BMS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BENGALURU

Autonomous institute, Affiliated to VTU

PHYSICS AAT
Report on

1. Introduction to Elasticity,
2. Stress,
3. Modulus of Elasticity,

Bachelor of Engineering
In
BRANCH
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Submitted by:
Section: C-E
Name: Harshath S Garud
USN: 1BM24AS021

Submitted to:
Dr. Sharanappa Chapi
Associate Professor

B.M.S College of Engineering

Bull Temple Road, Basavangudi, Bangalore 560019
2024-25
Introduction to Elasticity, Plasticity, and
Stress-Strain Concepts
Understanding the mechanical behavior of materials under applied forces is fundamental in
physics and engineering. The concepts of elasticity, plasticity, stress, and strain describe how
materials respond to external loads, whether by returning to their original shape or
undergoing permanent deformation. This report explores these essential topics in detail.

1. Elasticity
Definition of Elasticity
Elasticity is the property of a material that enables it to regain its original shape and size after
the forces causing deformation are removed. When a material behaves elastically, it
undergoes temporary deformation that is fully reversible. The ability to respond elastically
depends on the material and the magnitude of the applied force. If the force remains within a
certain limit, known as the elastic limit, the material returns to its initial state once the load is
removed.

The elastic limit is the maximum stress a material can withstand without permanent
deformation. Beyond this limit, the material may yield or flow plastically. For brittle
materials, exceeding the elastic limit often leads to fracture with little or no plastic
deformation.

Microscopic Basis of Elasticity

The elastic behavior arises from the atomic or molecular structure of the material. In metals
like steel, elasticity results from short-range interatomic forces maintaining atoms in a regular
pattern. When stretched, these atomic bonds resist deformation but can only stretch so far
before breaking.

In contrast, rubber-like materials exhibit elasticity through the uncoiling and recoiling of
long-chain polymer molecules. This allows much larger elastic deformations (up to 1000%)
compared to metals, but requires much less force to stretch.

Mathematical Description: Hooke’s Law

For many materials under small deformations, the relationship between stress (σ\sigmaσ) and
strain (eee) is linear and proportional, described by Hooke’s law:

σ=Ee\sigma = E eσ=Ee
where EEE is the Young’s modulus, a material-specific constant representing stiffness1.
This law applies primarily to one-dimensional tension but can be generalized to three-
dimensional stresses and strains.

The linear theory of elasticity works well for small strains (typically less than 5%) but fails
for large deformations, such as those seen in rubber or soft biological tissues, where the
stress-strain relationship becomes nonlinear.

2. Plasticity
Definition of Plasticity
Plasticity is the ability of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation without rupture
when subjected to stresses beyond the elastic limit but below the failure point. Unlike
elasticity, plastic deformation is irreversible; the material does not return to its original shape
after the load is removed.

Plasticity is characteristic of ductile and malleable materials such as many metals. Brittle
materials, like cast iron, generally do not exhibit plasticity under normal conditions, though
some non-crystalline solids like glass can flow plastically at high temperatures.

Physical Mechanisms of Plasticity

At the microscopic level, plastic deformation in metals is primarily due to the movement of
dislocations defects in the crystal lattice that allow atoms to slip past each other under stress.
Plastic deformation can occur through mechanisms such as slip (shear deformation along
crystallographic planes) and twinning (a specific rearrangement of atoms in the crystal).

In polycrystalline materials, grain boundaries impede dislocation motion, affecting the overall
plastic behavior. The extent of plastic deformation before fracture depends on the interaction
between dislocations and grain boundaries.

Yielding and Plastic Flow

The transition from elastic to plastic behavior is marked by the yield point or yield strength.
Up to this point, deformation is elastic; beyond it, plastic deformation begins. In engineering,
this transition is critical for designing materials and structures to avoid permanent damage.

Plastic deformation can be time-dependent and rate-sensitive, often described as

viscoelasticity. Some materials exhibit perfect plasticity, deforming without an increase in
stress after yielding, while others harden and require increasing stress for further deformation.

3. Stress and Strain Concepts

Definition of Stress
Stress (σ\sigmaσ) is the internal force per unit area within a material that arises due to
externally applied forces, uneven heating, or permanent deformation. It quantifies how the
material resists deformation:

σ=FA\sigma = \frac{F}{A}σ=AF

where FFF is the applied force and AAA is the cross-sectional area over which the force acts.
The unit of stress is typically Newton per square meter (N/m² or Pascals).

Stress can be of various types depending on the nature of the applied force:

 Tensile stress: Force that tends to stretch the material.

 Compressive stress: Force that tends to compress or shorten the material.

Definition of Strain
Strain (eee) is the measure of deformation representing the displacement between particles in
the material body relative to a reference length. It is a dimensionless quantity defined as:

e=ΔLL0e = \frac{\Delta L}{L_0}e=L0ΔL

where ΔL\Delta LΔL is the change in length and L0L_0L0 is the original length of the
material4.

Stress-Strain Curve and Material Behavior

The relationship between stress and strain is often represented graphically by a stress-strain
curve, which reveals key mechanical properties of materials.

 Proportional limit: The initial linear region where stress is proportional to strain,
obeying Hooke’s law. The slope in this region is Young’s modulus.
 Elastic limit: The maximum stress at which the material can return to its original
shape after unloading.
 Yield point: The stress at which plastic deformation begins; the material starts to
deform permanently.
 Ultimate stress point: The maximum stress the material can withstand before failure.
 Fracture point: The point at which the material breaks.

The stress-strain curve helps engineers understand how materials will behave under different
loading conditions and is essential for material selection and structural design.

Conclusion
Elasticity and plasticity describe two fundamental responses of materials to applied forces.
Elasticity allows materials to recover their original shape after deformation, governed by
atomic or molecular interactions and often described by Hooke’s law for small strains.
Plasticity involves permanent deformation beyond the elastic limit, primarily due to
dislocation motion in crystalline materials.

Stress and strain are the fundamental concepts quantifying the internal forces and resulting
deformations in materials. The stress-strain curve encapsulates the material’s mechanical
behavior, highlighting critical points such as the elastic limit and yield strength.

Together, these concepts form the foundation for understanding material behavior in physics,
materials science, and engineering applications.

Stress: Definition and Types

Definition of Stress
Stress in mechanics is defined as the internal force per unit area that develops within a
material when it is subjected to external forces or loads. It quantifies how the material resists
deformation caused by these forces. Mathematically, stress (denoted by the Greek letter
sigma, σ\sigmaσ) is expressed as:

σ=FA\sigma = \frac{F}{A}σ=AF

where FFF is the applied force (in Newtons, N) and AAA is the cross-sectional area (in
square meters, m²) over which the force acts. The SI unit of stress is Pascal (Pa), equivalent
to N/m².

Stress is a tensorial quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction, and it varies
depending on the orientation of the surface within the material. It represents the average force
that one part of a material exerts on an adjacent part across an imaginary internal surface.
Stress is fundamental in understanding material behavior under loading, predicting
deformation, and preventing failure in engineering applications.

Types of Stress
Stress can be categorized based on the direction and nature of the applied forces relative to
the material surface. The main types include:

1. Normal Stress
Normal stress occurs when the force is applied perpendicular (normal) to the surface of the
material. It causes either elongation (tensile stress) or shortening (compressive stress) of the
material.

 Tensile Stress: This is the stress that arises when a material is subjected to a pulling
force, causing it to stretch. For example, stretching a wire or a rubber band generates
tensile stress. The material elongates along the direction of the applied force.
 Compressive Stress: This stress occurs when a material is subjected to a pushing or
squeezing force, causing it to shorten or compress. For instance, a column supporting
a building experiences compressive stress.

Normal stress is calculated as:

σ=FA\sigma = \frac{F}{A}σ=AF

where FFF is the axial force applied perpendicular to the cross-sectional area AAA.

Normal stress can be further divided into:

  Longitudinal Stress: When the force acts along the length (longitudinal axis) of the
material, causing a change in length. This includes tensile and compressive stresses
acting axially.
 Volumetric (Bulk) Stress: When normal stress acts uniformly in all directions on a
material, causing a change in its volume rather than just length. This is common in
fluids under pressure or solids subjected to hydrostatic pressure.

2. Tangential Stress (Shear Stress)

Tangential stress, commonly called shear stress (denoted by τ\tauτ), arises when the force is
applied parallel or tangential to the surface of the material. This causes layers or particles
within the material to slide relative to each other, resulting in deformation by shearing.

Shear stress is calculated as:

τ=FA\tau = \frac{F}{A}τ=AF

where FFF is the tangential force applied parallel to the surface area AAA.

An example of shear stress is the force exerted by scissors cutting through paper or the
sliding of one layer of a material over another. Shear stress plays a critical role in failure
modes such as shear fracture and is essential in analyzing torsional loads on shafts and
beams.

3. Longitudinal Stress
Longitudinal stress is a specific form of normal stress where the force is applied along the
length of a material, either stretching or compressing it. It is also called axial stress.

 Tensile Longitudinal Stress: The material is pulled along its length, increasing its
length and internal tension.
 Compressive Longitudinal Stress: The material is pushed along its length,
decreasing its length and increasing internal compression.

Longitudinal stress is important in structural components like beams, rods, and columns
where loads are applied axially. It determines how much a material will elongate or shorten
under load and is critical for ensuring structural integrity.

4. Volumetric Stress (Bulk Stress)

Volumetric stress occurs when a material is subjected to equal normal stresses from all
directions, leading to a change in volume rather than shape. This type of stress is common in
fluids and solids under hydrostatic pressure.

For example, when a solid or fluid is compressed uniformly on all sides, the volume
decreases but the shape remains unchanged. The volumetric stress is related to the pressure
applied and is mathematically linked to the bulk modulus of the material, which quantifies
its resistance to volume change.

The bulk modulus BBB is defined as:

B=−VΔPΔVB = -V \frac{\Delta P}{\Delta V}B=−VΔVΔP

where ΔP\Delta PΔP is the change in pressure, VVV is the original volume, and ΔV\Delta
VΔV is the change in volume.

Volumetric stress is significant in applications involving fluid pressure, underwater

structures, and materials subjected to high-pressure environments7.

5. Shear Stress
Shear stress is a type of tangential stress where forces act parallel to the surface, causing
deformation by sliding layers over one another. It is crucial in analyzing materials subjected
to torsion, bending, and cutting forces.

Shear stress can cause materials to fail by shearing off along planes where the stress exceeds
the material's shear strength. It is also a key factor in the design of mechanical components
like bolts, shafts, and beams.

The magnitude of shear stress depends on the applied tangential force and the area over
which it acts:

τ=FA\tau = \frac{F}{A}τ=AF

where τ\tauτ is shear stress, FFF is the tangential force, and AAA is the area.

Summary Table of Stress Types

 Direction of
Stress Type Effect on Material Typical Example
Force
Perpendicular Stretching wire,
Normal Stress Elongation or compression
(normal) compressing column
Longitudinal Along length Length changes Axial loading of
Stress (axial) (tension/compression) rods/beams
Volumetric Equal in all Fluid pressure, hydrostatic
Volume change
Stress directions compression
Parallel Scissors cutting, torsion in
Shear Stress Sliding deformation
(tangential) shafts

Conclusion
Stress is a fundamental concept in mechanics and materials science that describes internal
forces per unit area within materials under external loading. Understanding the different types
of stress—normal, longitudinal, volumetric, and shear—is essential for predicting material
behavior, ensuring safety, and designing structures and mechanical components.

 Normal stress causes materials to stretch or compress.

 Longitudinal stress is a specific normal stress along the length of a material.
 Volumetric stress causes uniform compression or expansion changing the volume.
 Shear (tangential) stress causes layers within a material to slide relative to each
other.

Engineers use these concepts to analyze stresses in materials, prevent failure, and optimize
performance in applications ranging from construction to manufacturing and aerospace.

Modulus of Elasticity: Definition,

Importance, and Types
Definition and Importance of Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity, also known as the elastic modulus or simply modulus, is a
fundamental mechanical property that measures a material’s resistance to elastic (non-
permanent) deformation under applied stress. It quantifies how stiff or rigid a material is —
that is, how much it resists being stretched, compressed, or deformed elastically when
subjected to external forces.

Mathematically, the modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress (force per unit area)
to strain (relative deformation) within the elastic limit of the material:

E=StressStrain=σεE = \frac{\text{Stress}}{\text{Strain}} = \frac{\sigma}{\

varepsilon}E=StrainStress=εσ

where:

 σ\sigmaσ = normal stress (force per unit area),

 ε\varepsilonε = longitudinal strain (relative change in length).

This relationship follows Hooke’s Law for small deformations, stating that stress is directly
proportional to strain up to the proportional limit of the material.

The unit of modulus of elasticity is the same as stress, typically Pascals (Pa), and often
expressed in Megapascals (MPa) or Gigapascals (GPa).

Importance:

 It helps engineers and designers predict how much a material will deform under a
given load.
 A higher modulus indicates a stiffer material that deforms less under the same stress.
 It is critical in selecting materials for structural, mechanical, and manufacturing
applications where elastic behavior is desired.
 It is used to calculate deflections, stresses, and strains in structural elements,
influencing safety and performance.

Types of Modulus of Elasticity

There are three primary types of elastic moduli that describe different modes of deformation
in materials:

1. Young’s Modulus (E)

Definition:
Young’s modulus, also called the tensile modulus, measures the stiffness of a material in
response to uniaxial tensile or compressive stress. It is the ratio of longitudinal (normal)
stress to longitudinal strain.

E=Tensile or compressive stressTensile or compressive strain=σεE = \frac{\text{Tensile or

compressive stress}}{\text{Tensile or compressive strain}} = \frac{\sigma}{\
varepsilon}E=Tensile or compressive strainTensile or compressive stress=εσ

 Physical meaning: It quantifies how much a material stretches or compresses along

its length when subjected to axial forces.
 Typical values:
o Mild steel: ~200 GPa
o Cast iron: ~100 GPa
o Aluminium: ~70 GPa
 Measurement: Often determined experimentally by performing a tensile test and
plotting the stress-strain curve. The slope of the linear, elastic portion of this curve
gives Young’s modulus.

Significance:
Young’s modulus is crucial in designing components subjected to axial loads, such as rods,
beams, and columns. It helps limit elastic deformations to ensure structural integrity and
serviceability.

2. Bulk Modulus (K)

Definition:
Bulk modulus measures a material’s resistance to uniform compression. It is defined as the
ratio of volumetric stress (pressure applied equally in all directions) to volumetric strain
(relative change in volume).
K=−Volumetric stress (pressure)Volumetric strain=−ΔPΔV/VK = -\frac{\text{Volumetric
stress (pressure)}}{\text{Volumetric strain}} = -\frac{\Delta P}{\Delta V /
V}K=−Volumetric strainVolumetric stress (pressure)=−ΔV/VΔP

 The negative sign indicates that an increase in pressure causes a decrease in volume.
 Physical meaning: It quantifies how incompressible a material is under hydrostatic
pressure.
 Applications: Important for fluids, gases, and solids under high pressure, such as
underwater structures, hydraulic systems, and geophysical studies.
 Measurement: Typically measured by applying uniform pressure and recording the
resulting volume change.

Importance:
Bulk modulus helps predict how materials behave under pressure, ensuring components can
withstand volumetric changes without failure or excessive deformation.

3. Rigidity Modulus (Shear Modulus) (G or η)

Definition:
The rigidity modulus, also known as the shear modulus, measures a material’s resistance to
shear deformation. It is the ratio of shear stress (force applied tangentially) to shear strain
(angular deformation).

G=Shear stressShear strain=τγG = \frac{\text{Shear stress}}{\text{Shear strain}} = \frac{\

tau}{\gamma}G=Shear strainShear stress=γτ

where:

 τ=FA\tau = \frac{F}{A}τ=AF is the shear stress (force parallel to the surface per unit
area),
 γ=θ\gamma = \thetaγ=θ is the shear strain (angular displacement in radians).
 Physical meaning: It indicates how rigid a material is when subjected to forces that
cause layers to slide relative to each other.
 Typical values:
o Steel: ~80 GPa
o Wood: ~0.6 GPa
 Measurement: Can be determined by torsion tests or shear tests.

Significance:
Shear modulus is vital in analyzing torsional loads on shafts, beams, and mechanical
components, influencing their design and durability.

4. Compressibility
Definition:
Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus and measures how much a material’s
volume changes under pressure. It is defined as the fractional change in volume per unit
increase in pressure:

β=−1V(ΔVΔP)T=1K\beta = -\frac{1}{V}\left(\frac{\Delta V}{\Delta P}\right)_T = \frac{1}

{K}β=−V1(ΔPΔV)T=K1

where β\betaβ is compressibility, VVV is the original volume, and ΔV\Delta VΔV and ΔP\
Delta PΔP are changes in volume and pressure, respectively.

 Physical meaning: It indicates how easily a material can be compressed.

 Applications: Compressibility is important in fluid mechanics, material science, and
thermodynamics, especially for gases and liquids.

Summary and Interrelations

Typical
Modulus Type Symbol Definition Physical Meaning
Unit
Ratio of normal stress Stiffness under axial Pascal
Young’s Modulus EEE
to longitudinal strain tension/compression (Pa)
Ratio of volumetric
Resistance to uniform Pascal
Bulk Modulus KKK stress to volumetric
compression (Pa)
strain
Rigidity (Shear) GGG or Ratio of shear stress to Resistance to shear Pascal
Modulus η\etaη shear strain deformation (Pa)
Reciprocal of bulk Ease of volume change Pa−1^{-
Compressibility β\betaβ
modulus under pressure 1}−1

 These moduli are interrelated through material properties such as Poisson’s ratio.
 Together, they describe the elastic behavior of materials under different loading
conditions.
 Engineers use these constants to predict deformation, design structures, and ensure
safety.

Conclusion
The modulus of elasticity is a cornerstone concept in materials science and engineering,
quantifying a material’s stiffness and resistance to elastic deformation. Young’s modulus
describes axial stiffness, bulk modulus measures resistance to volumetric compression, and
rigidity modulus characterizes resistance to shear deformation. Compressibility, the inverse
of bulk modulus, indicates how easily a material’s volume changes under pressure.
Understanding these moduli is essential for selecting materials, analyzing structural behavior,
and designing components that perform reliably under mechanical loads. They enable precise
predictions of how materials deform elastically, ensuring safety, efficiency, and durability in
engineering applications.