ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
School of Journalism and Communication
Broadcast Media Management (JOUR 3072)
February 2025
Addis Ababa
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CHAPTER ONE: THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
Chapter outline:
1.1. Definition of Management
1.2. Characteristics/features
1.3. Evolution of Management Thought
1.4. Functions
1.5. Principles
1.1. Definition of Management
Management refers to the process of coordinating work activities so that
they are completed efficiently and effectively through other people (
Wamalwa, P.W)
Management is the process which directs and guides the operations of
an organisation in realising established aims. (Ordway Tead)
“Management is a distinct process consisting of planning, organising,
actuating and controlling performed to determine and accomplish stated
objectives by the use of human beings and other resources” (Terry cited
in Das & Mishra).
Management is simply the process of decision-making and control over
the actions of human beings for the express purpose of attaining
predetermined goals. (Stanley Vance)
The job of management is to make cooperative endeavour to function
properly. A manager is one who gets things done by working with people
and other resources. (Newman, Summer & Warren )
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To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to co-
ordinate and to control (Henry Fayol)
If the views of the various authors are combined, management could be
defined as "a distinct on-going process of allocating inputs of an
organisation (human and economic resources) by typical managerial
functions (planning, organising, directing and controlling) for the purpose
of achieving stated objectives namely - output of goods and services
desired by its customers (environment). In the process, work is performed
with and through personnel of the organisation in an ever-changing
business environment" (Das & Mishra,2019).
1.2. Characteristics/features of Management
An analysis of the various definitions of management indicates that
management has certain characteristics.
The following are the salient ones:
1. Management implies skill and experience in getting things done
through people: Management involves doing the job through people.
The economic function of earning profitable return cannot be performed
without enlisting co-operation and securing positive response from
"people". Getting the suitable type of people to execute the operations
is the significant aspect of management.
2. Management is a process: Management is a process, function or
activity. This process continues till the objectives set by administration
are actually achieved. "Management is a social process involving co-
ordination of human and material resources through the functions of
planning, organising, staffing, leading and controlling in order to
accomplish stated objectives".
3. Management is a universal activity: Management is not applicable to
business undertakings only. It is applicable to political, social, religious
and educational institutions also. Management is necessary when group
effort is required.
4. Management is an Art as well as a Science: Management is an art
because there are definite principles of management. It is also a science
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because by the application of these principles predetermined objectives
can be achieved.
5. Management is an endeavour to achieve pre-determined objectives:
Management is concerned with directing and controlling of the various
activities of the organisation to attain the pre-determined objectives.
Every managerial activity has certain objectives. In fact, management
deals particularly with the actual directing of human efforts.
6. Management is a group activity: Management comes into existence
only when there is a group activity towards a common objective.
Management is always concerned with group efforts and not individual
efforts. To achieve the goals of an organisation management plans,
organises, co-ordinates, directs and controls the group effort.
7. Management involves decision-making: Management implies making
decisions regarding the organisation and operation of business in its
different dimensions. The success or failure of an organisation can be
judged by the quality of decisions taken by the managers. Therefore,
decisions are the key to the performance of a manager.
8. Management implies good leadership: A manager must have the ability
to lead and get the desired course of action from the subordinates.
According to R. C. Davis-"management is the function of executive
leadership everywhere". Management of the high order implies the
capacity of managers to influence the behaviour of their subordinates.
9. Management is dynamic and not static: The principles of management
are dynamic and not static. It has to adopt itself according to social
changes.
10.Management is Goal Oriented: Management is a purposeful activity. It
is concerned with the achievement of pre-determined objectives of an
organisation.
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1.3. Evolution of Management Thought
Getting introduced to management theories or the various schools of thought
is required to a clearer comprehension on the concepts and practices of
management in the broadcast media. The discussion herein traces back the
twentieth century. Just as broadcasting has evolved, so has systematic analysis
of management. The dominant traits of different managerial approaches have
been identified and grouped into so-called schools (Pringle, P. K. and Starr, M.
F. , 2006).
The four schools of thoughts are addressed below:
A) The Classical Approach
Management in the classical approach was closely associated with the
industrial revolution and the rise of large-scale enterprise. The thought
focused on job content, division of labour, standardization, simplification
and specialization and scientific approach towards organization (Das and
Mishra, 2019). For the purpose of this course, the scientific management
and bureaucratic model are addressed.
Scientific Management
Frederick Winslow Taylor was known as the founder of scientific
management.
Following is a summary of his approach:
Science, not rule of thumb
Harmony, not discord
Co-operation, not individualism
Maximum output, in place of restricted output
The development of each man to his greatest efficiency
and prosperity.
The Bureaucratic Model
Max Weber, a German Sociologist, developed the bureaucratic model.
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Elements of Ideal Bureaucracy include the following elements
(Wamalwa, 2023):
Hierarchy. The organization is highly structured by a hierarchy of
authority. Each position covers an area for which it has complete
jurisdiction. Each position is responsible for the activities that can best
be performed or supervised.
Professional qualification. Employees of an organization are hired for
their competence in performing the requirements of a position. The
fitness for office is determined only by the candidate’s technical
expertise. Nepotism and favouritism are not allowed.
Career aspects. Bureaucracy has a number of careers with tenure and
pension. Promotion is based on seniority and achievement. Dismissal is
only for objective cause.
Systems of rules. A bureaucracy governs decisions by a consistent
system of abstract rules, regulations, and procedures. Behaviour is
subject to systematic discipline and control. These rule systems apply
universally to everyone in the organization in an impersonal fashion.
Impersonality of organizational processes. Interpersonal relationships
are carried out through structure. Extra organizational influence is
minimal.
Rational-legal authority. The right to exercise authority and influence is
based upon position; “obedience is owned to the legally established
impersonal order.”
Record keeping. Complete records of all rules, standards, and results are
kept to ensure continuity and uniformity.
B. Human Relation Approach
The notion that workers were motivated only by economic factors began to be
challenged by management scholars in the 1930s and 1940s, giving rise to the
human relations (or behavioural) school of management (Albarran, 2010).
There are three elements of Behavioural Theory or Human Relation Approach:
The Individual: The neoclassical theory emphasized that individual
differences must be recognised. An individual has feelings, emotions,
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perception and attitude. Each person is unique. The inner world of the
worker is more important than the external reality in the determination
of productivity.
Work Groups: Workers are not isolated; they are social beings and
should be treated as such by management. The existence of informal
organization is natural. The neo-classical theory describes the vital
effects of group psychology and behaviour on motivation and
productivity.
Participative Management: The emergence of participative
management is inevitable when emphasis is laid on individual and work
groups. Allowing labour to participate in decision making primarily to
increase productivity was a new form of supervision. Management now
welcomes worker participation in planning job contents and job
operations. Neoclassical theory focuses its attention on workers.
Therefore, neoclassical approach is trying to satisfy personal security and
social needs of workers.
C. Contemporary Management Approaches
Systems theory
The theory draws on work from many fields, including biology. Systems theory
is a way of looking at and integrating the management functions (planning,
organizing, leading, and controlling) and the management schools of thought
(scientific management, human relations, principles of management) to
analyse how a manager organizes his thoughts and actions (Wamalwa, 2023).
The major components of system theory are:
Input: Inputs are the human, material, financial, equipment, and informational
resources required to produce goods and services.
Transformation processes: These are the organization’s marginal and
technological abilities that are applied to convert inputs into output.
Output: These are the products, services, and other outcomes
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Feedback: refers to the information about results and organizational status
relative to the environment.
Contingency theory
The notion of contingency theory is closely related to the systems theme.
However, the contingency model is more embracing.
It has three important variables: size, technology, and the environment
impacting organization structure. (This concept will further be discussed in the
third chapter).
1.4. Functions of Management
A manager is called upon to perform the following managerial functions:
1. Planning
2. Organising
3. Directing
4. Communication
5. Motivation
6. Co-ordination
7. Controlling
Each of them is explained as follows:
1. Planning: Planning is a basic managerial function. Planning helps in
determining the course of action to be followed for achieving various
organisational objectives: It is a decision in advance, what to do, when to
do how to do and who will do a particular task. Planning is a process
which involves 'thinking before doing'. Planning is concerned with the
mental state of a manager. He thinks before undertaking a work. Other
functions of management such as organising, staffing, directing, co-
ordinating and controlling are also undertaken after planning.
Hart defines planning as "the determination in advance of a line of
action by which certain results arc to be achieved." According to Terry,
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"'Planning is the selecting and relating of facts and the making and using
of assumptions regarding the future in the visualisation and
formulations of proposed activities believed necessary to achieve
desired results."
Planning is a process of looking ahead. The primary object of planning is
to achieve better results. It involves the selection of organisational
objectives and developing policies, procedure, programmes, budgets
and strategies. Planning is a continuous process that takes place at all
levels of management. A detailed planning is done in the beginning but
the actual performance is reviewed and suitable changes are made in
plans when actual execution is done. Plans may be of many kinds, such
as short range plans, medium range plans, long range plans, standing
plans, single use plans, strategic plans, administrative plans and
operational plans.
The process of Planning involves a number of steps : (i) gathering
information ; (ii) laying down objectives; (iii) developing planning
premises; (iv) examining alternative courses of action; (v) evaluation of
action patterns ; (vi) reviewing limitations (vii) implementation of plans.
2. Organising: Every business enterprise needs the services of a number of
persons to look after its different aspects. The management sets up the
objectives or goals to be achieved by its personnel. The energy of every
individual is channelised to achieve the enterprise objectives. The
function of organising is to arrange, guide, co-ordinate, direct and
control the activities of other factors of production, viz., men, material,
money and machines so as to accomplish the objectives of the
enterprise. In the words of Koontz and O'Donnel, "Organising that part
of managing that involve establishing and intentional structure of roles
for people in an enterprise to fill." Organisation provides the necessary
framework within which people associate for the attainment of business
objectives.
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Louis A. Allen describes organisation as, "the process of identifying and
grouping work to be performed, defining and delegating responsibility
and authority and establishing relationships for the purpose of enabling
people to work most effectively together in accomplishing objectives."
The process of organisation involves the following steps:
(i) to identify the work to be performed;
(ii) to classify or group the work ;
(iii) to assign these groups of activities or work to individuals;
(iv) to delegate authority and fix responsibility and
(v) to co-ordinate these authority-responsibility relationships of various
activities.
The character and type of organisation depends upon the size and
nature of the enterprise. Though there are many types of organisations
but generally three types of organisations are in vogue:
(i) Line organisation
(ii) Functional organisation; and
(iii) Line and staff organisation
In line organisation authority flows vertically from the top of the
hierarchy to the bottom. Under functional organisation, the work is
divided into different departments. Each department deals in one type
of work and it specialises in one work only. A workman has to work
under many superiors who specialise in different functions. Line and
staff organisation provides for specialists with line executives. It is a
combination of line and functional form of organisation.
A sound organisation contributes greatly to the continuity and success of
the enterprise. However, an organisation is not an end in itself. The
organisation structure should be flexible.
3. Directing: Directing is concerned with carrying out the desired plans.
It initiates organised and planned action and ensures effective
performance by subordinates towards the accomplishment of group
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activities. Direction is called management in action. In the words of
George R. Terry, "Direction is moving to action and supplying stimulative
power to the group." After planning, organising and staffing, the
manager has to guide and supervise his subordinates. According to
Massie, "Directing concerns the total manner in which a manager
influences the actions of subordinates. It is the final action of a manager
in getting others to act after all preparations have been completed."
4. Communication: Communication constitutes a very important
function of management. It is said to be the number one problem of
management today. It is an established fact that managers spend 75 to
90 per cent of their working time in communicating with others.
Communication is the means by which the behaviour of the subordinate
is modified and change is effected in their actions. The essence of
communication is getting the receiver and the sender tuned together for
a particular message. It refers to the exchange of ideas, feelings,
emotions and knowledge and information between two or more
persons. Nothing happens in management till communication takes
place. Communication is a two-way process as it involves both
information and understanding. It may be written, oral, and gestural.
Communication is said to be formal when it follows the formal channels
provided in the organisation structure. It is informal communication,
when it does not follow the formal channels. Communication flows
downward from a superior to subordinates and upward from
subordinates to a superior. It also flows between two or more persons
operating at the same level of authority. Communication is essential at
all levels of management for decision- making and planning. It increases
managerial capacity and facilitates control. It has been rightly said that
good managers are good communicators and poor managers are poor
communicators.
5. Motivation: The term motivation is derived from the word 'motive'
which means a need, or an emotion that prompts an individual into
action. Motivation is the psychological process of creating urge among
the subordinates to do certain things or behave in the desired manner. It
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is a very important function of management. The importance of
motivation can be realised from the fact that performance of a worker
depends upon his ability and the motivation.
There are many strategies adopted by managers for increasing the
motivation of subordinates. According to Michel Jucius, Motivation
means the act of stimulating someone or oneself to get a desired course
of action to push the right button to get a desired reaction, a
compliment, dollar raise, a smile, a promise of a rise, a new typewriter, a
preferred location or a new desk." Thus, a manager has to provide some
personal incentive to the subordinates to motivate, persuade and inspire
them for contributing their best towards the achievement of enterprise
objectives. The incentives to be proved may be financial such as increase
in wages, or nonfinancial, like better working conditions, job security,
recognition, etc. A sound motivational system must be productive,
competitive, comprehensive and flexible, and it must consider the
psychological, social, safety, ego and economic needs of the workers.
6. Co-ordination: Co-ordination is one of the most important functions
of management. It is essential to channelize the activities of various
individuals in the organisation for the achievement of common goals.
Every department or section is given a target to be achieved and they
should concentrate only on their work and should not bother about the
work of other organs. It is left to the management to see that the work
of different segments is going according to pre-determined targets and
corrective measures have to be taken if there is any deviation. Co-
ordination creates a team spirit and helps in achieving goals through
collective efforts. It is the orderly arrangement of group effort to provide
unity of action in the pursuit of common objectives.
Dalton McFarland defines co-ordination as the "process whereby an
executive develops an orderly pattern of group effort among his
subordinates and secures unity of action in the pursuit of common
purposes."
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Co-ordination can be classified under two categories: (i) vertical and
horizontal co-ordination, and (ii) internal and external co-ordination.
Whereas vertical co-ordination is the coordination between different
levels of management, the term horizontal co-ordination is used when
co-ordination has to be achieved between departments of the same
level of authority. Co-ordination is internal when it is between different
sections of the same concern and external when it is required with
persons outside the organisation.
7. Controlling: Controlling can be defined as "determining what is being
accomplished, that is evaluating the performance, if necessary, applying
corrective measures so that the performance takes place according to
plans. Control is essential for achieving objectives of an enterprise.
The planning of various activities does not ensure automatic
implementation of policies.
Control is the process which enables management to get its policies
implemented and take corrective actions if performance is not according
to the predetermined standards. If planning is the beginning of the
management process, controlling may be said to be the final stage. If
planning is looking ahead, controlling is looking back. Control is not
possible without planning and planning is meaningless without control.
Control is a line function and executives at various levels of management
continuously assess the performance of their subordinates. The main
purpose of control is to see that the activity is achieving the desired
results. A control system, to be effective, must conform to the nature of
activity, report deviations promptly, reflect organisation structure,
assure corrective action and be economical.
The process of controlling involves the following steps: (i) establishing
standards of performance; (ii) measuring actual performance; (iii)
comparing the actual performance with the standard.; (iv) finding
variances or deviations, if any ; and (v) taking corrective action or
measures.
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1.5. Principles of Management
The process of management as an on-going managerial cycle involving
planning, organizing, directing, co-ordination, and controlling, is actually based
on the analysis of general management by Fayol.
Hence, it is said that Fayol established the pattern of management thought and
practice. Even today, management process has general recognition.
Fayol's Principles of management are given below:
1. Division of work: Division of work or specialization alone can give maximum
productivity and efficiency. Both technical and managerial activities can be
performed in the best manner only through division of labour and
specialization.
2. Authority and Responsibility: The right to give order is called authority. The
obligation to accomplish is called responsibility. Authority and Responsibility
are the two sides of the management coin. They exist together. They are
complementary and mutually interdependent.
3. Discipline: The objectives, rules and regulations, the policies and procedures
must be honoured by each member of an organization. There must be clear
and fair agreement on the rules and objectives, on the policies and procedures.
There must be penalties (punishment) for non-obedience or indiscipline. No
organization can work smoothly without discipline - preferably voluntary
discipline.
4. Unity of Command: In order to avoid any possible confusion and conflict,
each member of an organization must receive orders and instructions only
from one superior (boss).
5. Unity of Direction: All members of an organization must work together to
accomplish common objectives.
6. Emphasis on Subordination of Personal Interest to General or Common
Interest: This is also called principle of co-operation. Each shall work for all and
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all for each. General or common interest must be supreme in any joint
enterprise.
7. Remuneration: Fair pay with non-financial rewards can act as the best
incentive or motivator for good performance. Exploitation of employees in any
manner must be eliminated. Sound scheme of remuneration includes
adequate financial and non-financial incentives.
8. Centralization: There must be a good balance between centralization and
decentralization of authority and power. Extreme centralization and
decentralization must be avoided.
9. Scalar Chain: The unity of command brings about a chain or hierarchy of
command linking all members of the organization from the top to the bottom.
Scalar denotes steps.
10. Order: Fayol suggested that there is a place for everything. Order or system
alone can create a sound organization and efficient management.
11. Equity: An organization consists of a group of people involved in joint
effort. Hence, equity (i.e., justice) must be there. Without equity, we cannot
have sustained and adequate joint collaboration.
12. Stability of Tenure: A person needs time to adjust himself with the new
work and demonstrate efficiency in due course. Hence, employees and
managers must have job security. Security of income and employment is a pre-
requisite of sound organization and management.
13. Esprit of Co-operation: Esprit de corps (a feeling of pride and mutual
loyalty shared by the members of a group) is the foundation of a sound
organization. Union is strength. But unity demands co-operation. Pride, loyalty
and sense of belonging are responsible for good performance.
14. Initiative: Creative thinking and capacity to take initiative can give us sound
managerial planning and execution of predetermined plans.
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