Physics Notes: Optics and Light
Unit I: Geometrical Optics
Fermats Principle: Light travels the path of least time. This leads to the laws of reflection and
refraction.
Laws of Reflection and Refraction: Derived using Fermat's Principle.
- Reflection: Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection.
- Refraction (Snell's Law): n1 sin(1) = n2 sin(2)
Gausss Theory: Describes paraxial rays in an optical system, simplifying image formation analysis.
Coaxial System: Multiple lenses aligned on a common optical axis.
Cardinal Points:
- Principal Points (H1, H2)
- Focal Points (F1, F2)
- Nodal Points (N1, N2)
Thick Lens Formula:
1/f = (n - 1)[1/R1 - 1/R2 + (n - 1)d / (n R1 R2)]
Unit II: Optical Instruments
Pupils:
- Entrance Pupil: Image of aperture stop seen from the object side.
- Exit Pupil: Image of aperture stop from image side.
Eyepieces:
- Ramsden: Two plano-convex lenses, eye relief is small.
- Huygens: Two plano-convex lenses, better field of view.
Refracting Telescope: Uses two lenses (objective and eyepiece) to magnify distant objects.
Spectrometer: Measures angle of deviation and refractive index.
Aberrations:
- Chromatic: Dispersion of colors due to wavelength dependence.
- Spherical: Marginal rays focus differently than paraxial.
Monochromatic Aberrations: Coma, astigmatism, field curvature, distortion.
Lens Combinations: Used to minimize aberrations.
Unit III: Interference of Light
Principle of Superposition: Resultant displacement = Sum of individual displacements.
Youngs Double Slit: Produces interference fringes due to path difference.
Coherence: Needed for stable interference same frequency and constant phase difference.
Optical Path Retardation: Extra path introduces phase shift.
Fresnel Biprism: Splits light into two virtual sources.
Thin Film Interference: Reflected rays interfere depends on film thickness and wavelength.
Newtons Rings: Interference pattern in circular form.
Haidinger Fringes: Formed in thick parallel plates.
Applications: Measuring wavelength, refractive index, and small distances.
Unit IV: Diffraction of Light
Fresnel Diffraction:
- Occurs when light source or screen is at finite distance.
- Half-Period Zones: Divide wavefront to explain diffraction effects.
- Zone Plate: Focuses light using diffraction.
Fraunhofer Diffraction:
- Source and screen at infinite distance or use lenses.
- Single Slit: Central maximum and diminishing side maxima.
- Double Slit: Interference pattern modulated by single slit diffraction.
- Diffraction Grating: Sharp and intense maxima, useful for spectroscopy.
Equations: a sin() = m (grating), Intensity ~ (sin /)^2
Unit V: Polarization of Light
Transverse Waves: Light waves oscillate perpendicular to propagation.
Plane Polarized Light: Electric vector oscillates in a fixed direction.
Maluss Law: I = I0 cos2
Brewsters Law: tan B = n2/n1 reflected light is completely polarized.
Nicol Prism: Produces plane polarized light by eliminating one component.
Double Refraction: In anisotropic crystals, ordinary and extraordinary rays split.
Circular and Elliptical Polarization: Created using quarter and half wave plates.
Applications: Stress analysis, 3D glasses, optical instruments.
