Inca Civilization

Introduction:

The Inca civilization, also known as the Incan Empire, flourished in the Andean region of South
America from the early 13th century until its conquest by the Spanish in the 16th century. Originating
in the highlands of Peru, their empire, Tawantinsuyu ("Land of the Four Parts" in Quechua), became
the largest in pre-Columbian America, stretching across parts of modern-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador,
Colombia, Chile, and Argentina. The Incas were renowned for their efficient administration,
impressive infrastructure, and unique cultural practices, all achieved without a written language in
the European sense.
Sources:

Our knowledge of this sophisticated civilization is pieced together from a diverse array of sources,
given their unique system of record-keeping that did not involve alphabetic writing. Archaeological
sites, with their monumental architecture like the enigmatic Machu Picchu and the formidable
Sacsayhuamán, offer tangible evidence of their engineering prowess and urban planning. The
enigmatic quipu, a complex system of knotted and colored strings, remains a key source, holding the
potential for deeper understanding of Inca record-keeping and possibly even historical accounts.
Origin:

The origins of the Inca are a blend of myth and historical development:

 Mythological Origins: Inca legends speak of Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo, sent by the sun
god Inti, emerging from Lake Titicaca or the caves of Pacaritambo to found Cusco and civilize
the people. These myths emphasize their divine mandate and connection to the Cusco
region.

 Historical Development: Archaeologically, the Inca began as a relatively small group in the
Cusco Valley around the 12th century CE. Through strategic alliances and military expansion,
they gradually gained dominance over neighboring groups.

 Influence of Preceding Cultures: The Inca built upon the knowledge and innovations of
earlier Andean civilizations like the Wari and Tiwanaku, adopting and adapting their
agricultural techniques, road systems, and administrative practices.

 The Kingdom of Cusco: Before their rapid imperial expansion, the Inca established a kingdom
centered in Cusco, gradually consolidating power in the region.

 The Rise of the Empire: The most significant period of expansion began in the mid-15th
century under Pachacuti, who reorganized the state and initiated the conquests that led to
the vast Inca Empire.
Social Class:

Inca society was rigidly hierarchical:

 The Sapa Inca and Royalty: The emperor, believed to be a divine descendant of the sun god
Inti, held absolute power. The royal family (wives, children, close relatives) formed the
highest stratum.

 Nobility: Divided into:

o Blood Nobility (Qhapaq Inca): Descendants of previous Sapa Incas, holding high
administrative and military positions.

o Nobility of Privilege (Hahua Inca): Individuals who achieved noble status through
exceptional service or merit. Local rulers (curacas) of conquered regions who
pledged loyalty were often incorporated into this level.

 Commoners (Hatun Runa): The vast majority of the population, organized into ayllus (kin-
based communities). They were primarily farmers and herders who provided labor and
tribute to the state.

 Specialized Labor Groups:

o Yanaconas: Individuals permanently removed from their ayllus to serve the Inca or
nobility in various capacities.

o Mitimaes: Groups forcibly resettled to new territories for colonization, resource

o Acllas ("Chosen Women"): Selected women who lived in cloistered houses

Daily life varied by social class:

 Elite: Lived in grander dwellings, enjoyed fine textiles and goods, participated in elaborate
ceremonies, and held positions of power.

 Commoners: Lived in simpler adobe or stone houses, focused on agriculture and animal
husbandry, and their lives were structured by the agricultural cycle and the mita labor
obligation. Family and community were central. Diet staples included potatoes, maize,
quinoa, and other Andean crops.23
Occupation:

Occupations were largely determined by social class and geographic location:

 Agriculture: The primary occupation for commoners, cultivating crops on communal lands
and state-owned terraces.

 Herding: Raising llamas and alpacas for wool, meat, and transportation, particularly in the
highlands.

 Craftsmanship: Skilled artisans produced textiles, pottery, metalwork (gold, silver, copper),
and tools.

 Military: A significant occupation for many men, crucial for expansion and maintaining
control.

 Administration: Nobles and trained individuals managed the vast empire, overseeing
resource distribution, labor, and law.

 Religious Service: Priests and acllas dedicated their lives to the complex Inca religious
practices.
Trade and Commerce:

While the Inca state centrally managed resource distribution, trade and commerce existed:

 Barter: Local exchange of goods between communities and individuals was common.

 State-Controlled Distribution: The state played a significant role in collecting tribute in goods
and labor and redistributing resources according to need and social status.

 Long-Distance Exchange: The vast road network facilitated the movement of goods and
resources managed by the state.
Major Achievements:

The Inca civilization was remarkable for its achievements:

 Road System (Qhapaq Ñan): An extensive network of over 40,000 kilometers of roads and
bridges, facilitating communication, transportation, and military movement across diverse
terrain.

 Architecture and Engineering: Masterful stonework without mortar, evident in structures

 A highly centralized and efficient bureaucratic system that managed a vast and diverse
empire, including census taking, taxation (labor and goods), and resource distribution.

 Sophisticated agricultural techniques, including terracing, irrigation, crop rotation etc.

 Record Keeping (Quipu): A unique system of knotted strings used for recording numerical
data and possibly historical information.
Decline:

The Inca Empire's reign was relatively short, and its decline was swift following the arrival of the
Spanish:

 Internal Strife: Succession disputes and internal power struggles weakened the empire,
notably the civil war between the half-brothers Huascar and Atahualpa just before the
Spanish arrival.

 Spanish Conquest: The arrival of Francisco Pizarro in 1532 and the superior weaponry,
horses, and tactics of the Spanish conquistadors led to the capture and execution of
Atahualpa.

 Disease: European diseases like smallpox, to which the Inca had no immunity, decimated the
population, further weakening the empire.

 Disruption of Social and Political Structures: The Spanish conquest dismantled the Inca
administrative system and imposed a new colonial order.
Conclusion:

The Inca civilization was a highly organized and innovative society that achieved remarkable feats in
engineering, administration, and agriculture in a challenging Andean environment. Despite lacking a
written language, they developed sophisticated systems for governance and record-keeping. Their
legacy is evident in the impressive ruins of their empire and the enduring cultural traditions of the
Andean people. The swift decline of this powerful empire following the Spanish conquest serves as a
poignant reminder of the impact of external forces on indigenous civilizations.
Bibliography:

 Coe, Michael D. The Maya. Thames & Hudson.

 D'Altroy, Terence N. The Incas. Blackwell Publishing.

 Hemming, John. The Conquest of the Incas. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

 Kendall, Ann. Everyday Life of the Incas. Dorset Press.

 Mann, Charles C. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus.

 Murra, John V. The Economic Organization of the Inka State. JAI Press.

 Patterson, Thomas C. The Inca Empire: The Formation and Disintegration of a Pre-Capitalist
State. Berg Publishers.