MODULE 3

Deployment and Configuration: Localization and positioning, Coverage and connectivity, Single-
hop and multihop localization, self configuring localization systems, sensor management.

Localization and positioning: Localization and Positioning refer to the process of

determining the physical or symbolic location of nodes within a network. This is a critical
aspect of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) for
various applications such as tracking, navigation, and context-aware services.

Localization

Localization involves identifying the location of a node within a specific reference frame.
This can be done in several ways:

1. Physical Position: Determining the node's exact coordinates within a numerical

coordinate system (e.g., GPS coordinates).
2. Symbolic Location: Identifying the node’s position relative to a known reference
point or within a named area (e.g., "office 123 in building 4").

Positioning

Positioning is the technique used to calculate or estimate the location of a node. It can be
broadly categorized into:

1. Absolute Positioning: Providing coordinates in a universal frame of reference (e.g.,

GPS coordinates).
2. Relative Positioning: Providing coordinates relative to other nodes or landmarks
without referencing a universal coordinate system.

Key Properties of Localization and Positioning Procedures

1. Absolute vs. Relative Coordinates: Absolute coordinates use a universal frame of

reference, while relative coordinates are specific to a set of objects or nodes.
2. Localized vs. Centralized Computation: Localization can be performed locally by
individual nodes or centrally by a server.
3. Accuracy and Precision: Accuracy is the largest possible error in position
estimation, while precision refers to the consistency of repeated measurements.
4. Scale: The area and number of objects the system can handle.

Localization Techniques

1. Proximity-Based Approaches: Determines if a node is within the range of an anchor

node.
2. Trilateration and Triangulation:
o Trilateration: Uses distances from multiple anchor points to pinpoint a
location.
o Triangulation: Uses angles from multiple points to estimate a location.
3. Scene Analysis: Compares current measurements with premeasured characteristics of
a location.
Practical Considerations

1. Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI): Estimates distance based on signal

strength but can be unreliable due to environmental factors.
2. Time of Arrival (ToA): Measures the travel time of a signal to estimate distance.
3. Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA): Uses the difference in arrival times of two
different signals to estimate distance more accurately.

Detailed Explanation of Localization Mechanisms

Localization mechanisms in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are crucial for determining
the positions of sensor nodes within a network. Here are the main approaches:

Proximity-Based Approaches

Proximity-based localization is a straightforward technique for determining a node's position.

The fundamental idea is that if a node can communicate with a known anchor node, it must
be within a certain range of that anchor. This method provides coarse location information,
such as indicating that the node is within a specific room or area.

• Basic Concept:
o If a node can communicate with an anchor, it is within a certain range of that
anchor.
o This approach gives basic location details, such as indicating that the node is
within a specific room or area.
• Sophisticated Proximity:
o By analyzing the proximity information from multiple overlapping anchors, a
node can estimate its position more accurately.
o This method can be robust against the uncertainties of the wireless channel.
• Examples:
o Infrared Communication: Walls naturally restrict infrared signals, allowing
nodes to infer their location based on room boundaries.
o Bluetooth Beacons: Nodes can determine their proximity to various beacons
with known positions.

2. Trilateration and Triangulation

These geometric approaches use distance and angle measurements to determine node
positions.

• Trilateration:
o Lateration: Uses distances to multiple anchors to estimate a position. In 2D
space, distances to three non-collinear anchors are needed; in 3D space, four
anchors are required.
o Multilateration: Extends lateration by using more than the minimum number
of anchors to improve accuracy and resolve measurement errors.
• Triangulation:
o Angulation: Uses angles between known positions and the unknown node.
Requires measuring the angle between the connecting lines from the node to at
least two anchors.
Determining Distances for Lateration

Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI):

• How it Works: Estimates distance based on the strength of the signal received from the
anchor.
• Advantages: Uses existing radio hardware, no additional equipment needed.
• Challenges: Prone to fluctuations due to environmental factors, requires calibration to
improve accuracy.

Time of Arrival (ToA):

• How it Works: Measures the time taken for a signal to travel from the anchor to the node.
• Advantages: Can provide accurate distance measurements.
• Challenges: Requires precise time synchronization between the node and anchor, necessitates
high-resolution clocks.

Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA):

• How it Works: Measures the difference in arrival times of two signals sent simultaneously by
the anchor, typically a radio signal and an ultrasound pulse.
• Advantages: Does not require precise time synchronization, easier to implement.
• Challenges: Needs dual transmitters and receivers, one for each type of signal (radio and
ultrasound).

Scene Analysis

Scene analysis techniques compare current observations with pre-recorded data (fingerprints) of
various locations to determine the position of a node. This method relies on characteristic signatures
unique to different locations.

Visual Scene Analysis

• Uses: Employs images or videos to determine the location of a node.

• Process: Captures visual data from the environment and compares it with a database of
previously recorded images.
• Requirements: Requires significant computational resources to process and analyze visual
data.
• Suitability: Not typically suitable for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) due to high
computational and power demands.

Radio Frequency (RF) Fingerprinting

• Uses: Measures signal strength or other radio properties at various locations during a
calibration phase.
• Process:
o Calibration Phase: Signal strengths or other RF characteristics are measured at
known locations and stored in a database.
o Operational Phase: The node compares its current signal measurements with the
stored fingerprints to estimate its location.
 • Advantages: Can provide accurate location estimates without the need for additional
hardware.
• Challenges: Requires an extensive calibration phase and can be affected by changes in the
environment (e.g., moving objects, changes in humidity).

Summary

Scene analysis is a localization method that leverages pre-recorded environmental data to estimate the
current position of a node. While visual scene analysis involves image processing, which is resource-
intensive, RF fingerprinting utilizes radio signal characteristics, making it more feasible for certain
applications in WSNs.

Comparison of Approaches

Approach Advantages Disadvantages Use Cases

Coarse-grain
Proximity- Simple, robust to Indoor positioning, room-
localization, limited
Based signal variations level localization
accuracy
Can provide precise Requires accurate
Trilateration positions with enough distance measurements, Outdoor positioning, GPS
anchors more complex
Useful when angle Requires complex
Directional
Triangulation information is hardware for angle
communication systems
available measurement
High computational cost, Indoor positioning,
Scene Can leverage pre-
requires offline environments with stable
Analysis existing infrastructure
calibration RF characteristics

Practical Considerations

1. Hardware Requirements:
o RSSI: Requires no additional hardware but is less accurate.
o ToA and TDoA: Require precise timing mechanisms and potentially dual
communication systems (e.g., radio and ultrasound).
2. Environmental Factors:
o Indoor vs. Outdoor: Different approaches may be more suitable based on
whether the environment is indoors (proximity, RF fingerprinting) or outdoors
(GPS, trilateration).
3. Scalability:
o Large-scale deployments may require methods that balance accuracy with
computational and communication overhead.
4. Energy Efficiency:
o Energy constraints in WSNs mean that localization methods need to be
efficient in terms of both computation and communication to extend the
network's lifetime.

By carefully selecting and combining these localization mechanisms, WSNs can achieve the
desired balance of accuracy, cost, and efficiency tailored to their specific application and
environmental conditions.
Coverage and Connectivity

Coverage and connectivity are key elements in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) that ensure
effective monitoring and communication.

Coverage

Coverage means how well the sensor network monitors the area of interest. It ensures that
every part of the target area is within the sensing range of at least one sensor.

Types of Coverage:

• Area Coverage: Ensures that the entire area of interest is monitored.

• Point Coverage: Focuses on specific points of interest within the area.
• Barrier Coverage: Ensures that sensors detect any movement across a barrier, often
used in security applications.

Factors Affecting Coverage:

o Sensor Range: The distance within which a sensor can accurately detect or
measure a phenomenon.
o Node Density: The number of sensors in an area. More sensors usually mean
better coverage.
o Deployment Strategy: The method used to place sensors in the area, such as
random, grid-based, or strategic placement.

Connectivity

Connectivity ensures that the sensor nodes can communicate with each other and with a
central base station or sink. This is essential for the data collected by the sensors to be
transmitted and processed.

• Types of Connectivity:
o Direct Connectivity: Nodes send data directly to the central point.
o Multi-hop Connectivity: Data is passed through several nodes to reach the
central point.
• Factors Affecting Connectivity:
o Communication Range: The distance within which nodes can communicate.
o Network Layout: How the nodes are arranged and connected.
o Node Reliability: Nodes must be working; if they fail, it affects connectivity.
o Energy Limits: Nodes often run on batteries, and if they run out of energy,
they can't communicate.

Balancing Coverage and Connectivity

It's important to balance coverage and connectivity for the network to work well. This means
having enough sensors placed in the right spots to cover the area and ensure they can all
communicate with each other. Using extra sensors, energy-efficient communication methods,
and adjusting the network setup can help achieve this balance.
Single-hop and Multihop Localization

Localization in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) can be achieved through single-hop or

multihop techniques, each with its own advantages and challenges.

Single-hop Localization

In single-hop localization, nodes directly communicate with anchor nodes (nodes with known
positions) to determine their positions. This method relies on the nodes being within the
communication range of the anchors.

• Direct Communication: Nodes communicate directly with one or more anchor

nodes.
• Range Limitation: Only nodes within the communication range of the anchors can
determine their positions.
• Simple and Quick: This method is straightforward and has minimal computational
overhead since each node only communicates with the anchors.
• Examples:
o RSSI-based Localization: Nodes estimate their distance from anchor nodes
based on the received signal strength.
o Time of Arrival (ToA): Nodes determine their position by measuring the
travel time of a signal from the anchor nodes.

Below are some notable single-hop localization systems:

1. Active Badge

The "Active Badge Location System" is one of the earliest systems designed for locating
portable devices within a building. This system uses diffused infrared signals as the
transmission medium, taking advantage of the fact that infrared signals cannot pass through
walls, thus using room boundaries as location delimiters.

• Mechanism: Each badge sends a unique identifier via infrared to receivers installed in
every room. The identifiers and their corresponding receiver locations are stored on a
central server.
• Queries: Users can query the server to find the location of a specific badge or to
check which badges are in the same room.
• Privacy Concerns: When badges are associated with individuals, privacy issues must
be addressed.

2. Active Office

Building on the Active Badge system, the Active Office system uses ultrasound to determine
the position of indoor devices.

• Mechanism: Ultrasound receivers are placed in a known array on the ceiling. A

central controller sends a radio message to the device to be located, prompting it to
send an ultrasound pulse.
• Position Calculation: The receivers measure the time of arrival of the ultrasound
pulse, and the central controller calculates the device's position using multilateration.
 • Accuracy: The system achieves high accuracy, with at least 95% of position
estimates within 8 cm of the true position. Multiple ultrasound senders on a device
can even provide orientation information.

3. RADAR

The RADAR system is designed for indoor positioning and utilizes scene analysis
techniques.

• Mechanism: The system compares received signal characteristics from multiple

anchors with premeasured values stored during an offline deployment phase.
• Limitations: The requirement for extensive premeasurement of the signal landscape
can be impractical for some deployments.

4. Cricket

The Cricket system allows devices to determine their own positions, which can be
advantageous for privacy.

• Mechanism: Anchors spread throughout a building send combined radio and

ultrasound pulses. Devices measure the Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA) of these
signals to estimate their position.
• Advantages: This approach mitigates issues related to signal strength fluctuations,
providing reliable location information. A randomized protocol helps manage
interference and collisions.

5. Overlapping Connectivity

This approach determines a node's position based on its connectivity to multiple anchors,
without relying on numerical range measurements.

• Mechanism: Nodes detect transmissions from nearby anchors and determine their
position as the intersection of the anchors' coverage areas.
• Accuracy: The precision of the position estimate depends on the number of anchors.
More anchors allow finer resolution, but real-world factors like irregular coverage
areas can affect accuracy.

6. Approximate Point in Triangle (APIT)

This method uses connectivity information to decide whether a node is inside or outside
triangles formed by anchor nodes.

• Mechanism: By determining its relative position within multiple overlapping

triangles, a node can estimate its own location.
• Decision Process: Nodes compare their signal strength with neighbors to decide if
they are inside or outside a given triangle, though this can introduce errors near the
edges of triangles.
7. Using Angle of Arrival Information

An example method to obtain angular information in a sensor network involves using rotating
beams from anchor nodes.

• Mechanism: Anchors with narrow, rotating beams broadcast signals. Nodes measure
the arrival time of these beams to calculate angles and determine their position.
• Advantages: This method is independent of network density and does not generate
network traffic. It can achieve high accuracy, with positioning errors limited to about
2 meters in simulations.

These single-hop localization techniques provide the foundational technology for determining
node positions in wireless sensor networks and are often adapted and enhanced in multihop
systems for broader and more complex applications.

Multihop Localization

Multihop localization extends the reach of localization by allowing nodes to use intermediate
nodes to relay information to and from anchor nodes. This technique is useful in larger
networks where not all nodes are within direct communication range of the anchors.

• Indirect Communication: Nodes can communicate with anchor nodes through

multiple hops, using intermediate nodes.
• Extended Range: This method enables nodes that are far from the anchor nodes to
still determine their positions by relaying information through other nodes.
• Increased Complexity: Multihop localization involves more complex algorithms and
higher computational overhead due to the need to process information from multiple
hops.
• Examples:
o DV-Hop: A node determines its distance from anchor nodes based on the
number of hops and the average hop distance.
o APIT (Approximate Point in Triangle): Nodes estimate their position by
determining whether they are inside or outside of triangles formed by anchor
nodes.

Comparison

Feature Single-hop Localization Multihop Localization

Communication Direct communication with Uses intermediate nodes for relaying
Range anchor nodes information
Simple and less computational More complex and computationally
Complexity
overhead intensive
Limited by the communication
Scalability Scalable to larger networks
range of anchor nodes
Depends on the density and Can be more accurate with proper
Accuracy
placement of anchor nodes algorithms and enough anchor nodes
Examples RSSI-based, ToA DV-Hop, APIT
Multi-Hop Localization

In multi-hop environments, nodes cannot always directly communicate with multiple anchors
due to limited transmission range or obstacles. Multi-hop localization techniques extend
single-hop methods to handle indirect communication through intermediate nodes. These
techniques include:

1. Connectivity-Based Methods:
o Semidefinite Programming (SDP):
▪ Formulates the positioning problem as a feasibility problem based on
connectivity constraints. Nodes are positioned such that connected
nodes are within a specified range RRR, using a centralized solver to
handle the constraints.
2. Distance Vector (DV)-Based Methods:
o DV-Hop:
▪ Nodes count the number of hops to reach anchors and use the average
hop distance to estimate their position. It is a range-free method that
does not require direct distance measurements.
o DV-Distance:
▪ Uses range estimates between neighboring nodes to improve the
accuracy of distance vector methods.
3. MultiDimensional Scaling (MDS):
o Uses connectivity information to estimate an initial layout of nodes and then
refines the positions using MDS techniques. It is robust to varying anchor
placements and effective in anisotropic networks.
4. Iterative and Collaborative Multilateration:
o Iterative Multilateration:
▪ Nodes use initial position estimates from neighbors to iteratively refine
their positions. Nodes act as anchors for others once their position is
estimated.
o Collaborative Multilateration:
▪ Nodes collaborate to solve the positioning problem, even if not all
nodes have direct connections to three anchors. The method handles
complex topologies by using edge-disjoint paths to ensure robustness.
5. Probabilistic Positioning:
o Probabilistic Methods:
▪ Describe node positions using probability density functions (PDFs) to
account for uncertainties in measurements. Position estimates are
refined by combining information from multiple anchors and
measurements.

Summary

Single-hop localization techniques are effective when nodes can directly communicate with
several anchor nodes, leveraging methods like trilateration, triangulation, RSSI, and time-
based measurements. In contrast, multi-hop localization techniques are essential for networks
where direct communication with multiple anchors is not feasible. These methods extend
single-hop techniques by incorporating connectivity-based approaches, distance vector
methods, multi-dimensional scaling, iterative and collaborative multilateration, and
probabilistic positioning.
Self-configuring localization systems

Self-configuring localization systems are designed to automatically determine the positions of

nodes in a wireless sensor network (WSN) without the need for manual intervention. These
systems adapt to changing network conditions and configurations, making them highly
suitable for dynamic environments. Here are the key concepts and methods used in self-
configuring localization systems:

Key Concepts

1. Autonomous Operation:
o Nodes independently determine their positions using local information and
communication with neighboring nodes. This reduces the need for centralized
control and manual configuration.
2. Adaptability:
o The system adapts to changes in network topology, such as the addition or
removal of nodes, variations in signal conditions, and mobility of nodes.
3. Scalability:
o The system is designed to scale efficiently as the number of nodes increases,
maintaining accurate localization without significant degradation in
performance.

Methods and Techniques

1. Distributed Algorithms:
o Nodes run localization algorithms locally, using information from their
immediate neighbors. This approach reduces communication overhead and
allows the system to scale efficiently.
2. Iterative Refinement:
o Nodes iteratively refine their position estimates based on new information
received from neighbors. This iterative process continues until the position
estimates converge to stable values.
3. Collaborative Localization:
o Nodes collaborate by sharing position estimates and measurements with their
neighbors. This cooperation helps to improve accuracy and robustness,
especially in environments with limited anchor nodes.
4. Adaptive Anchor Placement:
o The system dynamically selects and adjusts the positions of anchor nodes to
optimize localization accuracy. Anchors can be mobile nodes that move to
strategic locations based on the network's requirements.
5. Probabilistic Approaches:
o Nodes use probabilistic models to represent uncertainties in position estimates
and measurements. Probability density functions (PDFs) are used to update
position estimates based on new information.
6. Self-Calibration:
o The system continuously calibrates itself to account for environmental factors
that affect signal propagation, such as obstacles, multipath effects, and signal
attenuation.
Examples of Self-Configuring Localization Systems

1. Ad-hoc Positioning System (APS):

o APS uses a combination of distance vector (DV)-based methods and iterative
refinement to determine node positions. Nodes use hop counts and estimated
hop distances to compute their initial positions, which are then refined
iteratively.
2. Recursive Position Estimation (RPE):
o RPE employs a recursive approach where nodes with known positions
(anchors) propagate their position information to neighboring nodes. These
neighbors then use the received information to estimate their own positions
and propagate the information further.
3. Monte Carlo Localization (MCL):
o MCL is a probabilistic approach that uses particle filtering to estimate node
positions. Nodes maintain a set of possible position hypotheses (particles) and
update these hypotheses based on movement and measurement information.
4. Range-Free Localization Algorithms:
o Range-free algorithms, such as the DV-Hop method, do not rely on precise
distance measurements. Instead, they use connectivity information and hop
counts to estimate node positions. These methods are particularly useful in
environments where accurate ranging is challenging.
5. Mobile Anchor-Based Systems:
o Mobile anchors, equipped with known position information, move around the
network and periodically broadcast their positions. Nodes use these broadcasts
to estimate their positions. The mobility of anchors helps to improve coverage
and accuracy.

Advantages of Self-Configuring Localization Systems

• Reduced Deployment Cost: Minimal manual configuration and maintenance reduce

the overall cost of deploying and managing the network.
• Flexibility: The system can adapt to a wide range of environments and network
conditions.
• Robustness: The distributed and collaborative nature of the algorithms enhances the
system's resilience to node failures and changes in network topology.
• Scalability: The system can efficiently handle large-scale networks without
significant performance degradation.

Challenges and Considerations

• Accuracy vs. Complexity: Balancing localization accuracy with the computational

and communication complexity of the algorithms.
• Energy Efficiency: Minimizing energy consumption, especially in battery-powered
sensor nodes, while maintaining accurate localization.
• Environmental Factors: Addressing challenges posed by environmental factors such
as signal attenuation, multipath propagation, and obstacles.
• Convergence: Ensuring that iterative and collaborative algorithms converge to stable
and accurate position estimates.