thicker in the center than at the edges
provided that its refractive index is higher than the surrounding medium. A lens that is thinner
at the center than its edges is a ―diverging lens‖. Also, lenses are customarily divided into
―thin lenses‖ and ―thick lenses.‖ However this division is entirely a matter of precision
required for solving a given problem. The same lens may well be considered ―thin‖ for a
preliminary, and ―thick‖ for a rigorous solution. The assumption which applies to the thin lens
is that effect of finite lens thickness can be neglected. In this experiment the focal lengths of a
converging and a diverging lens will be measured. It will be assumed that the lenses are thin.
The three methods that will be utilized for the measurement of the focal lengths are described
below; ―thin lens formula method‖, ―Bessel’s method‖ and ―virtual object method‖. The first
two methods can be used for measuring the focal length of a converging lens. The third one
allows the measurement of the focal length of a diverging lens.

Thin Lens Formula Method: Referring to Fig. 1, for a thin lens, in the paraxial
approximation, the relationship between the object distance so , image distance si , and the
focal length f as measured from the lens center is given by the thin lens equation,
1/so+1/si=1/f Eq. (1)
where f is the focal length. By solving for f, we can rewrite the thin lens equation in the
equivalent form,
f  s i s0 s i  s0 Eq. (2)
Thus the focal length f of a thin lens can be determined using Eq. (2), when both the object
distance so and image distance si are measured.
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 THIN LENS EXP. OW-1

Bessel Method: Referring to Fig. 2, suppose an object and screen are a fixed distance D
apart. A converging lens located between the object and screen will form a sharp image on the
screen at two different positions whose separation is d. By locating these two positions we can
determine the focal length f of the lens from the formula,
f= ( D2 – d2 )/4D Eq .(3)
Virtual Object Method: Focal length of a diverging lens cannot be determined directly as it
is possible for a converging lens. In the virtual object method a converging lens with a known
focal length is combined with a diverging lens of unknown focal length as shown in Fig. 3.
The converging lens should be sufficiently strong to satisfy the relation below.
1/f converging  1/f diverging  Eq. (4)
Notice that if this requirement is not satisfied, then the diverging lens will cause the rays to
diverge and a real image will not be formed. To utilize this method first a sharp image is
formed using the converging lens only. Referring to Fig. 3, this is the screen position #1.
Then the diverging lens is placed between the screen and the converging lens, at a distance d
from the converging lens. The screen is adjusted until a sharp image again forms on the
screen. This is screen position #2. The focal length fdiverging of the diverging lens is then given
by
1 1 1
  Eq. (5)
f diverging si si  d

where si is the distance between the screen position #1 and the converging lens, and si is
the distance between screen position #2 and the diverging lens. By solving for fdiverging, we
can rewrite the above equation in the equivalent form.

si si  d 
f diverging  Eq.(6)

si  si  d 

EQUIPMENT
-Optics Bench -Light Source
-Component Holders x 4 -Viewing Screen
-Crossed Arrow Target -75 mm focal length Converging Lens
-150 mm focal length Diverging Lens

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 THIN LENS EXP.OW-1

PROCEDURE
PART A: Thin Lens Formula Method
1. Set up the equipment according to Fig. 1. The Crossed Arrow Target will be used as the
―Object‖. Turn on the Light Source and slide the Lens toward and away from the Object as
needed to focus the image of the Object on the Viewing Screen.
Crossed arrow
target Converging
(object) Lens Screen
Light
source

so si
Optical bench
Figure 1. Thin lens formula method setup
2. Measure the object and image distances from the Lens and record these values in Table 1.
3. Repeat this measurement two more times with different object distances while recording your
data in Table 1.

PART B: Bessel Method

1. Set up the apparatus according to Fig.2. The Object to Screen distance must be at least four
times the estimated focal length of the Converging Lens.

Crossed Converging Converging

Arrow Target Lens Lens
Light (Object) Screen
(position #1) (position #2)
Source

d
Optical bench
D

Figure 2. Bessel method setup

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 THIN LENS EXP.OW-1

2. Determine the two positions (positions #1 and #2) of the Lens which yield a sharp image on
the Screen. Record the distance between Object and the Screen and two positions of the Lens in
Table 2
3. Repeat this measurement two more times with different values for the object to screen
distance, and record your data in Table 2.

PART C: Virtual Object Method

1. Referring to Fig.3, mount the 75 mm focal length Converging Lens on the Optical Bench,
with 100 mm to 120 mm object distance so.

Diverging
Crossed Lens
Arrow Target Converging Screen Screen
Light (Object) Lens (position #1) (position #2)
Source

Optical Bench so d si

si
Figure 3.Virtual object method setup

2. Adjust the Screen to obtain a sharp image. Record the image distance si (from converging
Lens to Screen position #1) in Table 3.
3. Mount the Diverging Lens between the Screen and the Converging Lens, about 50 mm from
the Converging Lens.
4. Adjust the Screen to obtain a sharp image. Record the image distance si ( from Diverging
Lens to Screen position #2), and the distance d between the two lenses in Table 3.
5. Repeat this procedure two more times, each time, starting with a different object distance so.

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THIN LENS EXP.OW-1

DATA and RESULTS

Name:______________________________ TA____________________________
Department:_________________________
Partners:__________________________________________________________________

PART A: Thin Lens Formula Method

Table1: Sample data for Thin Lens Formula Method
Object distance, so Image distance, si Focal length, fm

n n
  fm  f 
 fm 2
m1 m1
f    f  
n n 1

Referring to Table 1;
1. Calculate the focal length, fm , for each trial using Eq.(2) and record your results.

2. Calculate the average focal length, f , and the error ,  f , and record your results.

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 THIN LENS EXP.OW-1

PART B: Bessel Method

Table 2: Sample data for Bessel Method
d D Focal length, fm

n n
  fm  f 
 fm 2
m1 m1
f    f  
n n 1

Referring to Table 2,
1. Calculate the focal length, fm, for each trial using Eq.(3) and record your results.

2. Calculate the average focal length, f , and the error ,  f , and record your results.
3. How well do your values for the average focal length obtained in Part A and Part B agree
with each other and the manufacturer’s specification? Discuss any discrepancy.

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 THIN LENS EXP.OW-1

PART C: Virtual Object Method

Table 3: Sample data for Virtual Object Method
si si d Focal length, fm

n n
  fm  f 
 fm 2
m1 m1
f    f  
n n 1

Referring to Table 3;
1. Calculate the focal length, f m , for each trial using Eq.(6) and record your results.

2. Calculate the average focal length, f , and the error ,  f , and record your results.

3. Is your result, f , in agreement with the manufacturer’s specification within the limits of

error,  f ? If not discuss the discrepancy.

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 THIN LENS EXP.OW-1

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

1. What are the possible errors in the experiment?
2. What kind of approximations did you take into consideration while you were obtaining
the physical quantities and how do they affect your results?
3. What discrepancies did you encounter between the calculated quantities and
theoretical or literature values?
4. What is your overall conclusion?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-1.8

 PRISM SPECTROMETER EXP OW-2
EXP OW-1
PURPOSE
- Familiarization with the prism spectrometer.
- To measure the index of refraction of the prism material at several wavelengths and to find
the dispersion relation.
GENERAL
A prism spectrometer is an optical instrument for producing and analysing spectra. It is
composed of four essential parts: a collimator, a prism table, a prism, and a telescope. A
simple schematic of the device is shown in Fig.1.

Prism Table

Slit Collimator Prism

Light Source

Telescope

2
1
Eyepiece

Figure 1. Layout of the prism spectrometer

The ideal operation of the spectrometer requires that parallel light beams should impinge on a
surface of the prism. The collimator is a tube with an adjustable slit at one end and converging
lens at the other end. Light rays enter through a slit and emerge parallel to the axis of the
collimator at the other end. The collimated light then strikes a prism that has been
appropriately positioned on the spectrometer table. The prism deviates and disperses the
collimated light according to Snell’s law and different wavelengths of light present in the light
source. The sets of parallel rays (one set for each wavelength) then enter the telescope and
form separate, distinct images of the collimator slit when viewed through the telescope. Cross
hairs in the telescope may be positioned over each spectral line,
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 PRISM SPECTROMETER EXP.OW-2

thereby fixing the angular position of the telescope for each wavelength. The angular position
of the telescope is determined with the aid of the circular scale, which is graduated in
fractions of a degree.
In this experiment you will measure the refractive index of the prism material. Referring to
Fig.2, when a ray of monochromatic light is refracted by a prism, the angle, , between the
incident ray and the ray emerging from the prism is called the angle of deviation and it is
dependent of wavelength. If the direction of incident ray is varied, it is found that the
magnitude of deviation varies also, but for one particular angle of incidence the angle of

α


Figure 2. Refraction of light by a prism and the definition of the angles

deviation becomes a minumum , min.. This occurs when the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of emergence. Under these conditions, the index of refraction, n, of the prism material
can be determined from the relation,

    min 
sin  
 
n
 2  Eq. (1)

sin
2
where α is the apex angle of the prism. The graph of index of refraction versus wavelength is
called dispersion curve. The experimentally determined curve can be represented by an
empirical equation due to Cauchy given by
n = A + B/λ2 + C/λ4.......... Eq. (2)
where A, B, C,.........are constants for a given substance. For many purposes it is sufficiently

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 PRISM SPECTROMETER EXP.OW-2

accurate to include first two terms only. The problem of this experiment is therefore
essentially that of determining the constants in Cauchy’s equation by determining n of prism
material at several wavelengths through Eq.(1).

EQUIPMENT
-Student-type prism table spectrometer
-Hg, He, and Na lamps
PROCEDURE
Prism Spectrometer:
1. Examine the spectrometer and locate the collimator, the adjustable entrance slit, prism
table, the graduated scale, vernier, and all clamps. The instrument must be handled with care.
All movable parts such as the prism table and telescope move freely if the proper clamps are
loosened. Never force anything.
Adjustment of the spectrometer for parallel light:
It is essential to make sure that parallel light from the collimator passes through the prism,
and remains parallel as it enters the telescope, where it is brought to focus
1. Before placing the prism on the table, aim the telescope at a distant object. Move the
eyepiece in and out so that image of the distant object is brought into clear focus in the plane
of the cross hair (focal plane of the telescope). The telescope now is adjusted for parallel light;
do not further change the focus of the telescope after this adjustment.
2. Next, adjust the collimator for parallel light. With the proper clamp loosened, bring the
telescope into straight line with the collimator. Slightly open the adjustable slit by turning the
knurled ring at the end of the collimator. Place an incandescent light source in front of the slit
and look through the telescope. Slide the tube that holds the slit in and out of the barrel of the
collimator and, if necessary, move the telescope sideways a little until a sharp image of the
slit is seen in the center of the focal plane of the telescope. Set the slit exactly parallel. The
collimator now is set to produce parallel light and should not be further disturbed.
Measurement of the prism angle, 
(Refer to Appendix 1 for reading the vernier scale).
1. Place the prism on the table of the spectrometer such that the angle α is toward the
collimator and splitting the beam from the collimator, Fig. 3.
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 PRISM SPECTROMETER EXP.OW-2

2. Find the direction of the light reflected off one face of the prism by moving the telescope
into its path and viewing the image of the slit. The slit should be made as narrow as possible
and yet remain visible. Adjust the position of the telescope until the image of the slit falls
exactly on the cross hair. Read the angular position of the telescope (telescope position #1)
and record this in Table 1.
3. Swing the telescope around to receive the light reflected off the other face of the prism.
Read the angular position of the telescope (telescope position #2) and record this in Table 1.
4. Repeat these measurements two more times and record the data in Table 1.

Telescope Position #2

Collimator
Prism
2α
α

Prism Table

Telescope Position #1

Figure 3. Measurement of Prism Angle, 

Measurement of the angle of minimum deviation, min

(Refer to Appendix 2 for the wavelengths of the spectral lines).
1. Remove the prism. Swing the telescope around in line with the collimator and center the
cross hair on the slit image. Make the slit fairly narrow, but not so narrow that a single-slit
diffraction pattern occurs.
2. Read the position of the telescope (telescope position #1) and record this in Table 2.
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 PRISM SPECTROMETER EXP.OW-2

3. Place the prism on the table of the spectrometer such that one face makes an angle about
45o with the light coming from the collimator. Look through telescope while swinging it
slowly, until the colored images of the collimator slit are seen. Align the cross hair of the
telescope on one of the images of spectral lines.
4. To find the position of minimum deviation for that spectral line, rotate the prism table
slowly until a position is found where the spectral line just reverses its motion regardless of
which way the table is turned. Repeat this several times until the turning point is clearly
determined. This is the direction of minimum deviation for the spectral line. Read and record
the angular position of the telescope (telescope position #2).
5. Repeat the procedure outlined above to determine the position of the prism for the
minimum deviation for the other lines.

Prism Table telescope Position #1

Collimator

Prism

δmin.

telescope Position #2

Figure 4. Measurement of the Angle of Minimum Deviation, min

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 PRISM SPECTROMETER EXP.OW-2

APPENDIX
1. Reading the Vernier Scale:
The angular scale is shown in Fig.5. You must first find the approximate position, on the
main scale, of the zero mark of the vernier scale. In the figure, this is seen to be
(reading) = 153o 30 + (a little more)
To find out what this ―little more‖ look through the vernier scale to find the position where a
mark on the vernier scale aligns with a mark on the main scale. In the figure this happens at
the 8 mark on the vernier scale, This reveals that the ―little more‖ above is 8 . Thus the final
reading in the figure is
(reading) = 153o 30  8  153o 38  153.63o

Vernier zero
8’ Vernier Scale (minutes), 1 degree = 60’

0 10 20

155o 160o 170o

153o30’ Main Scale (degrees and half degrees)

Figure 5. Angular Scale

2. Spectrum lines (in nm) to be used
HELIUM HYDROGEN MERCURY SODIUM
483.7 Violet 410.1 Violet 404.6 Violet 449.7 Blue
447.1 Violet 434.0 Violet 407.8 Violet 466.8 Blue
471.3 Blue 486.1 Blue-Green 435.8 Blue 498.2 Blue-Green
492.1 Blue-Green 656.2 Red 491.6 Blue-Green 515.3 Blue-Green
504.7 Green 546.1 Green 588.9 Yellow
587.5 Yellow 577.0 Orange 615.4 Red
667.8 Red 579.1 Orange
706.5 Red

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 PRISM SPECTROMETER EXP.OW-2

DATA and RESULTS

Name:______________________________ TA____________________________
Department:_________________________,
Partners:__________________________________________________________________

Table 1. Data for the Prism Angle, 

αi
Position#1 Position#2

N
 i
  i 1

N

Table 2. Data for the Refractive Index vs. Wavelength

λ min n
Position#1 Position#2

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 PRISM SPECTROMETER EXP.OW-2

1. Plot a graph with indices of refraction as ordinates and wavelengths as abscissae.

2. Assuming that Cauchy`s equation gives the correct form of the relationship between n and
, calculate the least square straight line for n versus 1/2. Plot this line on a graph with n as
ordinates and 1/2 as abscissae. Show the experimental points on the graph. Write on the
graph the values A and B.

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 PRISM SPECTROMETER EXP.OW-2

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

1. What are the possible errors in the experiment?
2. What kind of approximations did you take into consideration while you were obtaining
the physical quantities and how do they affect your results?
3. What discrepancies did you encounter between the calculated quantities and
theoretical or literature values?
4. What is your overall conclusion?

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 DIFFRACTION and INTERFERENCE EXP OW-3
OW33332 EXP OW-1 PURPOSE
- To observe diffraction and interference effects of light passing through various apertures.
- To use the diffraction patterns produced by single/double slit apertures and to calculate the
wavelength of the light source which is used.

GENERAL
Certain optical phenomena may be accurately described by the hypothesis that light is an
electromagnetic wave. These phenomena include diffraction and interference. Although it is
customary to discuss interference and diffraction of light as separate topics, they are essentially
similar. Both are special cases of superposition of waves. Roughly speaking waves emanating
from more than one very small source may exhibit interference. Diffraction is interference of a
wave with itself. According to Huygen’s Principle waves propagate such that each point reached
by a wavefront acts as a new wave source. Interference between secondary waves emitted from
different parts of the wavefront can cause the bending of light around objects and cause intensity
fluctuations much like the interference pattern from separate sources.
For the interference to be observed, the light has to be coherent, i.e.: the phase of the light
wave is well defined at all times. For incoherent light, the interference is hard to observe
because it is washed out by the very rapid phase jumps of the light.
Relative sizes and distances also affect the result of interference experiment. For instance when
light propagates through and around objects whose dimensions are much greater than the
wavelength, the wave effects are negligible so that it is behavior can be adequately described by
ray optics. Consider also a situation where a point light source illuminates a slit. If both the light
source and observation point are very far from the slit relative to its width, it is a good
approximation to assume that incident and diffracted waves are plane. This condition is called
Fraunhofer or far-field diffraction. Using this approximation, it is easy to compute the distance a
wave must travel to reach the observation point from each part of the slit and then to use the
principle of super position to deduce the observable intensity. The same method is used if the
light source, the observer, or both are close to the slit, but the geometry harder to work out. This
situation is called Fresnel or near-field diffraction.
In this experiment, under far field condition, diffraction and interference of light when it
propagates through single and double slits will be explored. From the resulting diffraction
patterns the wavelength of the incident light will be determined.

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 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

The main components used in the diffraction and interference experiments are a diode laser, a
light sensor, a rotary motion sensor, linear translator and slit accessory (single slit disc and
multiple slit disc):

DIODE LASER (see Fig.1):

Figure 1

The diode laser has a wavelength λ = 650 ± 10 nm. Output power is 0.9 mW. To turn the laser
beam on firstly connect the AC adapter to a wall outlet and the power input jack. Then, slide the
power switch on the back of the laser. Use the vertical and horizontal adjustment screws to aim
the beam.
LIGHT SENSOR (see Fig.2):

Figure 2
The CI-6504A is best suited for experiments performed at ambient light levels. At the lower end
of the range, interference patterns of monochromatic light after it passes through single or

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 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

multiple slits can be measured; at the higher end, measurements can be made of relative light
intensities of daylight. The range switch settings (1X, 10X, and 100X) on the top of the sensor
roughly correspond to maximum input light levels of 500, 50, and 5 lux.

ROTARY MOTION SENSOR (see Fig. 3):

Figure 3

The Rotary Motion Sensor is a bidirectional position sensor. It contains an optical encoder
which gives a maximum of 1440 counts per revolution (360 degrees) of the Rotary Motion
Sensor shaft. The resolution can be set in the Science Workshop software to 360 or 1440 times
per revolution (1 degree or 1/4 degree). The direction of rotation is also sensed.

LINEAR TRANSLATOR (see Fig. 4):

Figure 4
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 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

The Linear Motion Accessory is a 21 cm long rack that is inserted into the t-slot in the side of
the RMS to convert a linear motion into a rotary motion. The teeth on the rack engage a gear
inside the RMS, causing it to rotate as the rack is pushed through the slot. The rack may be
inserted into either side of the RMS. Sensors can be mounted to the rack using the rod clamp
which can be attached to either end of the Linear Motion Accessory rack.

SINGLE SLIT DISC (see Fig. 5):

Figure 5

The contents of the Single Slit Disk are:

– 4 single slits (slit widths 0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 0.16 mm) – 1 variable slit (slit width varies
– 1 square pattern from 0.02 to 0.20 mm)
– 1 hexagonal pattern – 1 random opaque dot pattern (dot
– 1 random hole pattern (hole diameter = 0.06 mm) diameter = 0.06 mm)
– 1 opaque line of width 0.08 mm – 1 slit/line comparison, line and slit
– 2 circular apertures (diameters 0.2 mm and 0.4 have similar width (0.04 mm)
mm)

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 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

MULTIPLE SLIT DISC (see Fig. 6):

Figure 6

The contents of the Multiple Slit Disk are:

– 4 double slits (slit width/separation in mm: 0.04/ – 1 variable double slit (slit separation
0.25, 0.04/0.50, 0.08/0.25, 0.08/0.50) varies from 0.125 to 0.75 mm with
– 4 comparisons: single/double slit with same slit constant slit width 0.04 mm)
width (0.04 mm)
– double/double slit with different slit widths (0.04, – double/double slit with same slit
0.08 mm), same separation (0.25 mm) width (0.04 mm), different
– double/triple slit with same slit width (0.04 mm), separation (0.25 mm/0.50 mm)
same separation (0.125 mm)
– set of 4 multiple slits (2, 3, 4, 5 slits) with same
slit width (0.04 mm), same separation (0.125
mm)

Single Slit Diffraction:

Intensity distribution (Is) of the diffraction pattern produced by a single slit of width d,
illuminated by plane wave of wavelength,  is given by

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 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

Is= I0 [sin]2 Eq. (1)

where
 =  a sin   Eq. (2)
and I0 is the intensity at the middle of central maximum, and  is the observation angle (Fig.7).

Plane Observation Point

Wave
a
y


L
Single Slit Screen
Aperture
Figure 7. Definition of distances and angle for single slit diffraction measurements

A plot of Is as a function of sin is shown in Fig.8.

1 Is

2
sin(  )


5.55 10
10
10  10 
sin
-2a -a 0 a 2a

Figure 8. Single Slit Diffraction Intensity Pattern

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DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

The pattern has a peak at  = 0. The intensity is minimum when

n  = a sin  n = 1, 2, 3 Eq. (3)
Assuming the distance L to the slit to be much larger than the slit width a, then
sin  tan   y / L Eq. (4)
where y is the distance from central maximum to the observation point. Because the distance
between adjacent minima are all the same Eq. (3) along with Eq. (4), permits the following
expression
  ay L Eq. (5)
where y is the distance between adjacent minima.

Double Slit Diffraction:

Intensity distribution (I) produced by a double slits of separation b (ignoring the effect of the slit
widths) is given by the interference term
I=4Is cos2  Eq. (6)
with 
= ( b/) sin Eq. (7)
where  is the observation angle (see Fig. 9).

Observation Point
Plane b a
Wave
y


L
Double Slit
Aperture Screen

Figure 9. Definition of distances and angle for double slit diffraction measurements

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 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

Here it is assumed that the intensity (Is) from each slit is constant. However, recall that the
intensity from a single slit depends on the angle  through diffraction, so Eq. (6) along with
Eq. (1) give the following expression for the double slit diffraction intensity distribution (I ).
I = 4I0 [sin] 2cos2  . Eq. (8)
Double slit diffraction is thus the product of interference factor cos2  and diffraction factor
[sin] 2. Diffraction factor in the above expression constitutes an envelope for the interference
I
fringes as shown in Fig. 10

2
sin(  )


I(  )

5.55 10
10
10 0 10
-2a -a a 2a sin
b

Figure 10. Double Slit Diffraction Intensity Pattern

Eq. (8) indicates that an interference minimum, I=0, will occur when
= (n+1/2)  n= 0, 1, 2, 3, ............... Eq. (9)
and interference maxima occur when
 = n n= 0, 1, 2, 3, ................ Eq. (10)
As assumed previously if L is much greater than b, the angle  can be approximated by
sin   tan   y / L Eq. (11)
Because distance between all the adjacent minima and maxima are the same, Eq. (9) and
Eq. (10), along with Eq. (11) permit the following expression

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-3.8

 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

  by  L Eq. (12)
where y  is the distance between either adjacent maxima or minima

EQUIPMENT

- Optics Bench - Light Sensor

- Aparture Bracket - Linear Translator
- Diode Laser - Slit Accessory
- Rotary Motion Sensor
PROCEDURE

The light source in this experiment is a Diode laser which produces a monochromatic beam
with a wavelength of  = 650 nm. The output power of our lasers is about 0.9 mW, small
amount, but still enough to damage your retina if you look directly into the beam.
CAUTION: Never Look Directly To Laser Beam

Firstly, you will spend a few minutes to explore diffraction patterns of apertures of various size
and combination at near field and far field regions. You need not make any measurements or
calculations in this part.
In Part A and Part B the wavelength of the incident laser light will be measured using
diffraction patterns produced by single and double slit set discs respectively.

Part A :
1. Set up the apparatus for Fraunhofer diffraction according to Fig. 11.

Figure 11. Diffraction and interference

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-3.9
 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

In this setting the laser is placed at one end of the optical bench. The diffraction plate is mounted
on a holder near the laser on the optical bench.

2. Plug in the power supply for the Diode Laser. Turn on the laser.

3. Rotate the Single Slit Set disk on the Slit Accessory until a slit pattern is in line with the laser
beam (see Fig. 12). Use the adjustment screws on the back of the Diode Laser to adjust the
beam if necessary.

4. Rotate the pulley on the top of the Rotary Motion Sensor to move it along the rack on the
Linear Translator. Move the Rotary Motion/Light Sensor until the white screen on the front of
the Aperture Bracket shows the diffraction pattern.

Figure 12
5. Examine the diffraction pattern on the white screen. If the pattern is not horizontal, loosen
the thumbscrew on the Slit Accessory. Slowly rotate the Slit Accessory until the laser beam is
centered on the slit pattern you want and the diffraction pattern is horizontal on the white screen
on the Aperture Bracket (see Fig. 13). Tighten the thumbscrew on the Slit Accessory to hold it
in place.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-3.10

 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

`
Figure 13
6. Rotate the Aperture Disk on the front of the Aperture Bracket until the narrowest slit opening
is in front of the Light Sensor opening. This reduces the amount of ambient light that can
enter the Light Sensor while the Light Sensor is between maxima of the diffraction pattern.
7. Move the Rotary Motion Sensor/Light Sensor along the rack on the Linear Translator until
the center of the diffraction pattern is aligned with the center of the narrow slit on the
Aperture Disk of the Aperture Bracket. Loosen the Rotary Motion Sensor rod clamp and
adjust the Aperture Bracket and Light Sensor up or down if necessary.
8. Turn on the interface. Before starting to take data, open the graph icon from the main menu.
9. Be sure that vertical axis of the graph must be light intensity (caused by laser detected by
light sensor) and horizontal axis must be Linear position (detected by rotary motion sensor-
rack option).
10. Then start taking data by pushing the play button once on the keyboard of the interface.
11. Move the Rotary Motion Sensor/Light Sensor along the rack on the Linear
Translator from left to right or vice versa.
12. In order to stop the measurement, push the play button once more.
13. Go back to the main menu by pushing the home button on the interface and choose the files
icon. In this sub menu you will see your measurement data as untitled file. You should
rename and save it.
14. Then plug in your flash disk to the interface and send data to it.
15. Change the slit openings and repeat the above procedure for different slit widths.
16. Turn off the laser and the interface.
17. Record the data in corresponding tables.

Part B
Repeat the above to explore the diffraction patterns of the double slit experiment using Multiple
Slit Set disc.

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 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

DATA and RESULTS

Name:_____________________________ TA_______________________________
Department:________________________
Partners:______________________________________________________________

PART A: Single Slit

Table 1. Sample data for single slit patterns A, B, and C
Pattern A B C
Width of the slit, a

Distance from the slit to the screen, L

Average distance between minima, y

ay
 
L

2
  yi  y 
N

Error y on y = i 1

N 1
a
Error  on   y
L
    

Referring to Table 1
1. Use the values obtained for y to estimate the wavelength  .

2. Calculate the error  on  .

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 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

PART B: Double Slit

Table 2: Sample data for double slit patterns D, E, and F
Pattern D E F
Distance between the center of the slits, d

Distance from the slits to the screen, L

Average distance between minima, y

dy
 
L

2
  yi  y 
N

Error y on y = i 1

N 1
d
Error  on   y
L
    

Referring to Table 2
1. Use the value obtained for y to estimate the wavelength  .

2. Calculate the error  on  .

3. How well do your values for the wavelength obtained in PART A and PART B agree with
each other and with the expected value of 650 nm? Discuss any discrepancy.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-3.13

 DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE EXP.OW-3

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

1. What are the possible errors in the experiment?
2. What kind of approximations did you take into consideration while you were obtaining
the physical quantities and how do they affect your results?
3. What discrepancies did you encounter between the calculated quantities and theoretical
or literature values?
4. What is your overall conclusion?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-3.14

 POLARIZATION EXP OW-4

PURPOSE
- To verify Malus’ law
GENERAL
According to the wave model, light is a transverse electromagnetic wave. Electric and
magnetic fields associated with the wave oscillate perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. The electric field of an electromagnetic wave, in particular, can be represented
by two orthogonal components. These two orthogonal components do not interfere in
amplitude but are additive according to vector algebra. For an unpolarized light there is no
well-defined phase relationship between these two components. The planes of oscillations of
the resultant field change randomly. Light is said to be polarized when a fixed phase and
amplitude relationship is maintained between the two orthogonal field components. Resultant
wave formed by the orthogonal components can have various states of polarization. Referring
to Fig. 1, three basic types of polarized light are:
1. Linearly, or plane, polarized light. Oscillation is confined to a plane. The resultant electric
field vector traces out a straight line.
2. Circularly polarized light. The resultant electric field vector traces out a circle.

Linear
Circular

Elliptical

Figure 1

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-4.1

 POLARIZATION EXP OW-4

3. Elliptically polarized light. The resultant electric field vector traces out an ellipse. This is
the most general state of polarized light.

Processes of preferential absorption in a dichroic material, reflection and transmission at

oblique incident, double refraction in a birefringent material, and scattering by particles can be
used for producing polarization. An ideal polarizer transmits only light whose electric field
component is parallel to the transmission axis of the polarizer and blocks light whose the
electric field components are perpendicular to it,
Fig. 2.

Transmission axis

Unpolarized light
Linearly polarized
light

Polarizer

Figure 2

Real polarizers are not perfect and transmit light with minimum intensity when polarizer axis
is perpendicular to the polarization of purely linearly polarized light. The maximum
transmitted intensity occurs when the polarizer axis is parallel to the incident polarization
direction.
In the present experiment Malus’ law is verified. Suppose, as illustrated in Fig. 3, we have
two linear polarizers made of dichroic material. The first is called polarizer and produces plane
polarized light by strongly absorbing the component of the incident electric field perpendicular
to its axis. The second is called the analyzer. Let the angle between the axis of the polarizer and
analyzer is θ. It is easily shown that if the intensity of the unpolarized light incident on the
analyzer is Iin , then the intensity , I(θ) out , of the polarized light leaving the analyzer is given by

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-4.2

 POLARIZATION EXP OW-4

θ
Transmission
axis
Transmission
axis

Light Detector

Source

Polarizer Analyzer

Figure 3

I θ out  I in H 90  H 0  H 90 cos 2 θ . Eq. (2)

This is the Law of Malus, where the quantity H 0  k1  k 22 is the transmittance of the parallel
1 2
2
pair, and H 90  k1 k 2 is the transmittance of the crossed pair. k1 and k2 are called principal
intensity transmittances where k1 is the intensity transmittance which the polarizer exhibits when
inserted in a linearly polarized beam and turned to the angle that maximizes the intensity of the
emerging beam, and k2 is the intensity transmittance found when the polarizer is turned so as to
minimize the intensity. When k1 and k 2 have the ideal values of 1 and 0, Eq. (2) reduces to

I  out 
1
I in cos 2 Eq. (3)
2

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 POLARIZATION EXP OW-4

EQUIPMENT

- Optical Bench - Laser

- Polarizer (2) - Light Sensitive Detector
- Interface - Rotary Motion Sensor

PROCEDURE

1st Polarizer
Laser 2nd Polarizer

Detector

Optical Bench
Rotary Motion
Sensor Interface

Figure 4

1. Turn on the laser. Adjust the position of the both polarizers so that their transmission axes
become parallel.
2. Turn on the interface. Before starting to take data, open the graph icon from the main
menu.
3. Then start taking data by pushing the play button once on the keyboard of the interface.
4. Next slowly rotate the 2nd Polarizer up to 400º, more than full cycle (i.e. polarizer
which is connected to the rotary motion sensor.)
5. In order to stop the measurement, push the play button once more.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-4.4

 POLARIZATION EXP OW-4

6. Go back to the main menu by pushing the home button on the interface and choose the
files icon. In this sub menu you will see your measurement data as untitled file. You
should rename and save it. Then plug in your flash disk to the interface and send your
saved file to it.
7. Turn off the laser and the interface.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-4.5

 POLARIZATION EXP OW-4

DATA and RESULTS

Name:___________________________________ TA_______________________________
Department:_____________________________
Partners:____________________________________________________________________

1. Plot a graph with measured intensities I ( θ ) as ordinates and the angle θ between the
polarizers as abscissa. Does it appear to fit to a function of the form I (θ)= a + b cos2 θ ?
If yes explain.

2. Which type of polarization do you observe? (i.e. Linear, circular or elliptical polarization )

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-4.6

 POLARIZATION EXP OW-4

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

1. What are the possible errors in the experiment?
2. What kind of approximations did you take into consideration while you were obtaining
the physical quantities and how do they affect your results?
3. What discrepancies did you encounter between the calculated quantities and theoretical
or literature values?
4. What is your overall conclusion?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-4.7

 GRATING SPECTROMETER EXP OW-5

PURPOSE
- Familiarization with the grating spectrometer
- To observe and measure the discrete wavelengths emitted from a gas discharge lamp

GENERAL
A grating spectrometer is in every way similar to a prism spectrometer such as the one we have
used in EXP.OW-4 with the exception that a plane diffraction grating replaces the prism as the
dispersing element. The relevant parts of the system are illustrated in Fig. 1.

Grating Table

Slit Collimator Grating

Light Source θ
Objective

Telescope Eyepiece

Figure 1. Layout of the grating spectrometer

The diffraction grating used in this experiment is a transmission diffraction grating and consists
of a very large number of closely spaced parallel slits in a piece of otherwise opaque material.
They all have the same width and spacing. They are much longer than they are wide. Therefore
we ignore their lengths. Then the only parameters that define the grating are the slit width, their
spacing from each other, and their number. A diffraction grating can have several thousand slits
per centimeter.
When a parallel beam of polychromatic light from collimator falls on a transmission diffraction
grating, each slit diffracts the light so that on the other side of the grating, the diffracted light
from many slits may interfere (constructively or destructively) at some point P on a distant
OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-5.1
GRATING SPECTROMETER EXP OW-5

screen. In the spectrometer, the screen is replaced by a telescope adjusted to accept parallel
rays of diffracted light from the slits. The principles for the formation of the fringe pattern are
similar to those of the double slit experiment described in EXP.OW-3, except that, owing to the
much larger number of slits participating in the interference, bright fringes produced by the
grating are much narrower and better defined. Diffraction angle θ shown in Fig. 1 is unique for
each wavelength present in the light source. For a general N-slit grating of slit widths a, and
spacing d, the intensity distribution due to each wavelength is given by
2 2
 sin    sin N 
I    I 
0    sin  
Eq. (1)
 
where I0 is the intensity in the θ = 0 direction emitted by any one of the slits. α and β are
(assuming that the angle of incidence of the rays illuminating the grating is perpendicular to the
grating surface) given by
a
 sin  Eq. (2)

and
d
 sin  Eq. (3)

In the fringe pattern the separation of diffraction minima is always larger than the separation of

interference maxima. Thus the diffraction factor sin    constitutes an envelope over the
2

interference factor sin N sin   in Eq.(1). Referring to Fig.2, interference maxima will
2

occur whenever the optical path length difference between the light from adjacent slits at a given
position is equal to an integer number of wavelengths; that is
d sin  m for m  0,  1,  2, Eq. (4)
The pattern with m=0 is called zeroth order, that with m= ±1, first order, etc. Thus for a given
order other than zeroth order (m=0) the incident light is diffracted at an angle θ given by
sinθ = mλ/d. Since d is the grating constant and m is constant for a given order, the angle θ
varies with wavelength. For each order (m= ±1, ±2, …) different wavelengths are separated out
and observed as distinct spectrum. However, since the spectral lines in adjoining orders may
overlap, one must be careful in interpreting the spectral lines observed in the focal plane of the
telescope.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-5.2

 GRATING SPECTROMETER EXP OW-5

On the other hand, diffraction minima will occur when

a sin  m m  1,  2, Eq. (5)
If at some position a diffraction minimum happens to be at the same place as the interference
maximum, the result will be a dark fringe. This phenomenon is known as the missing order due
to diffraction minima.
In this experiment we use a grating spectrometer to make wavelength measurements on the
spectrum of light obtained from a gas discharge lamp ( Hg, He, or Na ).

3mλ

2mλ

INCIDENT COLLIMATED
BEAM mλ

d θ
DIFFRACTED BEAM AT
ANGLE θ FOR ORDER m

GRATING

Figure 2

EQUIPMENT
- Student-type grating spectrometer
- Hg, He, or Na lamps
PROCEDURE
1. Place the discharge lamp adjacent to the collimator and switch it on. It will take about 10
minutes before the intensity of the light becomes constant. Looking through the collimator you
should see a small rectangle of light coming from the discharge lamp. The rectangle is formed
by the slit on the end of the collimator.
2. It is necessary to adjust the spectrometer so that the collimator produces parallel light and the
telescope receives parallel light from the grating. Refer to EXP.OW-3 for this adjustment. When
this procedure is complete the telescope and the collimator should not need further adjustment.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-5.3

 GRATING SPECTROMETER EXP OW-5

However the eyepiece may require some repositioning to accommodate individual eyesight
variation.

3. Fix the mount for the grating to the spectrometer table. Place the grating into the mount. The
table height should be set so that the full width of the collimated beam falls on the grating,
without obstruction by the table or grating mount.
4. Rotate the table of the spectrometer until the grating plane is perpendicular to the axis of the
collimator and with the ruled surface facing the telescope.
5. Look through the telescope. You should see a sharp image of the slit in the center of the field
of view. This is the central maximum (m=0). Qualitatively scan the spectrum by rotating the
telescope in either direction from the on-axis alignment with the collimator, in order to
determine how many orders are visible.
6. Realign the telescope arm of the spectrometer with the collimator. Looking through the
telescope you should again see the image of the slit. Use the fine adjustment screw of the
telescope rotation to set the cross hairs into coincidence with the center of image. Read the angle
on the vernier scale without moving the telescope and the collimator. If you did not observe the
zero order exactly at zero (θ = 0o), then you record this reading and make all subsequent
measurements relative to this value.
7. Look through the telescope while swinging it around slowly, until a series of coloured
spectral lines are seen again. Align the cross wires of the telescope on the spectral lines observed
and measure the angle θ that corresponds to angular location of these lines. Record your values
in Table 1.
8. Repeat the same series of measurements on the opposite side of the zero position and fill your
values in Table 1.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-5.4

 GRATING SPECTROMETER EXP OW-5

APPENDIX
1. Reading the Vernier Scale:
The angular scale is shown in Fig.3. You must first find the approximate position, on the main
scale, of the zero mark of the vernier scale. In the figure, this is seen to be
(reading) = 153o 30 + (a little more)
To find out what this ―little more‖is, look through the vernier scale to find the position where a
mark on the vernier scale aligns with a mark on the main scale. In the figure this happens at the
8 mark on the vernier scale, This reveals that the ―little more‖ above is 8 . Thus the final
reading in the figure is
(reading) = 153o 30  8  153o 38  153.63o

8’ Vernier Scale (minutes), 1 degree= 60’

Vernier zero

0 10 20

155o 160o 170o

153o30’ Main Scale (degrees and half degrees)

Figure 3. Angular Scale

2. Spectrum lines to be used

HELIUM MERCURY SODIUM
447.1 Blue-Violet 404.6 Violet 449.7 Blue
471.3 Blue 407.8 Violet 466.8 Blue
501.7 Green 435.8 Blue 498.2 Blue-Green
587.5 Yellow 491.6 Blue-Green 515.3 Blue-Green
667.8 Red 546.1 Green 588.9 Yellow
706.5 Red 577.0 Orange 615.4 Red
579.1 Orange

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-5.5

 GRATING SPECTROMETER EXP OW-5

DATA and RESULTS

Name:____________________________ TA_________________________
Department:________________________
Partners:_____________________________________________________________________

Table1
Gas Discharge Lamp= Grating Spacing (d ) =
o
θ
θo
(Counter- θo
Color (Clockwise λ (Calculated) λ (Literature) % error
Clockwise (Average)
Rotation)
Rotation)

1. Determine the average values of θ for the observed spectral lines and fill them in Table 1.
Note: For an ideal adjustment, a given spectral line in a given order should occur at equal angles
both to the left and to the right of central maximum. However, errors in the alignment of the
grating may give rise to measurable differences. These errors will be largely cancelled by
averaging the two values of θ obtained on either side of the central maximum.
2. Using this information and Eq. (4), calculate the wavelengths of the spectral lines and fill
your values in Table 1.

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 GRATING SPECTROMETER EXP OW-5

3. Record the literature values of the wavelengths in Table 1 and complete the table by
calculating the % error.
4. Define the resolving power for grating spectrometers.

5. Calculate the theoretical resolving power of the grating spectrometer you have used in first,
second, and third order.

6. What is the wavelength difference between two adjacent spectral lines that this spectrometer
theoretically can resolve near the 500 nm wavelength region?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-5.7

GRATING SPECTROMETER EXP OW-5

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

1. What are the possible errors in the experiment?
2. What kind of approximations did you take into consideration while you were obtaining
the physical quantities and how do they affect your results?
3. What discrepancies did you encounter between the calculated quantities and theoretical
or literature values?
4. What is your overall conclusion?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-5.8

 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

PURPOSE
-To become familiar with the use of an interferometer.
-To measure the wavelength of the light source used (He-Ne laser).
-To measure the refractive index of air.
GENERAL
We learned previously that there were two main methods of obtaining interference: (1) division
of wave front, and (2) division of amplitude. You saw the method (1) in EXP.OW-4. This
experiment will introduce the method (2) by using a particular type of interferometer called
Michelson Interferometer. A Michelson interferometer in its simplest form consists of two
mirrors and a beam splitter (see Fig. 1). The beam splitter has a partially reflective coating on its
one surface, so a beam from the laser source falling on a beam splitter is split into two coherent
beams, one is reflected toward the fixed mirror M1, the other is transmitted toward the movable
mirror M2.

Viewing Screen

M2 (Movable Mirror)

Beam Splitter

Laser

Lens

M1 (Fixed Mirror)

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Michelson Interferometer (refraction is ignored for the sake
of clarity ).
OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.1
 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

The two mirrors return the light to the beam splitter where they recombine and proceed toward
the viewing screen (observer), where interference is observed. The He-Ne laser beam, we use,
makes a small spot, so interference is hard to see. To make it bigger we insert a lens between
laser and the beam splitter. This spreads out the beam and makes it easier to see the interference.
However this spreading also means that only the central ray of the laser beam is still travelling
on a straight line through the interferometer. All the surrounding rays are travelling at some
angle, depending on how close to the center of the beam they are. If the mirrors precisely
aligned such that their planes are exactly perpendicular to one another, thus ensuring that path
differences over different regions of the mirrors are constant, the fringe pattern will be seen to
consist of a series of bright and dark concentric rings. Each ring will correspond to different
angle of travel of the surrounding rays. The interference is constructive or destructive, i.e. bright
and dark rings, depending on the relative phases of the beams reflected from M1 and M2. This
phase difference includes phase changes from reflections and different total distances that the
two beams travel. What we care about in this experiment are the changes in phase. Once we set
up the interferometer, we can count how many fringe cycles go by as we adjust something such
as arm length. For example, if two beams start in phase but one travels farther than the other,
then it will have greater phase by the time the two intersect. The amount of phase  a beam
accumulates by moving mirror M2 a distance d is given by

 d  d 
  2     2 n   Eq. (1)
 n 
where λ is the vacuum wavelength and n is the index of refraction of the medium in which the
light beam is moving. Thus, if the interference pattern goes from constructive to destructive to
constructive cycle N times when one mirror is moved a distance d, then from Eq.(1) we obtain,
N  2n d Eq. (2)
In Part A of this experiment, λ will be determined by counting N and measuring Δd. Since N
can be quite large with a coherent source like a laser, this determination can be extremely
accurate.
In Part B, we are going to leave the arm lengths fixed and vary n by placing a small vacuum
chamber along one of the arms (see Fig.1, in the diagram anti-parallel rays are slightly displaced
for the sake of clarity) and pump out some of the air. As we lower the pressure, we change the

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.2

 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

refractive index of air in the chamber, because the air becomes less dense. If everything else
stays constant in the interferometer, by counting the fringe cycles as the pressure is changed, the
index of refraction of air is determined from the relation:
n  1  N P  2d  P Eq. (3)
atm atm
where, natm is the refractive index of air at atmospheric pressure, N is the number of fringe
cycles counted, ΔP=Pfinal-Pinitial is the associated pressure change inside the chamber. Patm is the
atmospheric pressure, d is the length of the vacuum chamber, and λ is the wavelength of the
light source in vacuum. Here it is assumed that the temperature and the volume of the vacuum
chamber remain constant.
to Viewing
Screen M2 ( Movable Mirror )

M1(Fixed Mirror)
Figure 2. Vacuum chamber is placed at one arm of the interferometer

EQUIPMENT
- PASCO Interferometer - He-Ne Laser
- Beam Expanding Lens with Holder - Vacuum Cell for measuring the
- Viewing Screen refractive index of of air
- Vacuum Pump

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.3

 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

PROCEDURE
PART A: Measuring the wavelength of the laser
1. Align the laser and interferometer as described in the Appendix until a nearly circular (or
elliptical) interference pattern is clearly visible on the screen.
2. Adjust the micrometer knob so the lever arm is approximately parallel with the edge of the
interferometer base. In this position the relationship between knob rotation and the mirror
movement is mostly linear.
3. Turn the micrometer knob one full turn counterclockwise. Continue turning counterclockwise
until the zero on the knob is aligned with the index mark.
4. Select a mark on the screen, then slowly turn the micrometer counterclockwise and watch the
fringe patterns march across the screen. Carefully count a number of fringes as they move past
the mark and record the final position of the micrometer. It is suggested that you count about 30
or more fringes. Fill the number of fringes N and the distance d the mirror moves in Table 1.
Note that each division of micrometer knob corresponds to one micron (10-6 m) of mirror
movement.
5. Obtain at least 4 different measurements of N and d , also filling your data in Table 1.

PART B: Measuring the refractive index of air

1. Align the laser and the interferometer as before.
2. Insert the vacuum chamber in the fixed arm of the interferometer (see Fig. 2) and connect it to
the hand operated vacuum pump provided. Notice that the banana plug of the vacuum chamber
is free to rotate. For accurate measurements, the end plates of the vacuum chamber must be
perpendicular to the laser beam.
3. Adjust the alignment screws of the fixed mirror so that the center of the interference pattern is
clearly visible on the viewing screen.
4. Make a reference mark on the viewing screen.
5. Evacuate the vacuum chamber with the small hand-operated pump provided. Stop evacuating
after about four squeezes of the pump since too much pressure can damage the pump. Let the air
return slowly by gradually opening the stop valve on the pump while recording N for several
values of Pfinal. Fill your data in Table 2 (Note that vacuum gauge measures vacuum pressure
with respect to the atmospheric pressure. For example, when the gauge reads 32 cm Hg, it

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.4

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

means that the pressure is actually 32 cm Hg below the atmospheric pressure). Alternatively,
you may record the number of fringes N, as they pass your reference mark for several values of
Pfinal while you slowly and carefully pump out the air from the chamber. Use whichever method
you find easier for controlling the air flow.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.5

 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

APPENDİX
Alignment of the interferometer (*)
Before beginning the alignment of the interferometer you should fully understand that one must
never touch the mirror surfaces or bump, or drop any part of the apparatus as it is delicate and
expensive!. One must not use force to move any part of the instrument. As you have been
warned in a previous lab, you must never look directly into a laser beam, or into a mirror that is
reflecting a laser beam!
The alignment of the Michelson Interferometer is accomplished in several logical steps.
1. Referring to Fig. 3, place the Laser and the Interferometer on the Optics Bench,
approximately 10-20 cm apart. Be sure that the edges of both units are flush against the
alignment rail of the bench. Place the Viewing Screen. A blank sheet of white paper taped to the
Screen Holder provides a viewing screen.

Viewing Screen

M2 Movable
Beam Splitter Alignment Rail
Mirror

Laser

10-20 cm

Optics Bench M1 Fixed

Mirror
M1 Alignment
Screws Micrometer
Knob

Figure 3. Adjustment of Michelson Interferometer

2. Referring to Fig.4, turn on the laser. Loosen the thumbscrew that holds the beam splitter and
rotate the beam splitter so it is out of the beam path. Then loosen the thumbscrew that

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.6

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

holds the movable mirror M2. Adjust the rotation of M2 so the laser beam reflected directly
back toward the aperture of the laser. (The reflected beam should not to be at the same
height as

Viewing Screen

Reflected
Laser Beam

Laser

Laser Beam

10-20 cm

Thumb Screws

Figure 4. Adjustment of M2
the incident beam, but it should strike the front panel of the laser along a vertical line
through the aperture). Hold M2 in position and tighten the thumbscrew.
3. Referring to Fig. 5, rotate the beam splitter so its surface is at an angle approximately
45o with the incident beam. Now, you will see two sets of laser spots on the screen. (These
two sets corresponds to the two paths via M1 and M2 of the laser beam reaching the screen.,
the additional laser spots in the sets are due to multiple reflections within the beam
splitter.) Adjust the beam splitter so the laser spots are as close as possible. Hold the beam
splitter in position and tighten the thumbscrew.
4. In this step the adjustment is made so the mirrors M1 and M2 are perpendicular to one
another. To accomplish this adjust the alignment screws on the back of mirror M1 until you
can overlap two brightest spots of the sets on the Viewing Screen.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.7

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

Viewing Screen

Laser spots

45o

Laser

10-20 cm

M1 Fixed
Mirror
M1 Alignment
Screws

Figure 5. Alignment of the laser spots

Viewing Screen

Laser

10-20 cm

Figure 6. Positioning the lens

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.8

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

5. Insert the lens holder between the laser and the beam splitter. Be sure its edge is flush
against the alignment rail. Then attach an 18 mm focal length lens on the lens holder. If the
alignment is done correctly, an interference pattern of concentric rings will appear on the
viewing screen.
_____________________________________
(*)
This section is based on instructions suggested by PASCO scientific

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.9

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

DATA and RESULTS

Name:____________________________ TA_________________________
Department:________________________
Partners:__________________________________________________________________

PART A: Measuring the wavelength of the laser

Table1
di

Ni

λi

m
   i m 
i 1

 
m

  
i
2
m 1 
i 1

     

1. Calculate λi for each trial, and fill these values in Table1.

2. Calculate from these results an average value and a standard deviation for the laser
wavelength λ and fill these values in Table1.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.10

 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

3. Is your result in agreement with the specified value of λ = 632.8 nm within the error
limits of the measurement?

4. Derive Eq.(2).

5. Your apparatus have not contained a compensator plate. What effect does this have on
your results? Explain the purpose of a compensator plate and why it might be essential for
certain measurements.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.11

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6
PART B: Measuring the Refractive Index
Table 2.
Pi  P P
final initial
Ni

nair i

m
n   nair m 
air i1 i

m 2

nair    nair  nair  m  1 
i1 i 
nair  nair  nair 

1. Calculate nair for each trial and fill these values in Table 2.

2. Calculate from these results, an average value and a standard deviation for refractive
index of air and fill these values in Table 2.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.12

 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

3. Compare your result to the literature value.

3. Derive Eq. (3)

(Hint: Assume that the amount by which nair is greater than 1 depends linearly on
pressure. Thus if nair at Patm is 1 + δ, it becomes 1 + δ/2 at half the Patm pressure).

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.13

 MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER EXP OW-6

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

1. What are the possible errors in the experiment?
2. What kind of approximations did you take into consideration while you were obtaining
the physical quantities and how do they affect your results?
3. What discrepancies did you encounter between the calculated quantities and
theoretical or literature values?
4. What is your overall conclusion?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-6.14

MICROWAVE OPTICS 1 EXP OW-7

PURPOSE
- Measurement of wavelength from standing wave pattern
- Deducing the velocity of waves in a dielectric medium
- Production of a circularly polarized beam from an initially linearly polarized beam

GENERAL
The microwave region of electromagnetic spectrum has wavelengths of order of centimeters.
Using these long wavelengths, one can transform the scale of the variables of the traditional
optics experiments into centimeter range that are easily seen and manipulated. It is going to be
verified that microwaves do undergo the same phenomena as waves of wavelengths in the
optical region.
The main components of the microwave system used are a transmitter unit and a microwave
receiver unit:

Gunn Diode Transmitter:

The Gunn Diode Microwave Transmitter provides 15 mW of coherent, linearly polarized
microwave output at a wavelength of 2.85 cm. The unit consists of a Gunn diode in a 10.525
GHz resonant cavity, a microwave horn to direct the output, and an 18 cm stand to help
reduce table top reflections. The Transmitter may be powered directly from a standard 115 or
220/240 VAC, 50/60 Hz outlet by using the provided power supply. Other features include an
LED power-indicator light and a rotational scale that allows easy measurement of the angle of
polarization. The Gunn diode acts as a non-linear resistor that oscillates in the microwave
band. The output is linearly polarized along the axis of the diode and the attached horn
radiates a strong beam of microwave radiation centered along the axis of the horn. If the
angle of the transmitter is 0o and the indicator lamp of the transmitter faces upward, the
polarization of the microwave radiation is vertical. To operate the microwave transmitter
simply plug the power supply into the jack on the Transmitter's bottom panel and plug the
power supply into a standard 115 or 220/240 VAC, 50/60 Hz outlet. The LED will light
indicating the unit is on.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-7.1

 MICROWAVE OPTICS 1 EXP OW-7

CAUTION: The output power of the Microwave Transmitter is well within standard safety
levels. Nevertheless, one should never look directly into the microwave horn at close range
when the Transmitter is on.

Microwave Receiver:

The Microwave Receiver provides a meter reading that, for low amplitude signals, is
approximately proportional to the intensity of the incident microwave signal. A microwave
horn identical to that of the Transmitter's collects the microwave signal and channels it to a
Schottky diode in a 10.525 GHz resonant cavity. The diode responds only to the component
of a microwave signal that is polarized along the diode axis, producing a DC voltage that
varies with the magnitude of the microwave signal. Special features of the Receiver include
four amplification ranges—from one to thirty—with a variable sensitivity knob that allows
fine tuning of the amplification in each range. The receiver is battery powered and has an
LED battery indicator; if the LED lights when you turn on the Receiver, the battery is
working. As with the Transmitter, an 18 cm high mount minimizes table top reflections, and a
rotational scale allows convenient measurements of polarization angle.
The detector diodes in the Receiver are non-linear devices. This non-linearity will not cause
any problem in most experiments. It is important however, to realize that the meter reading is
not directly proportional to either the electric field (E) or the intensity (I) of the incident
microwave. Instead, it generally reflects some intermediate value.
The INTENSITY selection settings (30X, 10X, 3X, 1X) are the values you must multiply the
meter reading by to normalize your measurements. 30X, for example, means that you must
multiply the meter reading by 30 to get the same value you would measure for the same signal
with the INTENSITY selection set to 1X. Of course, this is true only if you do not change the
position of the VARIABLE SENSITIVITY knob between measurements.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-7.2

 MICROWAVE OPTICS 1 EXP OW-7

EQUIPMENT

– Transmitter – Dielectric Blocks x 3

– Receiver – Metal Reflector
– Component Holder x 2 –Polarization Grille
– Goniometer

PROCEDURE
PART A: Standing Waves, measurement of wavelength

1. Set up the equipment as shown in Fig. 1. Adjust the Receiver controls to get a full-
scale meter reading with the Transmitter and Receiver as close together as possible.
Slowly move the Receiver along the Goniometer arm, away from the Transmitter.
How does this motion affect the meter reading?

Horn Receiver

Goniometer

Transmitter

Figure 1. Setup for Part A

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-7.3

 MICROWAVE OPTICS 1 EXP OW-7

The microwave horns are not perfect collectors of microwave radiation. Instead, they act as
partial reflectors, so that the radiation from the Transmitter reflects back and forth between
the Transmitter and Reflector horns, diminishing in amplitude at each pass. However, if the
distance between the Transmitter and Receiver diodes is equal to n λ /2 (where n is an integer
and λ is the wavelength of the radiation), then all the multiply-reflected waves entering the
Receiver horn will be in phase with the primary transmitted wave. When this occurs, the
meter reading will be a maximum. (The distance between adjacent positions, in order to see a
maximum, is therefore λ/2).
2. Slide the Receiver one or two centimeters along the Goniometer arm to obtain a maximum
meter reading.
3. While reading the meter, slide the Receiver away from the Transmitter. As you move the
transmitter slowly, minima and maxima will be detected, corresponding to nodal points of
standing wave pattern.
4. Read the position of receiver for at least 10 minimum (or maximum ) meter readings.
Record your results in Table 1.

PART B: Velocity of microwaves in a dielectric

When an electromagnetic wave propagates through vacuum, it travels at the constant speed of
c = 3x108 m/s. However, when it travels through a material the electric and magnetic fields of
the wave induce a polarization in the electron clouds of the material. This polarization makes
it more difficult for the wave to travel through the material, so its speed is reduced by a factor
n (index of refraction) compared to the vacuum. The speed of wave, v, within a material of
refractive index n is then v = c/n. This equation shows that a high refractive index means slow
propagation speed. Higher refractive indices generally occur in materials with higher
densities, since a high density implies a high concentration of electron clouds slowing the
wave.
Since the interaction of the electromagnetic wave with the material depends on the frequency
of the propagating wave, i.e. the refractive index, the speed is also dependent on the wave
frequency.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-7.4

 MICROWAVE OPTICS 1 EXP OW-7

1. Arrange transmitter and receiver according to Fig. 2.

2. Set the transmitter and the receiver on operating conditions.
3. Insert one Perspex block of thickness 25 mm in front of the transmitter in such a way as to
delay half the beam. By inserting the block we change the optical path length in that local
region from L for air to nL , where L and n are the thickness and the refractive index of the
block, respectively. This introduces a phase difference of about a half cycle between parts
of the beam, i.e. Ln  1  λ 2 . The total received signal is now zero due to destructive
interference.
4. Insert a second identical block on the path of the other half. This introduces an identical
phase shift so that the signal is now restored.
5. Remove the second block and cover the first block with a second block of equal thickness.
Observe that the signal is again restored.
6. From your observations deduce the velocity, v , of microwaves in Perspex. Record your
value in Table 2.

Transmitter Perspex Blocks Horn Receiver

Figure 2. Setup for Part B

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-7.5

MICROWAVE OPTICS 1 EXP OW-7

PART C: Producing Circular Polarization

A plane polarized wave is the superposition of two orthogonal polarizations. Phase shifting
one of these polarizations by ¼ of the wavelength creates circularly polarized wave.

1. Arrange the equipment as shown in Fig. 3, where the polarization grille with its rods
vertical is placed about 28 mm in front of the reflector (The grille can stand on the feet of
the reflector).
Metal reflector

Polarization Grille

Transmitter α α Horn Receiver

Figure 3. Setup for Part C

2. Rotate the transmitter about its long axis so that the transmitted E field is at 45o to the
horizontal.
3. Set the transmitter and the receiver on operating conditions. The reflected signal is the
superposition of a vertical E field, reflected off the grille, and of a horizontal E field,
reflected off the metal plate.
4. Measure the reflected signal at various angles by rotating the receiver about its long axis
from 0 to 360o. Record your values in Table 3. If vertical E field equals the horizontal E
field, then the receiver can receive the reflected signal equally well (however rotated about
its long axis). For the best results it is necessary to carefully vary the spacing between the
grille and the metal reflector.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-7.6

 MICROWAVE OPTICS EXP OW-7

DATA and RESULTS

Name:_______________________________ TA_____________________________
Department:__________________________
Partners:___________________________________________________________________

PART A: Standing waves

Table 1. Sample data for standing waves

i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Position of minima (xi)

 2
x i 1
 xi

N 1
1. Use your results to determine an average value for the wavelength of the microwave
radiation and record this in Table 1.

PART B: Velocity of microwaves in a dielectric

1. Indicate configurations of the perplex blocks which make the intensity zero and explain the
reason why the readings become zero.

Table 2
V= c / n

PART C: Creating circular polarization

Table 3
Receiver
angle
Intensity
readings

1. Do you observe any zero intensity during the full cycle of the receiver? (You should
NOT observe zero intensity!) Are the intensity readings equally well? If not, please
explain what you observe.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-7.7

 MICROWAVE OPTICS EXP OW-7

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

1. What are the possible errors in the experiment?
2. What kind of approximations did you take into consideration while you were obtaining
the physical quantities and how do they affect your results?
3. What discrepancies did you encounter between the calculated quantities and
theoretical or literature values?
4. What is your overall conclusion?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-7.8

MICROWAVE OPTICS 2 EXP OW-8

PURPOSE
- Exploring the interference of microwaves by division of wave front
- Illustration of interference of microwaves by division of amplitude; thin film interference

GENERAL

The microwave region of electromagnetic spectrum has wavelengths in the order of

centimeters. Using these long wavelengths, one can transform the scale of the variables of the
traditional optics experiments into centimeter range that are easily seen and manipulated. It is
going to be verified that microwaves undergo the same phenomena as waves of wavelengths
in the optical region.
The main components of the microwave system used are a transmitter unit and a microwave
receiver unit:

Gunn Diode Transmitter:

The Gunn Diode Microwave Transmitter provides 15 mW of coherent, linearly polarized

microwave output at a wavelength of 2.85 cm. The unit consists of a Gunn diode in a 10.525
GHz resonant cavity, a microwave horn to direct the output, and an 18 cm stand to help
reduce table top reflections. The Transmitter may be powered directly from a standard 115 or
220/240 VAC, 50/60 Hz outlet by using the provided power supply. Other features include an
LED power-indicator light and a rotational scale that allows easy measurement of the angle of
polarization. The Gunn diode acts as a non-linear resistor that oscillates in the microwave
band. The output is linearly polarized along the axis of the diode and the attached horn
radiates a strong beam of microwave radiation centered along the axis of the horn. To operate
the microwave transmitter simply plug the power supply into the jack on the Transmitter's
bottom panel and plug the power supply into a standard 115 or 220/240 VAC, 50/60 Hz
outlet. The LED will light indicating the unit is on.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-8.1

 MICROWAVE OPTICS 2 EXP OW-8

CAUTION: The output power of the Microwave Transmitter is well within standard safety
levels. Nevertheless, one should never look directly into the microwave horn at close range
when the Transmitter is on.

Microwave Receiver:

The Microwave Receiver provides a meter reading that, for low amplitude signals, is
approximately proportional to the intensity of the incident microwave signal. A microwave
horn identical to that of the Transmitter's collects the microwave signal and channels it to a
Schottky diode in a 10.525 GHz resonant cavity. The diode responds only to the component
of a microwave signal that is polarized along the diode axis, producing a DC voltage that
varies with the magnitude of the microwave signal. Special features of the Receiver include
four amplification ranges—from one to thirty—with a variable sensitivity knob that allows
fine tuning of the amplification in each range. The receiver is battery powered and has an
LED battery indicator; if the LED lights when you turn on the Receiver, the battery is
working. As with the Transmitter, an 18 cm high mount minimizes table top reflections, and a
rotational scale allows convenient measurements of polarization angle.
The detector diodes in the Receiver are non-linear devices. This non-linearity will not cause
any problem in most experiments. It is important however, to realize that the meter reading is
not directly proportional to either the electric field (E) or the intensity (I) of the incident
microwave. Instead, it generally reflects some intermediate value.
The INTENSITY selection settings (30X, 10X, 3X, 1X) are the values you must multiply the
meter reading by to normalize your measurements. 30X, for example, means that you must
multiply the meter reading by 30 to get the same value you would measure for the same signal
with the INTENSITY selection set to 1X. Of course, this is true only if you do not change the
position of the VARIABLE SENSITIVITY knob between measurements.

In EXP OW-7, you’ve seen how two waves moving in opposite directions can superpose to
create a standing wave pattern. A somewhat similar phenomenon occurs when an
electromagnetic wave passes through a two-slit aperture. The wave diffracts into two waves
which superpose
OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-8.2
 MICROWAVE OPTICS 2 EXP OW-8

in the space beyond the apertures. Similar to the standing wave pattern, there are points in
space where maxima and minima are formed. With a double slit aperture, the intensity of the
wave beyond the aperture will vary depending on the angle of detection. For two thin slits
separated by a distance d, maxima will be found at angles such that d sin θ = n λ. (Where θ is
the angle of detection, λ is the wavelength of the incident radiation, and n is any integer) (See
Fig. 1). Refer to a textbook for more information about the nature of the double-slit
diffraction pattern.

d
θ

Figure 1

EQUIPMENT
- Transmitter, Receiver - Goniometer, Rotating
- Component Holder - Narrow Slit Spacer
- Slit Extender Arm - Wide Slit Spacer
- Partial Reflector

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-8.3

 MICROWAVE OPTICS 2 EXP OW-8

PROCEDURE
PART A: Double Slit Interference

1. Arrange the equipment as shown in Fig. 2. Use the Slit Extender Arm, two Reflectors, and
the Narrow Slit Spacer to construct the double slit. (We recommend a slit width of about
1.5 cm.) Be precise with the alignment of the slit and make the setup as symmetrical as
possible.
2. Adjust the Transmitter and Receiver for vertical polarization (0°) and adjust the Receiver
controls to give a full-scale reading at the lowest possible amplification.
3. Rotate the rotatable Goniometer arm (on which the Receiver rests) slowly about its axis.
Observe the meter readings.
4. Reset the Goniometer arm so the Receiver directly faces the Transmitter. Adjust the
Receiver controls to obtain a meter reading of 1.0. Now set the angle to each of the values
shown in Table 1. At each setting record the meter reading in the table. (In places where
the meter reading changes significantly between angle settings, you may find it useful to
investigate the signal level at intermediate angles.)

Goniometer

Receiver

Wide Slit Spacer

Narrow Slit Spacer

Transmitter

Figure 2

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-8.4

 MICROWAVE OPTICS 2 EXP OW-8

5. Keep the slit widths the same, but change the distance between the slits by using the
Wide Slit Spacer instead of the Narrow Slit Spacer. Because the Wide Slit Space is 50%
wider than the Narrow Slit Spacer (90 mm versus 60 mm) move the Transmitter back 50% so
that the microwave radiation at the slits will have the same relative intensity. Repeat the
measurements. (You may want to try other slit spacings as well.)

PART B: Thin-Film Interference

1. Arrange the equipment as shown in Fig. 3, where the transmitter is directed to a partial
reflector. The receiver is placed a little behind the transmitter to prevent picking up a direct
signal. A metal reflector is placed closely behind and parallel to the partial reflector.

NOTE: When an electromagnetic wave encounters a partial reflector, part of the wave
reflects and part of the wave transmits through the partial reflector.
Transmitter

Metal Reflector

Receiver Partial Reflector

Figure 3

2. Set the transmitter and the receiver at operating condition.

3. Align the receiver to receive the reflected signal.
4. Slowly move the partial reflector on the goniometer to observe the change in meter as you
do. You should see a series of maxima and minima, as the signals reflected at the partial
reflector and the metal reflector interfere constructively and destructively.
5. Read the position of the partial reflector for a number of minima (or maxima). Record your
results in Table 2.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-8.5

MICROWAVE OPTICS 2 EXP OW-8

DATA and RESULTS

Name:_______________________________ TA_____________________________
Department:__________________________
Partners:___________________________________________________________________

PART A:

Table 1.

Angle Clockwise Counterclockwise Angle Clockwise Counterclockwise

Intensity Reading Intensity Reading Intensity Reading Intensity Reading

0 45
5 50
10 55
15 60
20 65
25 70
30 75
35 80
40 85

1. From your data, plot a graph of meter reading versus θ. Identify the angles at which the
maxima and minima of the interference pattern occur.
2. Calculate the angles at which you would expect the maxima and minima to occur in a
standard two slit diffraction pattern—maxima occur wherever d sin θ = n λ, minima occur
wherever d sinθ = n λ/2. (Check your textbook for the derivation of these equations, and
use the wavelength measured in experiment OW-7.) How does this compare with the
locations of your observed maxima and minima? Can you explain any discrepancies?
(What assumptions are made in the derivations of the formulas and to what extent are they
met in this experiment?)
OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-8.6
 MICROWAVE OPTICS 2 EXP OW-8

3. Can you explain the relative drop in intensity for higher order maxima? Consider the
single-slit diffraction pattern created by each slit. How do these single slit patterns affect the
overall interference pattern?

PART B:

Table 2
Reflector positions for
minima (or maxima)

1. Is the distance between successive minima or maxima one half the wavelengths? Explain
why?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-8.7

 MICROWAVE OPTICS 2 EXP OW-8

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

1. What are the possible errors in the experiment?
2. What kind of approximations did you take into consideration while you were obtaining
the physical quantities and how do they affect your results?
3. What discrepancies did you encounter between the calculated quantities and
theoretical or literature values?
4. What is your overall conclusion?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-8.8

 REFLECTION EXP OW-9

PURPOSE
-Verify Fresnel’s Equations of Reflection
GENERAL
Application of Maxwell’s equations to a beam of light incident at an angle θi to the normal at the
boundary between two dielectrics of refractive indices n1 and n2 relates the amplitude of incident
light, E(i), to that of reflected, E(r), and transmitted, E(t), fractions.
It is found that in addition to the dependence on θi, the fraction reflected depends upon the
orientation of the plane of polarization of the incident light relative to the plane of incidence
formed by the incident beam and the normal to the boundary.
If the plane of polarization is parallel to the plane of incidence, then the fraction of reflected light
is given by
r 
E parallel n cosθ  n cos θ
rparallel   2 i 1 t
E i 
Eq. (1)
n cosθ  n cosθ
parallel 2 i 1 t
where θt is the refraction angle. For perpendicular polarization the equivalent quantity is
r 
Eperpendicu n cosθ  n 2 cosθ
lar
rperpendicular   1 i t
i 
Eperpendicular n 1 cosθ  n 2 cosθ t
Eq. (2)
i
According to Snell’s law θi and θt are related by
n1sinθi = n2 sinθt Eq. (3)
From equations (1), (2), and (3), rparallel and rperpendicular can be written as

rparallel  tan(θ - θ ) tan(θ  θ ) Eq. (4)

i t i t

rperpendicular  sin(θ - θ ) sin(θ  θ ) Eq. (5)

i t i t
For n1 < n2, rperpendicular is finite overall θi , but rparallel vanishes at an angle given by
θi + θt = 90o Eq. (6)

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-9.1

 REFLECTION EXP OW-9

where the denominator in Eq. (4) goes to infinity. The incident angle at which this occurs is
known as the Brewster angle θB. From equations (3) and (6) θB is given by

θB  tan 1 2
n
Eq. (7)
n1

Since Rparallel = 0, any light reflected from an unpolarized beam incident at θB will be completely
polarized in the perpendicular plane, Fig 1.

θi θr

90o

θt

Figure 1

EQUIPMENT
- Optical Bench - Laser
- 2x Polarizer - Slit Collimator
- Angular Translator - Interface
- Light Sensitive Detector -Square Analyzer

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-9.2

 REFLECTION EXP OW-9

PROCEDURE
In this experiment, the ratio of reflection coefficients for parallel and perpendicular polarizations
will be measured and then plotted as a function of incidence angle, i. This will be compared with
the theoretical curve obtained from Eq. (4) and Eq. (5).

Index
Line
Angular
Translator
Reference Line

Slit Collimator
Pivot Plate
Cylindrical Lens
Optical Bench

Alignment
Screws
Knob
Square Analyzer

Laser Light Sensitive

Detector

Polarizer 2 (for 45O

Polarizer 1 (for Intensity
Polarization)
Adjustment)
Interface

Figure 2

1. In order to align the laser beam, first mount the Slit Collimator far away from the laser. Let the
laser beam cross through the slit #5. Set the angle of the Angular Translator to 0o or 180o by
matching with the Index Line and position the Light Sensitive Detector exactly in front of the
Laser. By turning the Alignment Screws of the Laser, make the laser beam pass through the
center of the detector aperture (Use Detection Slit: 1.5mm). Check the Pivot Plate that it
should NOT rub the Angular Translator.
2. Mount the Polarizer 1 between the Slit Collimator and the Laser for adjusting the intensity of
the incoming beam. Mount the Polarizer 2 between the Polarizer 1 and the Slit Collimator.
3. Set the Polarizer 2 at a degree of 45o (the indicator is the bottom lip on the lens holder) in
order to produce a beam with two linear electric field components which are perpendicular to
each other.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-9.3

 REFLECTION EXP OW-9

4. Turn on the Interface. Select the Light Sensor on the Interface. Open the METER icon from
the main menu. Set the METER to measure the Light Intensity. Reset the METER and adjust the
maximum intensity reading to an appropriate scale by rotating the Polarizer 1.
5. Put the Cylindrical Lens on the Pivot Plate and make the flat surface of the Cylindrical Lens
face the laser beam. In order to make the laser beam go through the symmetry axis of the
Cylindrical Lens, slide the Cylindrical Lens left or right slightly without moving any plates
until the laser beam illuminates the location, where it passes through the detector before.
6. The dielectric interface is formed between air and the flat surface. Make sure that this surface
is accurately aligned with the reference lines of the Angular Translator and the Pivot Plate. The
center of the Cylindrical Lens is coincident with the rotation axis of the detector arm of the
Angular Translator.
7. Without disturbing the alignment of the lens, rotate the plates. Notice the beams produced as
the incident beam is reflected and refracted at the flat surface of the lens.
8. Set the incoming beam to be incident on the flat face at an angle, i = 20o by turning the Pivot
Plate. Move the Angular Translator as much as the Pivot Plate is turned. Now the Angular
translator and the Pivot Plate are at the same angle. Turn the Angular Translator from that angle
to where the laser beam is refracted with maximum intensity. The refraction angle, t, is the
angle, between the symmetry axis of the Cylindrical Lens and the position of the refracted laser
beam. Measure the refraction angle by using the Angular Translator and note the angle of
refraction in Table 1. Repeat the same procedure for the rest of the angles of incidence.
9. Bring the Square Analyzer in front of the detector to a horizontal position. Note that, when
the Square Analyzer is horizontal, the light passing through the Square Analyzer is the
horizontal component (perpendicular to the surface of the Cylindrical Lens) of the light
reflected from the flat surface of the Cylindrical Lens. In this orientation, the Square
Analyzer is blocking the light that is polarized parallel to the flat surface of the Cylindrical Lens.
Thus, when the incident angle is such that the reflected light is 100% polarized parallel to the flat
surface of the Cylindrical Lens (Brewster’s Angle), the horizontal component will be zero.
10. Record the reflected light intensity for the corresponding reflection angles (i =r) and fill in
Table 2. Then bring the Square Analyzer to a vertical position and repeat the same procedure
above and record the intensity readings for Table 3. ATTENTION: For each reflection angle
record the horizontal intensity and vertical intensity values AT THE SAME TIME then
proceed the following reflection angle!
OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-9.4
 REFLECTION EXP OW-9

DATA and RESULTS

Name:___________________________________ TA_______________________________
Department:_____________________________
Partners:____________________________________________________________________

Table 1.
θi 20o 30o 40o 50o 60o 70o 80o
θt

Table 2.
θi 20o 25o 30o 35o 40o 45o 50o 55o 60o 65o 70o 75o 80o
I(θi) parallel
Table 3.
θi 20o 25o 30o 35o 40o 45o 50o 55o 60o 65o 70o 75o 80o
I(θi) perpendicular

1. Referring to Table 1, plot sinθi against sinθt. From the slope of this line determine the
refractive index n2 of the cylindrical block of material. (While plotting the Trendline of the graph
by using EXCEL, use Linear Type and specify the equation of the Trendline.)
n2
2. Locate the Brewster angle.
θB
3. Referring to Table 2 and Table 3, compute the ratio I parallel/ I perpendicular for the reflected
beam and plot this as a function of incident angle, θi . (While plotting the Trendline of the graph
by using EXCEL, use 4 degree Polynomial Type)
4. Using Eqs. (4) and (5), plot theoretical curve [rparallel/rperpendicular]2 as a function of incident
angle, θi
5. Compare the experimental (I parallel/ I perpendicular vs θi) and the theoretical ([rparallel/rperpendicular]2
vs θi) curves.
OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-9.5
 REFLECTION EXP OW-9

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

1. What are the possible errors in the experiment?
2. What kind of approximations did you take into consideration while you were obtaining
the physical quantities and how do they affect your results?
3. What discrepancies did you encounter between the calculated quantities and theoretical or
literature values?
4. What is your overall conclusion?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-9.6

 OPTICAL ACTIVITY EXP OW-10

PURPOSE

- To measure optical activity manifested by a solution of sugar molecules in water and to observe
the relationship between optical activity and the concentration of the solution.
GENERAL
Optical Activity is the rotation of the polarization plane of a beam of linearly polarized light
while it is passing through a medium. Mediums having that kind of ability are called optically
active and known to have chiral molecules or asymmetrically arranged non-chiral molecules.
Basically the chiral molecules can be defined as the molecules that do not have a plane of
symmetry. In other words, they are not superimposable on their mirror images, e.g. sugar
molecules and amino acids. A very simple illustration of an optically active material is shown in
Fig 1.

Mirror

Figure 1

In this experiment a plane polarized beam of light is sent towards a tube which contains a
solution of sugar/water molecules. It has known that the linearly polarized light can be denoted
as the summation of the right-hand circularly polarized (RHC) and left-hand circularly polarized
light (LHC),
Eθ = ERHC + ei2θ ELHC Eq. (1)
where E and 2θ represent the electric field of the linearly polarized light and the relative phase
difference between two circularly polarized lights respectively. Also the refractive indices of the

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-10.1

 OPTICAL ACTIVITY EXP OW-10

RHC and LHC polarized lights are different in an optically active medium which suggests that
they have different velocities passing through the medium. Therefore this gives rise to a phase
shift between the components of the plane polarized light. As a result the chiral molecules in the
tube (here the sugar molecules) interact differently with the RHC and the LHC polarized light
which leads to the rotation of the polarization plane of the light. The amount of the observed
rotation α depends on the path length L (length of the tube), the concentration of the solution C,
and the intrinsic ability of the molecules that indicates the interaction with the polarized light,
which is called specific rotation [α] or rotation power.

 (deg)
[ ]  Eq. (2)
L(dm )C ( g / mL )

The unit for the specific rotation is found to be deg dm-1 g mL-1 according to the above relation.
However we will just use the unit of degrees for the specific rotation as it is used in scientific
notation. Every chiral compound has a unique specific rotation and they can be classified in two
groups according to the direction of the rotation: (i) Dextrorotatory compounds, rotate the
plane of polarization to the right whereas (ii) Levorotatory compounds, rotate the plane of
polarization to the left with respect to the observer.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-10.2

 OPTICAL ACTIVITY EXP OW-10

EQUIPMENT

- Laser -Solution of sugar molecules in water

- Polarizer - Analyzer

PROCEDURE

1. Place your reference tube #0 on the holder and make sure that the polarizer and analyzer
are perpendicular by keeping the first polarizer fixed and rotating the analyzer until you
obtain minimum transmission
2. Note the position where you obtained minimum position.
3. First place the solution #4 (the least dilute solution) in order to determine the direction of
the polarization rotation. The rotation angle should be less than 180o.
4. Next place the solution tube #1 on the holder.
5. Again rotate the polarizer until you get minimum transmission and record this position.
Repeat this measurement three times.
6. Follow same procedure with the rest of the solution tubes.
7. Record your results to Table 1.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-10.3

 OPTICAL ACTIVITY EXP OW-10

DATA AND RESULTS

Name:____________________________ TA___________________________
Department:_______________________
Partners:_____________________________________________________________

TABLE 1: ROTATION OF PLANE OF POLARIZATION.

SOLUTIONS 1  2 -180o 3 AVERAGE

SOLUTION #1

SOLUTION #2

SOLUTION #3

SOLUTION #4

1. According to your measurements is the solution dextrorotatory or laevorotatory?

2. Concentration of the tube #1 is 1.01 g/mL. The error is given as ± 0.01 g/mL for
concentration. The concentration of the enumerated solutions is half of the preceding
ones. The degree of 2 may be taken as the error of the angle measurements. Measure
the angles of minimum transmission for the full cycle of the analyzer. DO NOT forget
to subtract 180o from the value  2 !
3. Plot the angle of rotation versus the concentration graph.
4. Using the graph find the rotation power [α] of the sugar molecules.
Note that, while drawing the graph in order to calculate the rotation power (specific
rotation), draw the best and the worst lines and calculate the error of the specific rotation
from the slope of the lines. Be careful while using Eq. 2 and DO NOT forget to write down
the names and the units of the axes. Indicate your findings in correct units!
OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-10.4
 OPTICAL ACTIVITY EXP OW-10

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

1. What are the possible errors in the experiment?
2. What kind of approximations did you take into consideration while you were obtaining
the physical quantities and how do they affect your results?
3. What discrepancies did you encounter between the calculated quantities and theoretical or
literature values?
4. What is your overall conclusion?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-10.5

SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN
DIFFERENT FILTERS EXP OW-11

PURPOSE
- To measure transmittance and absorbance of different types of colored filters (longpass
and bandpass) by a spectrophotometer.

GENERAL
A spectrophotometer is an instrument composed of a light source, a wavelength selector
(monochromator), a sample compartment, and a detector as shown in Figure 1. The
wavelength selector splits the light spectrum into its component colors and selects a narrow
band of this spectrum. Either a prism or a grating may be used as a dispersing element to
split the light. The spectrum is generally projected on an opaque wall containing a slit.
The physical width of the slit determines the band width of the selected light. The
wavelength of the selected light may be adjusted by changing the angle of the dispersing
element, so that the desired wavelength passes through the slit. The selected light passes
into the sample compartment, through the sample and to the detector. This is how a single
beam spectrophotometer operates in transmission mode. By measuring transmittance,
absorbance can be determined.

Detects how much of

the 508 nm light was
absorbed by the sample
Sample
Light Bulb Detector
Monochromator e.g.:
selects λ = 508 nm

Figure 1

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 SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT FILTERS EXP OW-11

Transmittance and Absorbance:

Transmittance is the fraction of incident light at a specified wavelength that passes through
a sample. In other words, the transmittance of a sample is the ratio of the intensity of the
light that has passed through the sample to the intensity of the light when it entered the
sample as shown in Figure 2.

Eq. (1)

T Transmittance
I0  Light intensity entering a sample
I  Light intensity passing through the sample I0 I
d
Figure 2

Absorbance is a logarithmic measure of the amount of light absorbed (at particular

wavelength) as the light passes through a sample .
I 
A  ln  0  Eq. (2)
 I 
A = d  Absorbance (Optical Density)
  Absorption coefficient
d  sample thickness

Optical filters:
Optical filters selectively transmit light having certain properties (often, a particular range
of wavelengths), while blocking the remainder.
1) Longpass filters
A longpass (LP) filter is an optical interference or colored glass filter that attenuates
shorter wavelengths and transmits (passes) longer wavelengths over the active range of the
target

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SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT FILTERS EXP OW-11

spectrum (ultraviolet, visible, or infrared). Longpass filters, which can have a very sharp
slope (referred to as edge filters), are described by the cut-on wavelength at 50 percent of
the peak transmission.
2) Shortpass filters
A shortpass (SP) filter is an optical interference or colored glass filter that attenuates longer
wavelengths and transmits (passes) shorter wavelengths over the active range of the target
spectrum (usually the ultraviolet and visible region).
3) Bandpass filters
If we combine an LP filter and an SP filter we will get a Bandpass (BP) filter. These filters
have usually lower transmittance values than SP and LP filters, and block all wavelengths
outside of a selected interval, which can be wide or narrow, depending on the number of
layers of the filter.

EQUIPMENT
- Spectrophotometer -Optical Filters - Data traveller

PROCEDURE
1. Turn on computer and spectrophotometer (the ON/OFF switch of the spectrophotometer
is back of it).
2. Wait a few minutes until the spectrophotometer ends all checks.
3. Firstly select the wavelength range from 350 to 1100 nm in the spectrophotometer.
4. Then take a background selecting ―background‖ in the spectrophotometer when the
sample holder is empty.
5. After that, put the filter in the sample holder. Select ―scan‖ from the
spectrophotometer.
6. To obtain the data, open the related program in the computer and select ―take reading‖.
7. After obtaining data, save them using ―clipboard‖ in the program.
8. Open a ―text‖ file and paste the data and save.
9. Repeat above procedure for all filters.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-11.3

 SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT FILTERS EXP OW-11

DATA and RESULTS

Name:
Department :
Partners :

Filters λcut-on λ max

1. Plot Transmission spectrum ( T vs λ ) for each filter and obtain λcut-on , λ max .
2. Plot Absorption spectrum ( A vs λ ) for each filter.
3. Identify which filters are longpass and bandpass by examining your graphs.
4. By using the transmittance and absorbance values do you think there is any reflection?
Explain briefly how do you decide for this?
NOTE : λcut-on is cut on wavelength for the longpass filters.
λ max is the wavelength where the transmission value is maximum for bandpass
filters.

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-11.4

SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT FILTERS EXP OW-11

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

1. What are the possible errors in the experiment?
2. What kind of approximations did you take into consideration while you were
obtaining the physical quantities and how do they affect your results?
3. What discrepancies did you encounter between the calculated quantities and
theoretical or literature values?
4. What is your overall conclusion?

OPTICS and WAVES LABORATORY OW-11.5