Matrix Algebra

Matrix: An Introduction

Learning Objectives:
After completing this lesson, you should be able to:
(i) Understand the nature of a matrix and matrix representation of data.
(ii) Define different types of matrices.

Introduction: J. J. Sylvester was the first to use the word ‘matrix’ in 1850 and later on in 1858
Arthur Cayley developed the theory of matrices in a systematic way. Matrix is a powerful tool of
modern mathematics and its study is becoming important day by day due to its wide applications
in every branch of knowledge. Matrix arithmetic is basic to many of the tools of managerial
decision analysis. It has an important role in modern techniques for quantitative analysis of
business and economic decisions. The tool has also become quite significant in the functional
business and economic areas of accounting, production, finance and marketing.

Matrix: Whenever one is dealing with data, there should be concern for organizing them in such
a way that they are meaningful and can be readily identified. Summarizing data in a tabular form
can serve this function. A matrix is a common device for summarizing and displaying numbers or
data. Thus, a matrix is a rectangular array of elements and has no numerical value. The elements
may be numbers, parameters or variables. The elements in horizontal lines are called rows, and
the elements in vertical lines are called columns.
A matrix is characterized further by its dimension. The dimension or order indicates the
number of rows and the number of columns contained within the matrix. If a matrix has m rows
and n columns, it is said to have dimension m  n , which is read m by n.
 a 11 a 12 a 13 
 
Example: A =  a 21 a 22 a 23 
 a a 33 
 31 a 32

Types of Matrices:

Row matrix: The matrix with only one row is called a row matrix or row vector.
Example: A = (2 3 4) .

Column matrix: The matrix with only one column is called a column matrix or column vector.
2 
 
Example: A =  3  .
4 
 

Note: Row matrix and column matrix are usually called as row vector and column vector respectively.
Square matrix: If the number of rows and the number of columns of a matrix are equal then the
matrix is of order n  n and is called a square matrix of order n.
1 2
Example: A =  .
3 4 

Rectangular matrix: If the number of rows and the number of columns of a matrix are not equal
then the matrix is called a rectangular matrix.
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 1 2 3
Example: A =  .
4 5 6 

Singular matrix: A square matrix A is said to be singular if the determinant formed by its
elements equal to zero or vanishes.
2 1
Example: Let A =   .
 4 2 
A = (2  2) − (4  1) = 0 . Hence A is a singular matrix.

Non-singular matrix:
A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if the determinant formed by its elements is non-zero.
5 3
Example: A =  
2 4 
A = (5  4) − (3  2) = 20 − 6 = 14 . Hence A is a non - singular matrix.

Null or Zero matrix: The matrix with all its elements equal to zero is called a null matrix or zero
matrix.
0 0
Example: A =  
0 0 

Diagonal matrix: A matrix whose all elements are zero except those in the principal diagonal is
called a diagonal matrix.

 a 11 0 0
 
Example: A =  0 a 22 0
 0 a 33 
 0

Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix, whose diagonal elements are equal, is called a scalar matrix.
5 0
Example: A =  
0 5 

Sub-matrix: A matrix that is obtained from a given matrix by deleting any number of rows and
number of columns is called a sub-matrix of the given matrix.
5 3 2
1 2  
Example: A =   is a sub-matrix of B = 1 1 2
3 4 7 4 
 3

Unit matrix or Identity matrix: A matrix with every element in the principal diagonal equal to
one and all other elements equal to zero is called a unit matrix. A unit matrix is a square matrix.
It is denoted by I.
1 0
Example: A =  
0 1

Equal matrix: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if their corresponding elements are
equal.
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 1 0 1 0
Example: Let A =   , B =   then A = B .
0 1 0 1

Transpose of a matrix: If the columns of a given matrix A are changed into rows or the rows are
changed into columns, the matrix thus formed is called the transpose of the matrix A and it is
generally denoted by AT.
1 2 3 1 4 7
   
Example: Let A =  4 5 6  then A =  2
T
5 8 .
7 9  3 9 
 8  6

Symmetric matrix: A square matrix A is called symmetric if it be same as its transpose so that A
= AT.
a h g a h g
   
Example: Let A =  h b f  then A T =  h b f
g c  g c 
 f  f
i.e. A = AT, so A is a symmetric matrix.

Skew-Symmetric matrix: A square matrix A is called skew-symmetric if AT = - A.

 0 h g 0 -h -g 
   
Example: Let A =  - h 0 f  then AT = A =  h
T
0 - f  = −A
- g 0  g 0 
 -f  f
i.e. A = − A , hence A is a skew-symmetric matrix.
T

Involuntary matrix: A square matrix A is called involuntary matrix provided it satisfies the
relation A2 = I, where I is the identity matrix.
1 1 
Example: A =  
 0 - 1
Idempotent matrix: A square matrix A is called idempotent matrix provided it satisfies the
relation A 2 = A .
 2 -2 4
 
Example: A =  - 1 3 4
 1 - 3 
 -2

Nilpotent matrix: A square matrix A is called nilpotent matrix of order m provided it satisfies the
relation A m = 0 and A m −1  0 , where m is a positive integer and O is the null matrix.
0 1
Example: A =   since A  0, A2 = 0
 0 0 

Complex conjugate of a matrix: It is a matrix obtained by replacing all its elements by their
respective complex conjugates.
2 + 3i 5  2 − 3i 5 
Example: If A =   then A =  
3 -3i 7  3 + 3 i 7 

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Hermitian matrix: A matrix having complex elements of a square matrix A is a Hermitian matrix.
If ( A) = A , then A is called Hermitian matrix.

Skew-Hermitian matrix: A matrix having complex elements for matrix A.( A) = − A. A is skew
hermitian matrix.

Co-factor matrix
A matrix, which formed by the co-factor of the corresponding elements, is called co-factor matrix
and is denoted AC .
a11 a12 a13 
Example: If a matrix, A = a 21 a 22 a 23  then, the co-factor matrix
a31 a32 a33 

c11 c12 c13 

AC = c21 c22 c23 
 
c31 c32 c33 
Adjoint matrix:
The Adjoint matrix is the transpose of the cofactor matrix, that is adjA = A j = (cof A) T

Orthogonal matrix: A square matrix A is called an orthogonal matrix if AAT = AT A = I , where

I is an identity matrix and AT is the transpose matrix of A.
Questions for Review:
These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have understood and can apply the
learning you have accomplished by answering (in written form) the following questions:
1. What do you understand by matrix?
2. Why matrix algebra is so important in business and economics? Explain.
3. Discuss the various types of matrices.
4. In an examination, 20 students from college A, 30 students from college B and 40 students
from college C appeared. Only 15 students from each college could get through the
examination. Out of them 10 students from college A, 5 students from college B and 10
students from college C secured full marks. Write down the above data in matrix form.

Matrix Operations
Learning Objectives:
After completing this lesson, you should be able to:
(i) Express the concept of matrix operations.
(ii) Add, subtract and multiply of the given matrices.

Introduction: The operations of matrices are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of
which addition and multiplication are the main operations. In this lesson we will discuss some of
the operations of matrix algebra.

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Matrix Addition: Two matrices of the same dimensions are said to be conformable for addition.
The addition is performed by adding corresponding elements from the two matrices and entering
the result in the same row-column position of a new matrix.
If A and B are two matrices, each of size m  n then the sum of A and B is the m  n matrix
C whose elements are C ij = Aij + Bij ; i = 1, 2, 3… m and j = 1, 2, 3, ….n.

Properties of Matrix Addition:

(i) Commutative law: Matrix addition is commutative.
If A and B are two matrices of same order m  n , then A + B = B + A .
(ii) Associative law: Matrix addition is associative. If A, B and C are three matrices of same
order m  n , then A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B) + C .
(iii) Distributive law: If A and B are two matrices of same order m  n , and K is any scalar,
then K ( A + B) = KA + KB .
(iv) Existence of additive identity: If O denotes null matrix of the same order as that of A,
then A + O = A = O + A .
(v) Existence of an additive inverse: If A be any given m  n matrix and there exists
another m  n matrix B such that A + B = O = B + A ; where O be the m  n null
matrix.
(vi) Cancellation law: If A, B and C are three matrices of same order m  n , then
A+C = B+C  A = B.

Example 1: Find the sums A + B of the following matrices

8 9 13 4
A =   and B =  
12 7 2 6 
 8 + 13 9 + 4   21 13 
Solution: A + B =   =  
12 + 2 7 + 6  14 13 

Matrix Subtraction: The subtraction of two matrices is possible only when they are of the same
order. Such matrices are said to be conformable for subtraction. The subtraction is performed by
subtracting corresponding elements of the two matrices and entering the result in the same row-
column position of a new matrix.
If A and B are two matrices, each of size m  n then the sum of A and B is the m  n matrix
C whose elements are C ij = Aij − Bij ; i = 1, 2, 3… m and j = 1, 2, 3, ….n.

Example 2: Find the difference A − B of the following matrices

3 7 11 6 8 1
A =   and B =  
12 9 2 9 5 8 
3 − 6 7−8 11 - 1  − 3 -1 10 
Solution: A − B =   =  
12 - 9 9-5 2-8   3 4 - 6 

Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix: A matrix can be multiplied by a constant by multiplying each

component in the matrix by the constant. The result is a new matrix of the same dimensions as the
original matrix.
If K is any real number and A = [aij] is an m  n matrix, then the product KA is defined to
be the matrix whose components are given by K times the corresponding component of A i.e. KA
= [Kaij]

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Laws of scalar multiplication:
(i) K ( A + B) = KA + KB
(ii) ( K1 + K 2 ) A = K1 A + K 2 A
(iii) IA = A
(iv) ( K 1 K 2 ) A = K 1 ( K 2 A) .
1 0 1
 
Example 3: If A =  2 1 2  . Find 5 A .
3 1 
 2
1 0 1  5 0 5 
   
Solution: 5 A = 5  2 1 2  = 10 5 10 
3 1  15 10 5 
 2
Multiplication of matrices: The number of columns of the first matrix must be equal to the
number of rows of the second matrix. Such matrices are said to be conformable for multiplication.
Let A be a matrix of order m  p and B be a matrix of order p  n . Then the product AB is defined
to be a matrix C of order m  n .

Properties of Matrix Multiplication:

(i) Associative law: Multiplication of matrices is associative i.e. A( BC ) = ( AB)C .
(ii) Distributive law: Multiplication of matrices is distributive with respect to matrix
addition i.e. A( B + C ) = AB + AC .
(iii) Multiplication of a matrix by a null matrix: If A is n  m and O is m  n matrices, then
AO = O = OA .
(iv) Multiplication of a matrix by a unit matrix: If A is a square matrix of order n  n and
I is the unit matrix of same order, then IA = A = AI .
(v) Multiplication of matrix by itself: If A is a square matrix then A. A = A 2 .

 2
 
Example 4: Find AB , where A = [9 11 3] and B =  6 
7
 
Solution: The matrices A and B are conformable for multiplication. The dimensions of AB are 1
 3 = 3  1 i.e. the product matrix AB will be 1  1 and a scalar, derived by multiplying each
element of the row vector by its corresponding element in the column vector and then summing
the products.

AB = [(9  2) + (11  6) + (3  7)] = 18 + 66 + 21 = 105.

2 3 1  1 2 -1 
Example 5: If A =   and B =  .
0 -1 5 0 -1 3 
Find (i) 3 A − 4 B .
(ii) 2 A − 3B .
2 3 1  1 2 -1
Solution: (i) 3 A − 4 B = 3   - 4  
0 -1 5 0 -1 3 
6 9 3  4 8 -4 
=   -  
0 - 3 15   0 - 4 12 

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 6 - 4 9-8 3 - (-4) 
=  
0 - 0 - 3 - (-4) 15 - 12 

2 1 7
=  
0 1 3 

2 3 1  1 2 -1
(iii) 2 A − 3B = 2   - 3  
0 -1 5 0 -1 3 
4 6 2  3 6 - 3
=   -  
0 - 2 10   0 - 3 9 
4 - 3 6-6 2 - (-3) 
=  
 0 - 0 - 2 - (-3) 10 - 9 
1 0 5
=  
0 1 1 

3 1 2 1 4
   
Example 6: If A =  0 1 1  and B =  2 2
1 0  1 0 
 2 
then find AB. Whether BA exists? Give reason.

3 1 2 1 4
   
Solution: AB =  0 1 1  2 2
1 0  1 0 
 2 
 3.1 + 1.2 + 2.1 3.4 + 1.2 + 2.0 
 
=  0.1 + 1.2 + 1.1 0.4 + 1.2 + 1.0 
1.1 + 2.2 + 0.1 1.4 + 2.2 + 0.0 

7 14 
 
= 3 2
5 8 

Here A is a matrix of order 3  3 and B is a matrix of order 3  2. Hence BA does not exist as number of
columns in B is not equal to the number of rows in A.

2 3 
 1 -2 3  
Example 7: If A =   and B =  4 5 .
- 4 2 5 2 
 1 
Find AB and show that AB  BA
2 3 
1 -2 3  
Solution: AB =     4 5 
- 4 2 5  
2 1 
 1.2 + (-2).4 + 3.2 1.3 + (-2).5 + 3.1
=  
 - 4.2 + 2.4 + 5.2 - 4.3 + 2.5 + 5.1 
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  0 -4
=  
10 3 
2 3 
  1 -2 3
and BA =  4 5    
2 1  - 4 2 5 
 
 2.1 + 3.(-4) 2.(-2) + 3.2 2.3 + 3.5 
 
=  4.1 + 5.(-4) 4.(-2) + 5.2 4.3 + 5.5 
 2.1 + 1.(-4) 2.(-2) + 1.2 2.3 + 1.5 

 - 10 2 21 
 
=  - 16 2 37 
- 2 11 
 -2
Hence, AB BA.
1 2 2 1 0 0
   
Example 8: Evaluate A − 4 A − 5I , where A =  2
2
1 2  and I =  0 1 0
2 1 0 1
 2  0
1 2 2  1 2 2 9 8 8
     
2
Solution: A =  2 1 2  2 1 2 = 8 9 8
2 1  2 1 8 9 
 2 2  8

9 8 8 1 2 2 1 0 0
     
A − 4 A − 5I =  8
2
9 8 - 4 2 1 2 - 5 0 1 0
8 9  2 1 0 1
 8  2  0
9 - 4 + 5 8-8+ 0 8 - 8 + 0
 
= 8 - 8 + 0 9-4-5 8-8+ 0 
8 - 8 + 0 8-8+ 0 9 - 4 - 5 

0 0 0
 
= 0 0 0  = O, where O is a null matrix.
0 0 
 0

Questions for Review:

These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have understood and can apply the
learning you have accomplished by answering (in written form) the following questions:
 1 2
1. If A =   , find A2 + 3 A + 5I where I is unit matrix of order 2.
 − 3 0 
1 2 4 5
2. If A =   and B =   . Find a matrix C such that A + B = 2C .
3 4 6 7 
3 -3 4
 
3. If A =  2 -3 4  , find A 3 .
0 1 
 -1

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 1 2 
  3 5 9
4. Given A =  3 6  , B =  
5  6 - 2 1
 8 
(i) Write down the order of the matrices A and B.
(ii) Write down the order of the product AB.
(iii) Calculate AB.
(iv) Is it possible to calculate BA?
(v) Is AB = BA?
(vi) Are the following possible for operation?
A + B, A – B, 2B and A2

Determinant

Learning Objectives:
After completing this lesson, you should be able to:
(i) Understand the concept of determinant and advantages of determinant.
(ii) Express Cramer’s rule, and solve the system of linear equations by Cramer’s Rule.

Introduction:
The present lesson is devoted to a brief discussion of determinants and their more elementary
properties. The determinant concept is of particular interest in solving simultaneous equations.

Determinant: An important concept in matrix algebra is that of the determinant. If a matrix is

square, the elements of the matrix may be combined to compute a real- valued number called the
determinant and is denoted either by the symbol  , or by placing vertical lines around the
elements of the matrix or simple det. A. The signs of the successive terms in the expansion of
determinants will be alternately positive and negative until the last term is reached.

a11 a12 a13 

If, A = a 21 a 22 a 23 
a31 a32 a33 
a11 a12 a13
Determinant of A will be denoted by  = A = a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33
Types of Determinants:

First Order Determinant: A determinant of first order is defined by the determinant of a 1  1

Matrix. The determinant of a 1  1 matrix is simply the value of the one element contained in the
matrix.
Let, A = [a11 ] be a square matrix. Then A = a11 be a determinant of first order.

Second Order Determinant: A determinant of second order is defined by the determinant of a 2

 2 Matrix.
a11 a12 
Let, A =   is a 2  2 matrix and the determinant of A is
a 21 a 22 

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 a11 a12
A= = a11a 22 − a12 a 21
a 21 a 22
That is the value of the determinant is given by the difference of the cross products.

Third Order Determinant: A determinant of third order is defined by the determinant of a 3  3

Matrix.
a11 a12 a13 
Let, A = a 21 a 22 a 23  is a 3  3 matrix and the determinant of A is
a31 a32 a33 

a11 a12 a13

A = a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33

Minors and Cofactors: The method discussed earlier applies for calculating the determinant of
a 2  2 or 3 3 matrix. It does not, however, apply to matrices of higher dimensions. It is required
a procedure for calculating a determinant that applies to any square matrix. This procedure is
termed as the method of co-factor expansion. Before discussing the method of co-factor
expansion, we must define two terms minor and co-factor.

Minors:
The minor of an element defined as a determinant by omitting the row and the column containing
the element. Thus, a minor is the determinant of the sub matrix formed by deleting the i-th row
and j-th column of the matrix.
a11 a12 a13 
If a matrix, A = a 21 a 22 a 23 
a31 a32 a33 
a 22 a 23
then – minor of a11 = M 11 =
a32 a33
a 21 a 23
minor of a12 = M 12 =
a31 a33
a 21 a 22
minor of a13 = M 13 = and so on.
a31 a32
Co-factors:
The co-factor of an element is the co-efficient of the element in the expanded form and is equal to
the corresponding minor with proper sign. Thus, a cofactor is a minor with a prescribed sign. The
rules for the sign of a co-factor of any element = ( − 1) i + j  its minor, where i = number of row
and j = number of column.
The cofactor of aij = cij = (−1) i + j M ij
For example, cofactor of a11 = (−1)1+1 M 11 = M 11
cofactor of a12 = (−1)1+ 2 M 12 = − M 12

48
Example 1: Find the minor and co-factor of the element at the 1 st row of the determinant
1 2 3
4 5 0
3 2 7
5 0
Solution: The minor of the element 1 i.e. a11 is M 11 = = 35
2 7
4 0
The minor of the element 2 i.e. a12 is M 12 = = 28
3 7
4 5
The minor of the element 3 i.e. a13 is M 13 = = -7
3 2
The cofactor of 1 i.e. a11 is C11 = (−1)1+1 .35 = 35
The cofactor of 2 i.e. a12 is C12 = (−1)1+ 2 .28 = 28
The cofactor of 3 i.e. a13 is C13 = (−1)1+3 (-7) = -7

Expansion of Determinant and use of Sarrus Diagram:

a11 a12 a13
Let A = a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33
If the co-factor of a11 , a12 and a13 are A11 , A12 and A13 respectively, then
A = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13 .

Sarrus diagram: We can find out determinant value of a given matrix very conveniently by using
Sarrus diagram. It is found by the following process:
(i) Rewrite the first two columns of the matrix to the right of the original matrix.
(ii) Locate the elements on the three primary diagonals (P1, P2, P3) and those on the three
secondary diagonals (S1, S2, S3).
(iii) Multiply the elements on each primary and each secondary diagonal.
(iv) The determinant equals the sum of the products for the three primary diagonals
minus the sum of the products for the three secondary diagonals.

a11 a12 a13 

Let A = a 21 a 22 a 23  , the determinant may be found by the following process
a31 a32 a33 

S1 S2 S3
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 21 a 22
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32

P1 P2 P3

49
Thus, algebraically the determinant value is computed as
A = (a11 a 22 a33 + a12 a 23 a31 + a13 a 21 a32 ) − (a31 a 22 a13 + a32 a 23 a11 + a33 a 21 a12 ) .
a11 a12 a13
Hence expansion of the determinant of a 21 a 22 a 23 will be
a31 a32 a33

A = a11 (a 22 a33 − a32 a 23 ) − a12 (a 21 a33 − a31 a 23 ) + a13 (a 21 a32 − a31 a 22 ) .

= a11 A11 + a12 A12 + a13 A13 .

1 5 3
Example 2: Find the value of 2 0 5
-4 1 -2

1 5 3
Solution: Let D = 2 0 5
-4 1 -2
= 1 (0 – 5) – 5 (- 4 + 20) + 3 (2 – 0)
= - 5 – 80 + 6 = 79.

Properties of Determinants:
Certain properties hold for determinants. The following properties can be useful in computing
the value of the determinant.
1) If two rows or columns are interchanged in a determinant the sign of the determinant
changes but its value is unchanged.
2) If rows are changed into columns and columns into rows, the determinant remains
unchanged.
3) If two rows or columns are identical in a determinant it vanishes.
4) If all the elements of any row or column are zero, the determinant is zero.
5) If any multiple of one row or column is added to another row or column, the value of the
determinant is unchanged.
6) If any row or column is a multiple of another row or column, the determinant equals to
zero.
1 1 1
Example 3: Show that a b c = ( a − b)(b − c )( c − a )
a2 b2 c2
Solution: Applying C1 = C1 – C2; C2 = C2 – C3 we get
0 0 1
a-b b-c c
a 2 - b2 b2 - c2 c2

50
 1 1
= (a – b)(b – c)
a+b b+c
= (a – b)(b – c)(c – a)

a + b + 2c a b
Example 4: Show that c b + c + 2a b = 2( a + b + c ) 3
c a c + a + 2b
Solution: Applying C1 = C1 + C2 + C3, we get

2a + 2b + 2c a b
= 2a + 2b + 2c b + c + 2a b
2a + 2b + 2c a c + a + 2b
1 a b
= 2(a + b + c) 1 b + c + 2a b
1 a c + a + 2b

Applying R1 = R1 - R2, R2 = R2 - R23

0 - (a + b + c) 0
= 2(a + b + c) 0 (a + b + c) - (a + b + c)
1 a c + a + 2b
= 2(a + b + c)3.

1 x y+z
Example 5: Show that 1 y z+x =0
1 z x+y

Solution: Applying C 3 = C2 + C3 we get,

1 x x+y+z
= 1 y x+y+z
1 z x+y+z
1 x 1
= ( x + y + z) 1 y 1
1 z 1
= 0.
1 1 1
Example 6: Solve the equation x a b =0
3 3 3
x a b
Solution: Applying C2 = C2 – C1; C3 = C3 – C2 we get

51
 1 0 0
x a-x b-a =0
x 3 3
a -x 3
b −a3 3

a-x b-a
=0
a3 - x3 b3 − a 3

( a − x )(b − a )(b 2 + ab + a 2 − a 2 − ax − x 2 ) = 0

( a − x )(b − a )(b 2 + ab − ax − x 2 ) = 0
− ( a − x )(b − a )( x 2 + ax − ab − b 2 ) = 0
( a − x )(b − a )( x 2 + ax − ab − b 2 ) = 0
− a  a 2 − 4( −ab − b 2 )
x = a or x =
2
− a  a 2 + 4ab + b 2 )
x = a or x =
2
x = a, b, − (a + b) .

Cramer’s Rule and Its Use in the Solution of Equations:

Cramer’s rule is a simple rule using determinants to express the solution of a system of linear
equations for which the number of equations is equal to the number of variables. This rule states
Di
xi = where xi is the i-th unknown variable in a series of equations, D is the determinant of
D
the coefficient matrix, and Di is the determinant of a special matrix formed from the original
coefficient matrix by replacing the column of coefficients of xi with the column vector of
constants. Thus, Cramer’s rule can be fruitfully applied in case D  0 .

Example 7: Solve the following system of equations by using Cramer’s Rule.

5 x − 6 y + 4 z = 15
7 x + 4 y − 3 z = 19
2 x + y + 6 z = 46
5 −6 4
Solution: Here D = 7 4 − 3 = 419
2 1 6
15 −6 4
Dx = 19 4 − 3 = 1257
46 1 6

52
 5 15 4
Dy = 7 19 − 3 = 1676
2 46 6
5 −6 15
Dz = 7 4 19 = 2514
2 1 46
x y z 1
We know from the Cramer’s Rule, = = =
Dx D y Dz D
Dx 1257
Hence x = = =3
D 419
Dy 1676
y= = =4
D 419
D 2514
z= z = =6
D 419

Example 8: Solve the following system of equations by using Cramer’s Rule.

x+ y+z =9
2 x + 5 y + 7 z = 52
2x + y − z = 0

1 1 1
Solution: Here D = 2 5 7 = -4
2 1 -1
9 1 1
Dx = 52 5 7 = -4
0 1 -1
1 9 1
Dy = 2 52 7 = -12
2 0 -1
1 1 9
Dz = 2 5 52 = -20
2 1 0
x y z 1
We know from the Cramer’s Rule, = = =
Dx D y Dz D
Dx −4
Hence x = = =1
D −4
Dy − 12
y= = =3
D −4
D − 20
z= z = =5
D −4

53
Questions for Review:
These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have understood and can apply the
learning you have accomplished by answering (in written form) the following questions:

1. Find all the minors and co-factors of the following determinant

1 2 3
4 5 7
-2 8 1
1 a a2
2 Show that 1 b b 2 = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a )
1 c c2
a −b−c 2a 2a
3. Show that 2b b−c−a 2b = (a + b + c) 3
2c 2c c-a −b

x+ y x y
4. Find the value of x x+z z
y z y+z
5. Solve the following system of equations by using Cramer’s Rule:

x + 5y − z = 9
3x − 3 y + 2 z = 7
2 x − 4 y + 3z = 1
6. Solve the following system of equations by using Cramer’s Rule:
x − y + z =1
x + y − 2z = 0
2x − y − z = 0
p+x q+x r+x
7. Solve the equation q + x r+x p+x =0
r+x p+x q+x

Matrix Inversion

Learning Objectives:
After completing this lesson, you should be able to:
(i) Explain inverse matrix.
(ii) Solve system of linear equations by inverse matrix method.

Introduction: The operation of dividing one matrix directly by another does not exist in matrix
theory but equivalent of division of a unit matrix by any square matrix can be accomplished (in
most cases) by a process known as inversion of matrix. The concept of inverse matrix is useful in
solving simultaneous equations, input-output analysis and regression analysis.
54
Inverse Matrix: If A is a square matrix of order n, then a square matrix B of the same order n is
said to be inverse of A if AB = BA = I (unit matrix).
Methods of Matrix Inversion:
There are several methods for determining the inverse of a matrix; two of these are discussed in
below.
(i) Co-factor matrix method.
(ii) Gauss- Jordan Elimination method.

Working Rule for inverse matrix (Co-factor matrix method):

To evaluate the inverse of a square matrix A, we should follow the following steps:
(i) Evaluate A for the matrix A and be sure that A  0
(ii) Calculate the co-factors of all the elements of the matrix A.
(iii) Find the matrix of the co-factor AC.
(iv) Then find the Adjoint of A by taking transpose of AC such that Adj A = (AC)T.
(v) Finally divide all the elements of Adj A by A to get the required inverse A-1.

2 4
Example 1: Find the inverse of the matrix, A = 
3 8
2 4
Solution: The determinant of the matrix A is, A = =40
3 8
 8 -3 
The cofactor matrix of A is, A C =  
- 4 2 

 8 −4 
The Adjoint matrix of A is, A j = 
 -3 2 
Therefore, the inverse of A is,
1 1  8 −4 
A−1 = A j = 
 4  -3 2 
 1 2 0
Example 2: Find the inverse of the matrix, A =  1 0 − 1 
− 1 3 2 
1 2 0
Solution: The determinant of the matrix A is, A = 1 0 −1 = 1
−1 3 2
 3 −1 3
The cofactor matrix of A is, A = − 4
C
2 − 5
 
− 2 1 − 2
 3 −4 − 2

The Adjoint matrix of A is, A = − 1
J
2 1
 
 3 − 5 − 2 
Therefore, the inverse of A is,

55
  3 −4 − 2  3 −4 − 2
1 J 1
−1
A = A = −1 2 1 = − 1 2 1
 1  
 3 −5 − 2   3 −5 − 2 

Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method:

To determine the inverse of an m  m matrix ‘A’
(i) Determining the determinant value of A, whether it is non-singular or not.
(ii) Augment the matrix A with an m  m identity matrix, resulting in ( A I ).
(iii) Perform row operations on the entire augmented matrix so as to transform ‘A’
into an m  m identify matrix. The resulting matrix will have the form
( I A −1 ) where, the A −1 can be read to the right of the vertical line.
3 7 
Example 3: Find the inverse of the matrix, A =  
2 5
Solution: Augmented the matrix ‘A’ by 2  2 identity matrix, we get –
3 7 1 0 
 
2 5 0 1
 7 1 
 1 0 1
applying r1 = r1 
/
3 3
  3
2 5 0 1
 7 1 
1 3 3
0
  applying, r2 = r2 − r1  2
/

0 1
−
2
1
 3 3 

 7 1 
1 3 3
0
applying, r2 = r2 
/ 1
  3
0 1 −2 3

1 0 5 − 7 7
applying, r1 = r1 − r2 
/
0 1−2 
 3 3
 5 − 7
So, the inverse of ‘A’ is, A −1 = 
3
.
− 2

Solution of Linear Equations by Using Inverse of Matrix:

Matrix algebra permits the concise expression of a system of linear equations. The inverse matrix
can be used to solve a system of simultaneous equations. Let a system of linear equations are
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z = k1
a 21 x + a 22 y + a 23 z = k 2
a31 x + a32 y + a33 z = k 3

It can be written in the matrix form:

56
  a 11 a 12 a 13  x   k1 
    
 a 21 a 22 a 23  y  =  k 2 
a
 31 a 32 a 33  z   k 3 
 a 11 a 12 a 13  x  k1 
     
AX = B ; where, A =  a 21 a 22 a 23  , X =  y  , B =  k2 
a a 33  z  k 
 31 a 32    3
−1
X =A B

Example: Use matrix inversion to solve the following system of equations

4x 1 + x 2 − 5x 3 = 8
− 2x 1 + 3x 2 + x 3 = 12
3x 1 − x 2 + 4x 3 = 5
Solution: The given system of equations can be written in the matrix form

 4 1 − 5  x1  8 
− 2 3 1 x  = 12
   2  
 3 −1 4  x3  5 

X = A −1 B

4 1 -5
Now A = - 2 3 1 = 98
3 −1 4
13 11 -7 
The cofactor matrix of A is A C = 1 31 7 
16 6 14
13 1 16 
The Adjoint matrix of A is, A j = 11 31 6 
 
− 7 7 14
Therefore, the inverse of A is,
13 1 16 
1 
6 
−1 1
A = Aj = 11 31
 98  
− 7 7 14

13 1 16  8  2
1 
−1
X = A B= 11 31 6  12 = 5 
98      
− 7 7 14 5  1 

x1 = 2, x2 = 5, x3 = 1
Example: Solve the following system of equations by using Gaussian method.
57
 x+ y+z =7
x + 2 y + 3 z = 16
x + 3 y + 4 z = 22
Solution: Given system of equations in matrix form
1 1 1  x  7 
1 2 3  y  = 16 

1 3 4  z  22

1 1 1  x  7 
0 1 2   y  = 9  ; Applying R = R – R
     2 2 1

0 2 3  z  15

R3 = R3 – R1

1 1 1x   7 
0 1  y  =  9 ; Applying R = R - 2R
2 
     3 3 2

0 0  z  − 3

- 1
x+ y+z =7
Hence y + 2z = 9
− z = −3
Thus, z = 3, y = 3, x = 1.

Example: Solve the following system of equations by using Gaussian method.

2x − 5 y + 7z = 6
x − 3y + 4z = 3
3 x − 8 y + 11z = 11
Solution: Given system of equations in matrix form
2 -5 7   x  6 
1 − 3 4   y  = 3 

3 - 8 11  z  11

1 -3 4   x  3 
2 −5 7   y  = 6 
    
3 -8 11  z  11

1 -3 4  x  3 
0 1 − 1  y  = 0 ; Applying R = R – 2R
     2 2 1

0 1 - 1  z  2

R3 = R3 – 3R1

58
 1 -3 4  x   3
0 1 - 1   y  =  0  ; Applying R = R - R
     3 3 2

0 0 0   z   2

x − 3y + 4z = 3
Hence y−z =0
0=2
Since, 0 = 2 is false, the given system of equations has no solution. So given system of equations
is inconsistent.

Questions for Review:

These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have understood and can apply the
learning you have accomplished by answering (in written form) the following questions:
2 1 -1 

1. Find the inverse of the matrix, A =  0 2 1  .
 5 2 2 
 1 3 4 

2. Find the inverse of the matrix, A =  3 -1 6 
 - 1 5 1 
3. Solve the following system of equations by using Gaussian method.

2x − 5 y + 7z = 6
x − 3y + 4z = 3
3 x − 8 y + 11z = 11
4. Use matrix inversion to solve the following system of equations
x+ y+z =3
x + 2 y + 3z = 4
x + 4 y + 9z = 6
5. Use matrix inversion to solve the following system of equations
x + 2 y + 3z = 6
2x + 4 y + z = 7
3 x + 2 y + 9 z = 14

59
 Application of Matrices in Business

Learning Objectives:
After completing this lesson, you should be able to:
(i) Develop matrices by using the given business information.
(ii) Apply the concepts of matrices to solve the business problems.

Introduction: Matrix is the powerful tool in modern mathematics having wide applications.
Demographers, sociologists, economists use matrices in different way. Many economic
relationships can be approximated by linear equations. Matrix algebra permits the concise
expression of a system of linear equations.

Illustrative Example:

Example 1: A manufacturer produces three products A, B, C that he sells in the market. Annual
sales volumes are indicated as follows:

Market Products
A B C
I 8000 10000 15000
II 10000 2000 20000

(i) If unit sale prices of A, B and C are $2.25, $1.50 and 1.25 respectively, find the total
revenue in each market with the help of matrices.
(ii) If the unit costs of the above three products are $1.60, $1.20 and $0.90 respectively, find
the gross profit with the help of matrices.

Solution: (i) The total revenue in each market is given by the product matrix
 8000 10000 
 
(2.25 1.50 1.25) 10000 2000 
15000 20000 

= [51750 50500]
The total revenue from the market I is $51750 and the total revenue from the market II is $50500.
(ii) The total cost of products with the manufacturer sells in the markets are

 8000 10000 
 
(1.60 1.20 0.90) 10000 2000 
15000 20000 

= [38300 36400].
The total cost of products that the manufacturer sells in the market I and II are $38300 and $36400
respectively.
Required gross profit = (Total revenue received from both the markets) – (Total cost of products
that the manufacturer sold in both the market).
= (51750+50500)- (38300+36400)
= 102250 – 74700
= 27550.

60
Example 2: A finance Company has offices located in every division, every district and every
Thana. Assume that there are five divisions, thirty districts and two hundred Thanas. Each office
has one head clerk, one cashier, one clerk and one peon. A divisional office has, in addition one
office superintendent, two clerks, one typist and one peon. A district office has in addition one
clerk and one peon. The basic monthly salaries are as follows: office superintendent $500, head
clerk $200, cashier $175 clerks and typists $150 and peon $100. Using matrix notation, find the
following
(i) The total number of posts of each kind in all the offices taken together.
(ii) The total basic monthly salary bill of each kind of office and
(iii) The total basic monthly salary bill of all the offices taken together.

Solution: Let the number of offices can be arranged as elements of a row matrix
A = (5 30 200)
The composition of staff in various offices can be arranged in a 3  6 matrix
1 1 1 3 1 2
 
B = 0 1 1 2 0 2
0 1 
 1 1 1 0

The basic monthly salaries of various types of employees of these offices correspond to the
 500 
 
 200 
175 
elements of the column matrix, C =  
150 
150 
 
100 
 
(i) Total number of posts of each kind in all the offices are the elements of the product
matrix AB.

1 1 1 3 1 2
 
(5 30 200)  0 1 1 2 0 2
0 1 
 1 1 1 0
= [5 235 235 275 5 270]

Thus, the required numbers of posts in all the offices taken together are 5-office superintendent,
235 head clerks, 235 cashiers, 275 clerks, 5 typists and 270 peons.

 500 
 
 200 
1 1 1 3 1 2  1675 
  175   
(ii)  0 1 1 2 0 2   =  875 
0 150  
 1 1 1 0 1     625 
150
 
100 
 
Thus, the total basic monthly salary bill of each divisional, district and Thana offices are $1675,
$875 and $625 respectively.

61
(iii) Total basic monthly salary bill of all the offices is the element of the product matrix ABC i.e.
1675 
 
(5 30 200)   875  = 159625.
 625 
 
Thus, the total basic monthly salary bill of all the offices taken together is $159625.

Example 3: Three persons A, B and C posses Tk.3000, Tk.2000 and Tk.2500 respectively. A with
his entire amount purchased 5 shares of Tk. X each, 3 shares of Tk. Y each and 4 shares of Tk. Z
each. B purchased 3 shares of Tk. X each, 4 shares of Tk. Y each and 2 shares of Tk. Z each with
his entire amount and C purchased 4 shares of Tk. X each, 3 shares of Tk. Y each and 4 shares of
Tk. Z each with his entire amount. Determine the value of each share of different types.

Solution: We have, 5x + 3y + 4z = 3000

3x + 4y + 2z = 2000
4x + 3y + 4z = 2500
5 3 4
D= 3 4 2 = 10
4 3 4
3000 3 4
Dx = 2000 4 2 = 5000
2500 3 4
5 3000 4
Dy = 3 2000 2 = 1000
4 2500 4
5 3 3000
Dz = 3 4 2000 = 500
4 3 2500
From Cramer’s rule we know that,
x y z 1
We know from the Cramer’s Rule, = = =
Dx D y Dz D
Dx 5000
Hence x = = = 500
D 10
Dy 1000
y= = = 100
D 10
D 500
z= z = = 50
D 10

Example 4: To control a certain crop disease it is necessary to use 7 units of chemical A, 10 units
of chemical B and 6 units of chemical C. One barrel of spray P contains 1 unit of A, 4 units of B
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and 2 units of C. One barrel of spray Q contains 3 units of A, 2 units of B, and 2 units of C. One
barrel of spray R contains 4 units of A, 3 units of B and 2 units of C. How much of each type of
spray should be used to control the disease?

Solution: Let x barrels of spray P, y barrels of spray Q and z barrels of spray R be used to control
the disease. Then we can write,
x + 3y + 4z = 7
4 x + 2 y + 3 z = 10
2x + 2 y + 2z = 6
The given information can be written under the matrix form as follows:
 1 3 4   x  7 
4 2 3   y  = 10

 2 2 2   z  6 
−1
x   1 3 4  7 
 y =  4 2 3  10
    
 z   2 2 2  6 
 1 3 4 

Let A =  4 2 3 
 2 2 2 
1 3 4
The determinant of the matrix A is, A = 4 2 3 =8
2 2 2
 -2 -2 4 
The cofactor matrix of A is, A =  2 C
-6 4 
 1 13 − 10
 -2 2 1 
The Adjoint matrix of A is, A = − 2
J
-6 13 
 4 4 − 10 
Therefore, the inverse of A is,
 -2 2 1 
1 J 1 
−1
A = A = − 2 -6 13 
 8
 4 4 − 10 

x   -2 2 1  7 
 y  = 1 − 2 -6 13  10 .
  8  
 z   4 4 − 10  6 

x  12
 y  = 1 4 
  8 
 z  8 

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 3 
x   2
 y  = 1 2  .
   
 z  1 
 
1 1
Hence 1 barrels of the spray P, barrel of spray Q and 1 barrel of spray R should be used to
2 2
control the disease.

Example 5: The cost of manufacturing the three types of motorcars is given below:
Car Labour hours Material used Subcontracted works
A 40 100 50
B 80 150 80
C 100 250 100
Labour cost $2 per hour, per unit material cost is $0.5 and one unit of subcontracted work cost s
$1. Find the total cost of manufacturing 3000, 2000 and 1000 vehicles of type A, B, C respectively.
If the selling price of car A, B, C is $2000, 3500 and $4500 respectively, then find the profit from
selling those cars.

Solution: Consider the following matrices,

40 100 50  2 
M = 80 150 80  N = 10
   
100 250 100 1 
180 
MN = 315
 
425
This column matrix represents cost of each car A, B, C in that order.
Let P = (3000 2000 1000), this row matrix represents number of cars A, B, C to be manufactured
in that order.
Now PMN = (1595000)
Thus total cost of manufacturing three cars A, B, C is $1595000.
2000
Let Q = 3500 ; this column matrix represents the selling price of A, B, C.
 
4500
2000
Now, Total Revenue = PQ = (3000 2000 1000) 3500
 
4500
= 17500000
Profit = Total revenue – Total cost = 17500000 – 1595000 = 15905000.

Questions for Review:

These questions are designed to help you assess how far you have understood and can apply the
learning you have accomplished by answering (in written form) the following questions:

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1. A, B and C has Tk. 480, Tk. 760 and Tk.710 respectively. They utilized the amounts to
purchase three types of shares of prices x, y and z respectively. A purchases 2 share of
price x, 5 of price y and 3 of price z. B purchases 4 shares of price x, 3 of price y and 6 of
price z. C purchases 1 share of price x, 4 of price y and 10 of price z. Find the value of x,
y and z.
2. A manufacturing unit produces three types of television sets A, B, C. The following matrix
shows the sale of television sets in two different cities.
A B C 
 
 400 300 200 
 300 100 
 200
If cost price of each set A, B, C is Tk.1000, Tk.2000, and Tk.3000 respectively and selling
price Tk.1500, Tk.3000, Tk.4000 respectively, find the total profit using matrix algebra only.
3. The following matrix represents the results of the examination of MBA.
1 2 3 4
 
5 6 7 8
9 12 
 10 11
The rows represent the three sections of the class. The first three columns represent the
number of students securing 1st, 2nd and 3rd divisions respectively in that order and fourth
column represents the number of students who failed in the examination.
(i) How many students passed in three sections respectively?
(ii) How many students failed in three sections respectively?
(iii) Write down the matrix in which number of successful students is shown.
(iv) Write down the column matrix where only failed students are shown.
(v) Write down the column matrix showing students in 1st division from three
sections.
4. A publishing house has two branches. In each branch, there are three offices. In each office, there are 3
peons, 4 clerks and 5 typists. In one office of a branch, 6 salesmen are also working. In each office of
other branch 2 head clerks are also working. Using matrix notation find
(i) the total number of posts of each kind in all the offices taken together in each
branch.
(ii) the total number of posts of each kind in all the offices taken together from both
the branches.

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