ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Atom is a Greek word and its meaning Indivisible i.e. an ultimate particles which cannot be further subdivided.
John Dalton (1803 - 1808) considered that " all matter was composed of small particle called atom which is indivisible

CATHODE R AYS (Discovered by Julius Plucker i n 1859)

Properties of Cathode rays

(1) Cathode rays travel in a straight line. It casts sharp shadows, if any opaque solid object is placed in their path.
(2) They rotate a light paddle wheel if placed in their path and thus shows mechanical effect i
(3) These rays are deflected by the electric and magnetic fields. When the rays are passed between two electrically
charged plates, these are deflected towards the positively charged plate. It shows that cathode rays carry -ve charge.
These particles carrying negative charge were called negatrons by Thomson.The name negatron was changed to
'electron' by Stoney
(4) They penetrate through the metals and other substances and also produce flourescence.
(5) They affect the photographic plate.

Prop er t ie s of t he Electron :
(i) Electron was discovered in cathode ray experiment by J.J. Thomson in 1887.
(ii) The name electron was proposed by stoney for the fundamental unit of electricity.
(iii) The charge on an electron (–1.602 x 10–19 coulombs) was determined by Mullikan in his oil drop experiment.
(iv) Actual mass of an electron 9.1×10-31 kg (9.11 × 10–28g) was calculated by J.J Thomson.
(v) The specific charge (e/m ratio) of electrons (cathode rays) was determined by Thomson as
1.76 x 108 coulombs/gram.
1
(vi) Mass of electron is times that of proton.
1837

ANODE R AYS OR POSITIVE R AYS (Discovered by Goldstein)

Proper ties of the positive rays are as follows.
(i) These rays travel in straight lines and cast a shadow of the object placed in their path.
(ii) Like cathode rays, these rays also rotate the wheel placed in their path and also have heating effect.
(iii) These rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields towards the negatively charged plate showing thereby that
these rays carry +ve charge.
(iv) These rays can produce ionisation in gases.
(v) e/m value is dependent on nature of gas taken in the discharge tube, i.e. +ve particles are different in different gases.
Properties of the Proton :
(i) It was thus assumed that the positive particle given by the hydrogen represents a fundamental particle of +ve charge.
This particle was named proton by Rutherford in 1911.
(ii) Thus Charge on proton = + 1.602  10-19 columb i.e. one unit +ve charge
(iii) The mass of the proton, thus can be calculated.

e 1.602 10 –19

Mass of the proton =  = 1.672 ´ 10-24 g = 1.672 ´ 10-27 kg
e / m 9.579  10 4

By: S.P.Sir
THOMSON'S MODEL OF ATOM
1-Thomson was the first to propose a detailed model of the atom.
2-Thomson proposed that an atom consists of a uniform sphere
of positive charge in which the electrons are distributed more or e

less uniformly.
3-This model of atom is known as "Plum-Pudding model" or "Raisin
Pudding Model" or "Water Melon Model". sphere of
+ve charge
Drawbacks :
1-An important drawback of this model is that the mass of the atoms is considered to be evenly spread over that atom.
2-It is a static model. It does not reflect the movement of electron.
3-It couldn't explain the stability of an atom.

RUTHERFORD'S SCATTERING EXPERIMENT (  -scat tering experiment)

thin gold foil (.00004 cm)

most of  particles
strike here
(Ray)

Zns Screen
source (Ra) of slit system
rays (lead plate)
=[2He ]
4 +2 circular
[doubly ionised He particle] fluorescent screen

Ruther ford observed that -

(i) Most of the -particles (nearly 99.9%) went straight without suffering any deflection.
(ii) A few of them got deflected through more or less angles.
(iii) A very few (about one in 20,000) did not pass through the foil and came back in the direction from which they have come

By: S.P.Sir
Following conclusions were drawn from the above observations :

(1) Since most of the -particle went straight through the metal foil undeflected, it means that there must be very large empty
space within the atom.
(2) Since few of the -particles were deflected from their original path through moderate angles; it was concluded that whole of
the +ve charge is concentrated and the space occupied by this positive charge is very small in the atom.
(3) A very few of the-particles suffered strong deflections on even returned on their path indicating that the nucleus is rigid and -particles
recoil due to direct collision with the heavy positively charged mass.
Thus positively charged mass present at the centre which occupies only a small volume in an atom is called nucleus.

RUTHERFORD ATOMIC MODEL : According to this model -

(i) An atom consists of a heavy positively charged nucleus where all the protons and neutrons are present. Protons & neutrons
are collectively reffered to as nucleons.
(ii) The volume of the nucleus is very small as compare to the total volume of the atom. Nucleus has a diameter of the order of
10–13 cm and the atom has a diameter of the order of 10–8 cm
DA Diameter of the atom 10 8
  13 = 105 , DA = 105 DN
D N Diameter of the nucleus 10
Thus diameter (size) of the atom is 105 times the diameter of the nucleus.

volume of the atom (10 –8 ) 3

  10 15
volume of the nucleus (10 –13 ) 3

The volume of the atom is about 1015 times the volume of the nucleus.
(iii) There is an empty space around the nucleus called extra nuclear part. In this part electrons are present.
(iv) Electrons revolve around the nucleus in closed orbits with high speeds. The centrifugal force acting on the revolving e - is
being counter balanced by the force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus.

Drawbacks of ruther ford model -

(1)This theory could not explain stability of atom.
(2)If the electrons loss energy continuously, the observed spectrum should be continuous but the actual observed spectrum is not
continuous in an atom.

NEUTRON In 1932, chadwick bombarded beryllium with a stream of -particles. He observed that penetrating radiations were
produced which were not affected by electric & magnetic fields. these radiations consists of neutral particles, which were called
neutrons.

2
He4 + 4
Be9 = 6C12 +0n1

Thus a neutron is a sub atomic particle which has a mass 1.675  10-24 g approximately 1amu, or nearly equal to the mass
of proton or hydrogen atom and carrying no electrical charge.The specific charge ( e/m value) of a neutron is zero.
Note: Atom is actually made of 3 fundamental particles : 1.Electron 2.Proton 3.Neutron
F. par t icle Discovered By Charge Mass
Electron (e–or ) J.J.Thomson(1898) –1.6×x 10–19coloumb 9.1× 10–31kg or 0.000548 amu
Proton (P, or H+) E.Rutherford (1919) +1.6×x 10–19coloumb 1.672× 10–27kg or 1.00757 amu
Neutron (0n1) J. Chadwick (1932) 0 1.675× 10–27kg or 1.00893 amu

By: S.P.Sir
 S om e im port ant d e fina t ions

Mass Number : It is represented by capital A. The sum of number of Neutrons and protons is called the mass Number of the
element. i.e. A = number of protons + number of Neutrons

Atomic Number : It is represented by Z. The number of protons present in the Nucleus is called atomic number of an element.
It is also known as nuclear charge.
For neutral atom : Number of proton = Number of electron
For charged atom : Number of e– = Z – (charge on atom), Z= number of protons only

Ex. 17
Cl35  n = 18, p = 17, e = 17

Isotopes : Given by Soddy, are the atoms of a given element which have the same atomic number but different mass number
i.e. They have same Nuclear charge but different number of Neutrons.
Ex.1 17
Cl37 17
Cl37 Ex.2 6
C12 C13
6
C14
6

n = 18 n = 20 e=6 e=6 e=6

e = 17 e = 17 p=6 p=6 p=6
p = 17 p = 17 n=6 n=7 n=8
Ex.3 (Proteium Dueterium Tritium)
H1
1
H2
1
H3
1

e=1 e=1 e=1

p=1 p=1 p=1
n=0 n=1 n=2
1
H1 is the only normal hydrogen which have n = 0 i.e. no nuetrons

Isobars : Given by Aston, isobars are the atoms of different element which have the same mass number but different
Atomic number i.e They have different number of Electron, Protons & Neutrons But sum of number of neutrons &
Protons remains same.
Ex.1 H3 1 2
He3 Ex.2 19
K40 20
Ca40
p=1 p=2 p = 19 p = 20
e=1 e=2 n = 21 n = 20
n=2 n=1 e = 19 e = 20
p+n=3 p+n=3 n+p = 40 n + p = 40
Isobars do not have the same chemical & physical property.
Isotones/ Isonuetronic species : They are the atoms of different element which have the same number of neutrons.
Ex 1 1H3 2
He4 Ex. 2 19 K 39 20
Ca40
p=1 p=2 e = 19 e = 20
n=2 n=2 p = 19 p = 20
e=1 e=2 n = 20 n = 20

Isoelectronic Species :  They are the atoms, molecules or ions which have the same number of electrons.
Ex.1 Cl– Ar Ex.2 H2O NH3 Ex.3 BF3 SO2
Electron 18 e –
18 e –
e=2+8 e=7+3 e = 5 +9 × 3 e =16 + 8 × 2
= 10 e –
=10 e –
=5 + 27 = 16 + 16
= 32 e –
= 32 e–

By: S.P.Sir
 NATURE OF LIGHT

1-ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES THEORY OR RA DIANT ENERGY:

i-According to this theory the energy transmitted from one body to another in the form of waves.
iii- Electro magnetic waves do not need any medium for propogation.
ii-These waves travel in the space with the same speed as light ( 3 x 108 m/s)
iv-Electromagnetic wave consist of electric and magnetic fields that oscillate in directions perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is trave1ling.
Ex :Radio waves, micro waves, Infra red rays, visible rays, ultraviolet rays, x–rays, gama rays and cosmic rays
1. Wavelength () (Lambda) : It is defined as the distance between two nearest crest or trough.
It is measured in terms of a Å (Angstrom), pm (Picometre), nm (nanometer), cm(centimetre), m (metre)
1Å = 10–10 m, 1 Pm = 10–12 m, 1nm = 10–9 m, 1cm = 10–2m
2. Frequency () (nu) : Frequency of a wave is defined as the number of waves which pass through a point in 1 second.
It is measured in terms of Hertz (Hz ), second–1 , or cycle per second (cps) (1 Hertz = 1 second–1 )
1
3. Time period (T) : Time taken by a wave to pass through one point. Tsecond

4. Velocity (c) : Velocity of a wave is defined as distance covered by a wave in 1 second
c =  or = c/ or c = (s–1) × (m) or c = (m s–1)
Since c is constants i.e. frequency is inversely propotional to

5. Wave number (  ) ( nu bar) : It is the reciprocal of the wave length that is number of waves present in 1cm
1
 It is measured in terms of cm–1, m–1 etc,

6. Amplitude (a) : The amplitude of a wave is defined as the height of crust or depth of trough.

c  1
Impor tant note : 

 c    
 
Q.1 The vividh Bharti station of All India Radio broadcast on a frequency of 1368 Kilo Hertz Calculate the wave length of the
Electromagnetic waves emited by the transmitter. Ans. = 219.3 m
Q.2 Calculate  in cm–1 and  of yellow radiations have wavelength of 5800 Å Ans.= 5.1 × 1014 s-1
Q.3 A Particular radiostation broadcast at a frequency of 1120 Kilo Hertz another radio station broadcast at a frequency of
98.7 mega Hertz. What are the wave length of radiations from each station. Ans. = 3.0395 m

PLANCK'S QUANTUM THEORY

According to planck's quantum theory :

1.The radiant energy emitted or absorbed by a body not continuously but discontinuously in the form of small discrete packets
of energy and these packets are called quantum.
2. In case of light, the smallest packet of energy is called as 'photon' but in general case the smallest packet of energy called as
quantum.
3. The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to frequency of the radiation i.e.
hc  c
E   E = h or E=    
   
h is proportionality constant or Planck's constant h = 6.626 × 10–34 J s
4.Total amount of energy transmited from one body to another will be some integral multiple of energy of a quantum.
E = nh Where n is an integer and n = number of quantum
nhc
E  nh    nhc 


By: S.P.Sir
Q.1 Calculate the energy of a photon of sodium light of wave length 5.862 × 10 –16
m in Joules.
Ans. 5.886 × 10 –16
m, c = 3 × 10 m s
8 –1

nhc
E = nh or {  n = 1 }

hc 1  6.6  10 34 J s  3  10  m s 1 6.6  3
 E= = =  10 10 J = 3.38 × 10–10 J
 5.862  10 16 m 5.862
Q.2 Calculate the frequency & energy of a photon of wave length 4000 Å.
Ans. (a) Calculation of frequency :  = 4000 Å = 4000 × 10–10 m

c 3  10 8 m / s
  = = 0.75 × 1015– s–1 = 7.5 × 1014 s–1
 4  10 7 m
(b) Calculaion of energy : E = h= 6.626 × 10–34 joule second × 7.5 × 1014 s–1= 4.96 × 10–19 joule
Q.3 Calculate the and frequency of a photon having an energy of 2 electron volt
Ans.  1eV = 1.602 × 10–19 J  2eV = 3.204 × 10–19 J = E

hc hc 6.626  10 34 Js  3  10 8 m s 1
(a) Calculation of wavelength () : E  or   = = 6.204 × 10–7 m
 E 3.204  10 19 J

c 3  10 8 m s 1
(b) Calculation of frequencty () :   = = 0.48 × 1015 s–1 = 4.8 × 1014 s–1
 6.204  10 7 m
BOHR'S ATOMIC MODEL It is a quantum mechanical model. This model was based on quantum theory of radiation
The impor tant postulate s on which Bohr's Model is based are the following :
1st Postulate : Atoms has a nucleus where all protons and neutrons are present.
The size of nucleus is very small and it is present at the centre of the atom.
2nd Postulate :Negatively charged electron are revolving around the nucleus on the circular path which is called as energy level
The attraction force (Coulambic or electrostatic force) between nucleus and electron is equal to the centrifugal force on
electron. i.e. Attraction force towards nucleus = centrifugal force.
3 Postulate : While moving in particular orbits an electron neither losses nor gain energy. Thus the energy of an electron in
rd

a particlar energy state always remaines fixed so it is called as stationary energy state.
h
4th Postulate : Electrons can revolve only on those orbits whose angular momentum (mvr) is integral multiple of
2

nh
where h = Planck's constant,  = Constant i.e. mvr = (n = Whole number),
2

5th Postulate :When energy is given to the electron it jumps to any higher energy level and is said to be in the excited
state. When the electron jumps from higher to lower energy state, the energy is radiated.
The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted when transition occurs between two stationary states that differ in energy
by E, is given by :
E = E2 - E1 = hv

APPLICATION OF BOHR'S MODEL

1.Radius of various orbits (shell)

n2 h2
r
4  mKZe 2
2

n2
rn  0.529  Å
Z
By: S.P.Sir
Q.1 Calculate the radius of 1st,2nd Bohr's Orbit of hydrogen.
n2
Ans. Radius of Bohr's orbitr = 0.529 × Å
Z
12
(a) Radius of Ist orbit : r = 0.529 × Å = 0.529Å
1
22
(b) Radius of IInd orbit : r = 0.529 × = 0.529 × 4 = 2.116Å
1
Q.2 Calculate the radius ratio of 3rd & 5th orbit of He+.
n2
Ans.  r = 0.529 × Å and Atomic Number of He = 2
Z
3 
2
9 (5) 2 25
 r3 = 0.529 × = 0.529 × and r5 = 0.529 × = 0.529 ×
2 2 2 2
3 
2

r3 0.529 
 2 9
Therefore  or r3 : r5 = 9 : 25
5 
2
r5 25
0.529 
2

2. Energy of an electron :
2 2 m × K 2 Z 2 e 4
En = –
n2h2
now putting the value of , K, e, m, h, we get :

2 1 .6 9 × 1 0 -1 9 × Z 2 Z2
En = – J /atom E n = – 1 3 .6 × eV/ at om
n2 n2
This formula is applicable for hydrogen atom & hydrogen like species i.e. single electron species.
The –ve sign indicats that the e– is under attraction towards nucleus.
Q.1 Calculate the energy of Li+2 atom for 2nd excited state

Z2
Ans. E = –13.6 ×  Z = 3 and e– exist in 2nd excited state, means e– present in 3rd shell i.e. n = 3
n2

3 
2

 E = –13.6 × = – 13.6 eV/atom

3 
2

Q.2 Calculate the ratio of energies of He+ for 1St & 2nd excited state .

2 
2

13.6 
2 
2
Energy of (He + ) 1st Excited state Energy of (He  ) 2 nd shell 9
Ans.   =
Energy of (He + )2 nd Excited state Energy of (He  ) 3 rd shell (2)2
4
 13.6 
(3)2
Limitation of the Bohr's model :
 Bohr's theory does not explain the spectrum of multi electron atom.
nh
2. Why the Angular momentum of the revolving electron is equal to , has not been explained by Bohr's theory..
2
3. Bohr's theory does not explain the fine structure of the spectral lines. Fine structure of the spectral line is obtained when
spectrum is viewed by spectroscope of more resolution power.
4. Bohr theory does not explain the spiliting of spectral lines in the presence of magnetic field (Zemman's effect) or electric
field (Stark's effect)
By: S.P.Sir