Short procedure for determining the hardness of water using the EDTA method:
Principle:
Hardness of water is determined by titrating the water sample with EDTA (Ethylene Diamine
Tetraacetic Acid), which chelates calcium and magnesium ions.
Reagents:
1. EDTA solution (0.01 M)
2. Buffer solution (pH 10)
3. Eriochrome Black T indicator
4. Calcium carbonate standard solution (100 ppm)
5. Water sample
Equipment:
1. Burettes (50 mL)
2. Pipettes (20 mL)
3. Conical flasks (250 mL)
Procedure:
Preparation of Sample:
1. Collect 100 mL water sample.
2. Add 2-3 mL buffer solution (pH 10).
3. Add 2-3 drops Eriochrome Black T indicator.
Titration:
1. Titrate the sample with EDTA solution (0.01 M) until the color changes from blue to red.
2. Record the volume of EDTA used.
Calculation:
Calculate the hardness of water using the formula:
Hardness (ppm) = (Volume of EDTA x Concentration of EDTA x 1000) / Volume of sample
Expression of Results:
Express the hardness of water in ppm (parts per million) or mg/L.
Short procedure to find the EMF (Electromotive Force) of Copper and Zinc using a
Potentiometer and construct a Daniel Cell:
Materials:
1. Copper electrode (Cu)
2. Zinc electrode (Zn)
3. Potentiometer
4. Calomel reference electrode
5. Salt bridge
6. Copper sulfate solution (CuSO4)
7. Zinc sulfate solution (ZnSO4)
8. Distilled water
Procedure:
Part 1: Measuring EMF
1. Prepare the Cu and Zn electrodes.
2. Connect the Cu electrode to the positive terminal of the potentiometer.
3. Connect the Zn electrode to the negative terminal.
4. Measure the potential difference (EMF) between the electrodes.
5. Record the EMF value.
Part 2: Constructing Daniell Cell
1. Prepare two containers with CuSO4 and ZnSO4 solutions.
2. Place the Cu electrode in the CuSO4 solution.
3. Place the Zn electrode in the ZnSO4 solution.
4. Connect the containers with a salt bridge.
5. Measure the EMF of the Daniell Cell using a potentiometer.
Calculations:
1. Calculate the standard potential (E°) of the cell using the Nernst equation.
2. Calculate the cell potential (Ecell) using the measured EMF.
Expected Results:
1. EMF of Cu-Zn cell: approximately 1.1 V
2. Standard potential (E°) of Cu-Zn cell: 1.101 V
Daniell Cell Representation:
Zn (s) | ZnSO4 (aq) || CuSO4 (aq) | Cu (s)
Short procedure for determining Nickel (Ni) by Colorimetry method:
Principle:
Nickel forms a colored complex with Dimethylglyoxime (DMG), which absorbs light at 450
nm.
Reagents:
1. Nickel standard solution (100 ppm)
2. Dimethylglyoxime (DMG) solution (1% w/v)
3. NaOH
4. K3Fe(CN)6
Equipment:
1. Spectrophotometer (visible range)
2. Cuvettes (10 mm path length)
3. Pipettes (1-10 mL)
Procedure:
Sample Preparation:
1. Dilute sample to 2-8 ppm Ni concentration.
Color Development:
1. Add 0.5 mL DMG solution.
2. Add 0.5 mL K3Fe(CN)6 solution.
3. Mix well and incubate for 10-15 minutes.
Measurement:
1. Set spectrophotometer to 450 nm.
2. Calibrate with distilled water (blank).
3. Measure absorbance of sample.
Calculation:
1. Plot calibration curve using Ni standard solutions.
2. Determine Ni concentration using calibration curve.
Expression of Results:
Express Ni concentration in ppm or mg/L.
Short procedure for determining Iron (Fe) by KMnO4 using Potentiometric Method:
Principle:
Iron (II) ions reduce potassium permanganate (KMnO4), resulting in a potential change
measured potentiometrically.
Reagents:
1. Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) solution (0.01 M)
2. Iron standard solution (100 ppm)
3. Sulphuric acid solution (1% v/v)
4. Distilled water
Equipment:
1. Potentiometer
2. Platinum electrode
3. Calomel reference electrode
4. Burettes (50 mL)
5. Pipettes (10-25 mL)
Procedure:
Sample Preparation:
1. Make up the given sample to 250ml Fe concentration.
2. Prepare saturated solution of KCl solution
Titration:
1. Add KMnO4 solution slowly to sample while stirring.
2. Measure potential (mV) using potentiometer.
End Point Detection:
1. Sharp change in potential indicates end point.
2. Record volume of KMnO4 used.
Calculation:
1. Plot calibration curve using Fe standard solutions.
2. Determine Fe concentration using calibration curve.
Expression of Results:
Express Fe concentration in ppm or mg/L.
Short procedure for determining Sulphate (SO42-) ion by Conductometric Method:
Principle:
Sulphate ions react with barium chloride (BaCl2) to form insoluble barium sulphate
(BaSO4), reducing conductivity.
Reagents:
1. Barium chloride (BaCl2) solution (0.01 M)
2. Sulphate standard solution (100 ppm)
3. Distilled water
Equipment:
1. Conductometer
2. Conductivity cell
3. Burettes (50 mL)
4. Pipettes (20 mL)
Procedure:
Sample Preparation:
1. Make the given sample to 250 ml standard flask SO42- concentration.
Titration:
1. Add BaCl2 solution slowly to sample while stirring.
2. Measure conductivity (μS/cm) using conductometer.
End Point Detection:
1. Sharp decrease in conductivity indicates end point.
2. Record volume of BaCl2 used.
Calculation:
1. Plot calibration curve using SO42- standard solutions.
2. Determine SO42- concentration using calibration curve.
Expression of Results:
Express SO42- concentration in ppm or mg/L.
