TITLE

Viticulture
Publishing date 2007

Reading date August 2017, June 2022

Name of the author Nick Skelton MW

Author’s MW
backgrounds
Topic Viticulture

Main ideas

1 The grapevine

1.1 Parts of the grapevine

Trunk - Cordon - Canes
Vine = Indefinite growth vegetal. Keeps growing. Apical dominance.

1.2 Creation of new varietals

1.2.1 Clones of grapevines

Different clones of a same grape variety.
Example : Brunello du montalcino = Sangiovese clone

1.2.2 Mass selection / en foule

1.2.3 Chimeras = natural mutations

1.2.4 Cross breeding

Takes 30 to 40 years
Examples :
Müller Thurgau (Rivaner) = Riesling x Madeleine Royale
Scheurebe = Silvaner x Riesling
Bacchus = Silvaner x Riesling x Müller Thurgau
Pinotage = Pinot Noir x Cinsault
Tarrango = Touriga Nacional x Sultana
Ruby Cabernet = Carignan x Cabernet Sauvignon

1.2.5 Hybrids
= Vitis vinifera with a non European vitis
Success at the end of the 19th century you find grape varieties resistant to
phylloxera
Now banned for quality wines, only used in Vin de France.
Example: Vincent Pugibet, Dne de la colombette, near Beziers.

1.2.6 GM grapevines

1.2.7 Production of grapevines

Grafting, layering (marcottage / Provinage), top-grafting

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 1

 2 Phylloxera & Rootstocks

2.1 Phylloxera
Phylloxera vastratix (the devastator) / Dactylosphareae vitifoliae.
Insect that feeds on the vine’s sap (starch and sugars), weakening the vine and
allowing bacteria & fungi to attack the vegetal.
On vinifera species, lays its eggs on the roots. On American species, mostly on the
leaves.
Other species, oak, pecan and hickory, all have their own unique type of phylloxera.

2.2 Phylloxera in Europe

First seen in Europe in 1863, in 2 locations:
in Hammersmith, West London, in a greenhouse
In Pujaut (Rhône, Vaucluse) on vines sent from friend from the US. Planted in 1861,
showed signs of attack as soon as 1863.
1872: Had reached the Douro.
1875: Germany.
1879: Champagne & Italy.

2.3 Rootstock development

Scion + Rootstock

2.4 Types of rootstocks

→ Phylloxera Vastatrix tolerant
V. riparian, rupestris, berlandieri or crossings with vinifera
AXR1 = vinifera x rupestris
Börner = riparia x cinerea - phylloxera resistant
→ Nematode resistant
V. champini, longii, Dog Ridge, Freedom, Harmony, Ramsey.
→ High CaCo3 (limestone soils such as champagne, chablis, cognac)
S04, 41B, 333EM, Fercal
→ Drought resistant
berlandierii-rupestris, 41B, 101-14 Millard et de Grasset
→ Salt tolerant
berlandierii, champini, viniferas
→ Reduce vigour
Riparia gloire de Montpellier, 420A, 41B, 161-49, 101-14
→ Enhance vigour
Rupestris St George, 99R, 110R

2.5 Phylloxarea and the Californian experience

From the 50’s, Cal winegrowers used massively two rootstocks:
→ Rupestris St George for dry-farmed land / quality focused vineyards
→ AXR1 (vinifera x rupestric) for irrigated highly productive vineyards

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 2

 By the start of the 80’s, vineyards were starting to show high mortality rates.

2.6 Vineyards on their own roots / Ungrafted vines

Vin des Sables
Quinta do Noval Douro 2.5ha
Bollinger Vieilles Vignes Françaises 0.5 ha
Ernst Loosen Mosel
Barossa Australia
Etc.
No proof of better quality wines!

2.7 Recent developments in Phylloxera Control

Geisenheim Vticutural Research Institute working on a naturally occurring soil
fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae. Parasite ued to fight grain beetle, termites, etc.

3 Site selection

3.1 Climate
Richard Smart 1984
→ Macroclimate 10s -100s kms
→ Mesoclimate 10s m - kms
→ Microclimate: vine level – cms

3.2 Measurement of climate at macroclimate level

→ Winkler Degree Days measure from UC Davis
((day max temp-day min temp)/2 ) - 10°C
→ Latitude Temperature Index from New Zealand - LTI
mean temp of the warmest month* ( 60 - latitude)
Better for cooler regions
→ MTCM MTWM
Mean temp coldest / warmest month

3.3 Length of the growing season

200 days in Bordeaux, 175 in Dijon
→ Number of days during the growing season above 30°C
2 in the UK between 1970 & 2006, 12 in 2006
→ Number of frost-free days from May 15th to Nov 11th
Norm / Ideal = 180
→ Number of days between start of flowering & start of harvest
Norm 100
Bordeaux 110
Tasmania 130

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 3

 3.4 Summary on climate measurement
Best conditions
180+ frost free days
500 mm summer rainfall
LTI 200+
Degree days 1000+

3.5 Climate change & Global Warming

+ 1.5 to 2.5°C within 50 years turns Bordeaux into Barossa

3.6 Site selection at the mesoclimate level

→ Location
→ Altitude
+0.5-0.6 °C / +100m altitude
Highest vineyards 3000m+ in the Andes
→ Aspect
Slopes. Ideal exposure in the northern hemisphere = South-East

3.7 Proximity to bodies of water

E.g.: Finger Lakes, Niagara Peninsula, etc. Water prevents frost damage in very cold
areas and makes growing Vitis vinifera possible.

3.8 Diurnal temperature variation

Keeps acidity while allowing sugar maturation.

4 Grapegrowing regions of the world

4.1 Climatic differences

Vineyards furthest north used to be the UK, now vineyards up to Norway & Finland.
Furthest south: Bio Bio in the South of Chile, Alexandria in the Soouth of New
Zealand’s South Island.
Anyway, well above the 50/50 parallels.

4.2 Climate & location

4.3 White grape varieties

Alcohol ranges from 7-8% abv (enrichment necessary) up to 16 (acid addition
necessary)
Acidity from 4g/L (as tartaric) up to 15g/L in the cooler zones.

4.4 Red grape varieties

In addition to sugar ripeness and acidity, the seeds, skin and pulp ripeness also
matters.

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 4

 5 Soils for vineyards
Soil characteristics = structure + texture + chemical composition
It is the soil texture & structure that matters for a vineyard!!! Not its composition.
→ Topsoil
Shallow= 15cm // Deep=1 m
→ Subsoil
→ Subsolum
Min 3m below surface
Where water table is

5.1 Soil ph
Ideal=6.5.
Under 5 not suitable for vines. Possible to add chalk (chaux /
“chauler”). Makes nutrients N, Ca + Mg, P, K, B less available
for the plant, in opposition to Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Co that become
almost toxic. American grape varieties can tolerate pH values as low as 5.5 while
Vitis vinifera varieties are more susceptible to acidic soil conditions.
Soils up to 8.5 = chlorosis. Need lime tolerant rootstock.

5.2 Humus in soils

Made of organic matter. Very important for the structure of the soil in the 1st
centimeters as well as for the bacterial life of the soil.

5.3 Availability of water

The amount of water a vine needs depends on several factors:
Soil type
Natural precipitation during the growing season (May > October)
Size of the crop
Type of grapes
How water is applied

5.4 Terroir
“to suggest that site alone is responsible for quality ignores such major influences as
plant density, variety, clone and rootstock variations, trellising and training systems,
yield levels, canopy management, etc.”

5.5 Yield & Quality

Lower yield does not always mean better quality wine!!!

5.6 Vine age and quality

“The MOST critical factor in quality, all other things being equal, is level of yield”

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 5

 6 Vineyard Establishment

6.1 Precision viticulture

GPS monitoring systems
Satellite imaging
Field mapping using electro magnetic sensors
Earth radar
Etc.

6.2 Site preparation

→ Soil preparation
Terracing, subsoiling, breaking ploughpan
Flurbereiningung in Germany = A reorganization of the West German wine industry
in the mid-20th century, affecting over half the total planted vineyards. The
vineyards were re-parcelled in order to make them easier to run.

→ Irrigation (if required)

6.3 Drainage
Mole drain (lasts 5 to 10 years) or network of perforated plastic pipes

6.4 Windbreaks
Chosen species must have leaves during all the growing season and must not stop
but filter wind.
A 10m high windbreak will protect a 100m wide vineyard.

6.5 Hail netting

Seen in regions were hail occurs frequently. Laid all year round to save costs. Must
not shade the vines.

6.6 Protection against predators

Rabbits, hares: protecting individual vines
Deers, wild boards, badgers: protection of the whole plot

6.7 Frost protection

Winter frost = December – February -20°C -25°C.
e.g. : 1956 in Bordeaux
Only solution: burying the vines in winter.

6.8 Spring frost

April & May -1°C – 6°C
Advection (unusual in the spring) & radiation frost.
Protection:
Heating the vineyard: Bougies, burners, electric heating cables
Blowing air: Fans, large windmills

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 6

 Aspersion: The latent heat of freezing protects the vines. 100 reliable. Uses 25 to
30mm per night.

6.9 Harvest frost

In very cold regions. Not much damage.

6.10 Vineyard layout

Rows top to down

6.11 Planting vines

Timing:
→ Warm areas: any time from early winter to spring as frosts are not a major
problem
→ Cold areas: after spring frost, May or June
Vine kept dormant at a nurseryman in the cold, with wax protecting the upper part
from dehydration and fungi.

6.12 Care of vines after planting

→ Training or not? Some growers do it as soon a possible, some other let the vone
develop freely first
→ Tying
→ Protection: individual rabbit guards or protection of the whole plot

6.13 Weed control in new vineyards

→ Hoeing or strimming by hand: time consuming and the hoe can damage vines
→ Mechanical: hoe rotary cultivator
→ Burning off with a flame thrower
→ Natural (mown herbs, straw, crushed shells…) or synthetic mulches
→ Herbicides (contact or systemic)
→ Mown permanent grass cover

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 7

 7 Trellising, training and pruning

Reasons for this:

→ Physical support to be able to work the vines without damaging them
→ To provide the best micro-climate for the health of the vines
→ To make access for hands operations possible
→ To control yield (high / medium / low) in coherence with the strategy of the
business
→ To make sure the vine keeps growing for several decades

7.1 Pruning – An overview

It is all a matter of balance between quantity of wood (carbohydrates reserves) and
fruit. To which system will the vine provide the most energy?

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 8

 7.2 Canopy management
Richard Smart 1991 “sunlight into wine”
Alain Carbonneau Lyre system
Prior to 80, Pr. Nelson Shaulis GDC training system

Canopy management covers:

→ Winter pruning : determines the number of buds left on the vine
→ Shoot thinking / de-suckering
→ Summer pruning
→ Shoot devigoration
→ Leaf removal
→ Trellis system changes

4 rules of Canopy management

1. Measurement of canopy quality
2. Pruning the vine in relation to the weight of wood produced by the vine : Ravaz
index = weight of wood produced / yield of grapes. Should be 5 to 10
3. Trellis design
4. Annual canopy management

7.3 Row width

Depends on the objectives (yield) and the equipment (large/narrow tractors,
straddle tractors, etc.)

7.4 Intervine distance and vine densities

For any given row width, the intervene distance sets the vine density.
Intervine distance = average 1.20 - 1.40m to allow the vines to grow without
interfering with each other
Vineyard density
→ En foule = up to 25 000 vines/ha
→ 0.80m row width = density of 15 625 vines/ha
→ 2m row width = 3571-4167 vines/ha = VSP Vertical Shoot Positioning trained
→ 3-4m wide rows = 833 vines /ha = Lyre, GDC Geneva Double Curtai,, pergolas

7.5 Trellis height

In cooler climates, grapes need 12-15 leaves / cane to ripen their crop
Less in warmer climate (photosynthesis more efficient)
Vines too close to the ground = fungi & disease risks as rain splashes in the leaves
Too high: Difficult to work, especially manual work
→ Burgundy= “vignes basses” 1.20m, fruiting wire 30cm
→ “vignes hautes” (rare in France) 1.80m, fruiting wire at 60cm

General rule: Top of the leaf well ≤ row width

Ideal = 80-85% to avoid too much shading

7.6 Height of the fruiting wood

Machine harvesting: 40m – 1.75m, otherwise not possible

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 9

 7.7 Downward trained vines
Case of GDC, Sylvoz and Scott Henry
Less vigour and lower potential of the buds = less fruit and leaves BUT = more
sunshine exposure

7.8 Types of pruning

7.8.1 Cane pruning = “Guyot” = replacement cane pruning

Rule = Fruiting buds for the coming season all positioned on a cane (new wood)

4 to 12 buds/cane
Single cane / Double cane / Four-cane Guyot systems
Norm in cool regions with VSP training, high density vineyards.

PROSs of cane pruning CONs

→ All buds on “new wood” = away → Number of fruiting buds limited to
from disease-prone wood the number of buds on the cane =
→ Buds evenly spaced limits yield
→ Flexible cane that can be benched → Time consuming pruning that
in an arch, limiting apical requires experience
dominance for some varieties → Cannot be mechanized
prone to this → Canes more prone to frost damage
→ Thin leaf wall = good sun exposure as they are less lignified (possible
& air circulation to leave 1 or 2 more canes that are
cut off when risk of spring frost is
over)

7.9 Spur pruning

The buds of the coming year grow on spurs (lignified wood), not canes
2 – 10 buds /spur
Spurs trained on the cordon (lignified wood – extension of the vine’s trunk).
Norm in warm regions with irrigation, low density vineyards. Also in
Champagne (cordon de Royat) to reach higher yields and limit frost.

PROSs of spur pruning CONs

→ Number of fruiting buds always superior to → Difficult on grape
cane pruning for any given metre of row varieties that tend to
length have blind buds near
→ Possible to have larger rows for the same yield the trunk
objective → Old wood = repository
→ Larger number of buds / vine = less vigorous for diseases
vines → Needs strong shoot
→ Possible to do some “prétaillage” / Mechanized selection in spring
pre-pruning otherwise too dense
→ No bending or tying-down work canopy
→ Does not require experienced staff → Cropping potential too
→ Less prone to frost due to the presence of more high in regions with
lignified wood possible bad weather
→ More control on final yield at harvest time
Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 10
 7.10 Minimal / Zero pruning
E.g.: Australia to grow Thompson Seedless grapes for dried fruit production.

PROSs of minimal pruning CONs

→ Cost: no canopy work → Take more space than pruned
vines for a given yield
→ Prone to diseases, especially
powdery mildew & fungi

7.11 Materials used in trellising, training and pruning

From simple oak stakes to wood / recycled materials / iron posts

Wood posts Recycled material posts Iron posts

++ Cheaper than iron ++ Good value ++ Very strong
++ Aesthetical ++ No need to add nails ++ Last more than 20
-- Last only 10 to 15 years and staples years = the whole life of a
-- Difficult to put into the -- Not aesthetical vineyard
soil as need to remove a -- Of variable strength ++ Easy to put into the
large amount of soil soil
-- Needs to be wood of ++ No need to add nails
good quality and staples
++ Need to add nails and -- Not aesthetical
staples that often need to -- Expensive
be replaced after a few
years

8 The annual cycle of the vine

*** For Southern hemisphere, add 6 months ***

8.1 Jan-Feb-March
In the vineyard Work to do
→ Canes are → Pruning: Usually starts at “Saint Vincent” (Jan 22nd) but
lignified sometimes earlier for practical manpower reasons
→ Vines are in → Repairs to trelliswork
dormancy → New plantings, complanting
→ Distribution of fertilisers & manure (when the soil is
ferm enough to get the tractor in)

8.2 April-May
In the vineyard Work to do
→ Soil temperature rises, → Bud / Shoot rubbing
vines need min 8-10°C → Weeding the vine’s “Cavaillon” (just under
→ Vines come out of the vine)
dormancy → Managing weeds in the alleyways: chemical
→ The sap moves again (vines weeding, green manure, mowing,
“cry”) harrowing
Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 11
 → Winter buds expand & turn → Spraying against pests & disease (oïdium &
woolly = débourrement / powdery mildewn Botrytis later)
bud burst → Optionnal distribution of fertilisers

8.3 June-July
In the vineyard Work to do
→ Flowering: ideally warm, dry → Tucking in
weather with a light breeze to → Shoot trimming = Summer
support pollination. This sage is key pruning = hedging (tractor that
in determining the future crop cuts shoots from top & sides). Can
potential. Risks of coulure & increase crops by up to 25%
millerandage with temps < 15°C → Spraying against pests & disease,
after it will be too close to harvest

8.4 July-August
In the vineyard Work to do
→ Véraison: → Shoot trimming = Summer pruning = hedging (tractor
grapes turn that cuts shoots from top & sides). Can increase crops
red = shows by up to 25%
maturation → Optional green harvest: bunch or cluster thinning but
starts with beware of compensation with vines making larger
sugars grapes on the remaining bunches. If mechanical harvest,
migrating into need to get rif od the later ripening grapes.
berries and → Leaf removal: manual or mechanical = more light, less
acids starting disease and less MOG (Material Other than Grape) if
to dicrease machine harvested

8.5 September-October
In the vineyard Work to do
→ Flowering to harvest → Protection against wild animals that might
time: damage the harvest: birds, wild boars, etc.
New world = 135-145 → Harvest
days

Picking date: Depends on

→ Sugar ripeness = measurable (refractometer – at least 20 samples / plot)
→ Acids
→ Physiological ripeness: skin colour, pulp and juice flavour, pip colour and
bitterness
→ Practical issues: machine/staff availability, weather, etc.

8.6 November-December
In the vineyard Work to do
→ Flowering to harvest → Optional weeding.
time: → Optional copper-based fungicide to encourage
New world = 135-145 the hardening & ripening of the canes
days → Soil work

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 12

 → Ploughing under vines = “buttage” to protect
the vines against potential winter frost damage
→ Pre-pruning for spur-pruned vineyards,
pruning in warm regions
→ Maintenance: Post replacements and repairs
→ New plantings in warm regions

9 Irrigation
In the EU, the law still disallows irrigation, with annual exceptions(“décrets”) at
local scale.

Needs of vines during the growing season: 250-1000mm

/ m²
= 1 hectare of vines needs up to 10 million litres of
water

Needs depend on evapotranspiration, which itself

depends on:
Weather factors Vineyard managment
Natural rainfall Shading / canopy
Wind speed managmenet
Air temperatures Vegetation cover
Light levels Soil conditions (bare or
Humidity not)
Stress levels of the
plant

9.1 Water sources

→ Natural flowing supply: River, Canal
→ Static source: Pond or lake, irrigation lagoon
→ Borehole + pumps + small buffer lagoon
Important: rate of the flow of water, quantity available during summer, right to
use the water source, quality of water

9.2 Quality of water

→ Dissolved solids
→ Salinity
→ Soluble salts
Might require filtering through sand beds to avoid blocking irrigation systems
(drippers and sprinklers)
Salt-tolerant rootstocks: Ramsey, 101-14, Rupestris du Lot, 99R

9.3 Types of irrigation

9.3.1 Non pressurised systems

Flood irrigation
- - Requires even vineyards
- - Requires great amounts of water
Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 13
 - - Labour intensive
++ Water quality does not matter
++ Cheap as no installation required
++ vine scan grow on their own roots
Examples: Mendoza and Chile with water from the Andes

Channel / Furrow irrigation

= Flood irrigation + channels alongside rows of vines
Pros & cons: same as above plus:
-- Risks of channel erosion (but tubes can be used)

9.3.2 Pressurised systems

Travelling overhead sprinklers (usually 30-50 radius)
++ cover arge areas
++ Small investment
++ can be used in different places
++ No risk of wild animals damage
-- Use large amounts of water as evaporation is high
-- Humidity in the canopy might lead to disease
-- Uneven results
--Requires high pressure pump

Fixed overhead sprinklers

Pros & cons: same as above plus:
-- Require an underground system
++Can be used for frost protection

Undervine mini spinklers

Mounted on risers attached to supply pipes, every 2 or 3 rows
--Can be damaged by wild animals

Undervine microjets
Same as above but on every row
--Can be damaged by wild animals

Leaky hose
++Cheap installation
++Requires little maintenance
--Can be damaged by wild animals

Dripper systems
Most common
Drippers on pipes attached to the lower wire of the trelliswork
Usually 2 drippers/vine
++Economy of water used
++High level of control/management by blocks
++Low labour requirement
++Possible to work with saline water
++Less damage by wild animals
++Fertigation possible
--High investment
--Need for very clean water
Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 14
 --String maintenance (to avoid blockages). Necessary to flush with chlorine against
algae

9.4 Monitoring the water requirements in the vineyard

When and how much water?
→ Visual observation: Sol taken at 10-15cm depth that cannot be balled =
dry/water deficient. Ideally samples should be taken at 50cm depth.
→ Metrics: wind speed, temperature, humidity, last rain date and quantity. Weather
apps and stations can be useful.
→ Condition of the vineyard floor: covered/bare. Evaporimeter can be useful.

More and more sensors and tools available, but need to be sued in at least 2 or 3
places in the vineyards to give objective results:
→ Tensiometers: Calculate the sap flow in the vine
→ Gypsum moisture blocks
→ Neutron probes
→ Vine leaves tests
→ Dendrometers calculating the expansion of the trunk

9.5 How much water to apply?

Soil field capacity: Water “remaining” 24 hours after a soil has been filled with water
to saturation.
Depends on the type of soil:
→ Sand 35mm
→ Fine sandy loam 160mm
→ Very fine sandy clay 200mm

Regulated Deficit Irrigation (RDI): limiting irrigation / Water supply to reduce

vigour

9.6 Partial rootzone drying (PRD)

Developed in Australia. One side is irrigated, the other not, and this reverses every
10-15 days. The plant send an hormone called abscisic acid (ABA) that closes the
stomata of the leaves = reduces evapotranspiration.
++water use reduced by 30-50%
++shoots growth is reduced
++canopies are more open
++fruits and buds better exposed
++less work in the vineyard

10 Organic and bio-dynamic viticulture

Organic: no chemically synthesised fungicides, insecticides, pesticides or weedkillers
and no GMOs.
EU: Certification standards in the vineyard only = “wine made from organically
grown grapes”
Canada, USA, Australia, NZ: Organic wine standards (with rules in the cellar)

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 15

 S02
Red White & Rosé Sweet
Conventional 160 mg/L 210 mg/L 400 mg/L
Organic (EU) 100 mg/L 150 mg/L 370 mg/L
Biodynamic 70 mg/L 90 mg/L 2000 mg/L

Biodynamic principles:
→ To enhance the plant’s atural resistance to pests & diseasen
→ Use of “dynamised” water
→ Aashing: using burnt ashes of weed seeds or animal remains
→ Special preparation: purins / liquid manure, tisanes (plant infusions), etc.
→ Operations in the vineyard & cellar managed depending on solar, lunar,
planetary and stellar cycles and rhythms
1 biodynamic calendar = Maria Thun 1963
st

10.1 Organic and Biodynamic does not mean “not sprayed”

Products allowed:
→ Sulphur
→ Copper against downy mildew (remaining & toxic in the soil)
→ Certain oils (such as citrus, clove oils)
→ Soft soaps
→ Acetic acid
→ Commercial extracts of certain plants
→ Tisanes (e.g: horsetail spray)
→ Natural insecticides such as pyrethrins (derived from chrysanteum flowers)
→ Other preparations such as cow manure 500 (to stimulate humus formation),
horn silica 501 (to stimulate the vine’s relationship to the sun)

10.2 Rudolf Steiner

Born in 1861
In June 1924 lectures “Spiritual Foundations for the Renewal of Agriculture”
Almost 1000 Waldorf-Steiner schools nowadays in 60 different countries

10.3 Are organic & biodynamic wines any better than conventional ones?
“it is interesting to note that very few of the world’s top wines are currently made
from grapes grown organically”

11 Diseases and viruses of grapevines

Control less difficult than in the past because:
→ Better quality rootstocks + scions + clones with resistance
→ ELISA testing for viruses
→ Introduction of an EU wide plant passport in the early 90s
→ Better trellising and training methods (max 3-4 layers of leaves)
→ Precise and efficient spraying equipment (use up to 50% les product than
before)

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 16

 11.1 Integrated Pest Management / lutte raisonnée
→ To know what causes the problem
→ To monitor the situation (usually the weather)
→ To know whether the the problem is likey to arise
→ To take timely preventive measures instead of systematic curative measures
Use of natural predators

11.2 Harvest intervals

Number of days between the last treatment and harvest
Up to 56 days for some products.

11.3 Roses & Vines

Now purely decorative
Used to be an early warner for mildew (10-1 days in advance)

11.4 Diseases caused by fungi, bacteria and bacteria-like organisms

11.4.1 Botrytis – Pourriture grise, Gery Rot, Bunch Rot, Sour Rot, Stem Rot
Needs sugar, heat and humidity to develop >> importance of canopy management
Becomes resistant to certain chemicals
→ 70’s benzidazole
→ 90’s dicarboximides
→ Since 95 active agent pyrimethanil
Bio fungicide called sentinel used in NZ, using a strain of predator fungus
Trichoderma harzanium

11.4.2 Botrytis – Noble Rot – Pourriture Nole - Edelfaüle

Humidity + hot weather
When grapes reach potential alcohol of 7%
Found in:
→ Sv Blanc – Sémillon (Sauternes, Barsac, Monbazillac, Australia)
→ Riesling (Grerman Trockenbeerenauslese, Beerenauslese, Auslese)
→ Furmint – Harslevlu (Tokay)
→ Chenin Blanc (sweet Loire)
→ Gewürztraminer, Pinot Gris, Riesling (Alsace vendanges tardives & sélection de
grains nobles)
→ Furmint, Welschriesling, Pinot Nlanc , Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc (Austrian Ruster
Ausbruch)

11.4.3 Downy Mildew, Peronospora, Mildiou

1st seen in Europe in 1870s
Grapes turn leathery
Control:
→ Importance of canopy management
→ 1885 discovery of the efficiency of copper sprays > invention of Bordeaux
mixture (hydrated lime + copper sulphate)

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 17

 11.4.4 Oïdium, powdery mildew, Oidium tuckeri / Uncinula necator
Appeared in France in 1846. Vintage 1854 was the smallest for the past years.
Growers discovered the efficiency of dusting sulphur (poudrage).
One of the few diseases that are worse in dry than wet years.
Easily controlled:
→ Dusting sulphur
→ Mineral oil
→ Strobilurins
→ Etc.

11.4.5 Other diseases

Anthracnose, bird’s eye rot, black spot
Controlled with Bordeaux mixture and other copper-based products
Armillaria Root Rot – Honey fungus – Oak Root Fungus
Control: Soil fumigation with methyl bromide
Bacterial Blight
Control: Copper sprays
Black Rot
Control: same as other main fungal disease
Crown Gall – Black Knot
Control: Buttage
Esca, Black Measles, Apoplexie
Caused by several pathogens, common in warm/hot regions.
Control: Clear all old wood
Eutypa, Eutype Dieback, Eutypiose, “Dead Arm”
No cure apart from avoiding old wood
Grapevine Yellows – Flavescence Dorée
Caused by small phytoplasma that get into the sap
1st discovered in 40s in Armagnac
Infected vines have curling leaves that turn yellow
No chemical treatment
Phomopsis – Phomopsis Cane – Dead Arm – Excoriose
Same treatment as fungal disease
Pierce’s Disease – PD – Anaheim Disease
1st seen in Anaheim in Southern Cal in 1892
Fungal disease caused by a bacteria (Xyllela fastidiosa) that lives in the xylem,
spread by various insects.
In Cal, spread by the glassy-winged sharpshooter
No chemical control

11.5 Viruses of grapevines

Corky Bark
No cure
Fanleaf degeneration – Fanleaf virus – Court Noué
Leafroll

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 18

 Red leaves in autumn
Nepoviruses
Rugose wood

12 Pests of grapevines
Can attack
→ Roots > affects plant’s nutrition
→ Leaves > affects photosynthesis
→ Fruits > impact on the taste of wine

12.1.1 Beetles / écrivains et cigariers

Mainly localised in Cal, Oregon and the Hunter Valley

12.1.2 Cutworms
Not much of a commercial problem

12.1.3 Erinose Mite – Grape Erineum Mite – Grape Leaf Blister Mite
Not much of a commercial problem

12.1.4 Fruit Fly – Drosophila – Vinegar Fly – Pomace Fly

Visits already damaged fruits when sugars are high and spread acid bacteria <>
dramatically affects vinification.
Seen in hot regions, especially South Africa & Australia.
Affects even more vineyards close to some other fruit. (apricots, peaches, figs…)

12.1.5 Grasshoppers, Locusts

Eat leaves

12.1.6 Leafhopers
Eat leaves and vectors for diseases such as Pierce’s disease, Flavescence Dorée
Control: Spraying insecticides and destroying their habitat.

12.1.7 Leaf-rollers – Tordeuse

Insects whose caterpillars damage a vine’s leaves, causing them to roll up > affects
photosynthesis
Control: Natural predators, selective insecticides
Localised to certain regions (eg: south of France)

12.1.8 Margarodes – Ground Pearls

Damage vines in the same way as Phylloxera.
Localised to South African vineyards.
No control, no resistant rootstock so far.

12.1.9 Mealy Bug

Lots of different types. Cover grapes with a secretion known as honeydew, that
attracts other insects. Affects he taste of the wine.

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 19

 Control: Natural predators, striping the bark with insecticides for hose that lay their
eggs in bark.

12.1.10 Mites
Many different, look like small spiders. Reduce the photosynthesis.
Control: Sulphur (but not selective so affects natural predators), predatory mites

12.1.11 Moths
Control: Pheromone traps, but need to be used by most producers in an area in order
to be efficient. Also insecticides, natural predators;
Examples: Cochylis, Eudemis, Eulia, Pyrale.

12.1.12 Nematodes
Microscopic worms in the earth that feed on the roots.
Most widespread = root-knot nematode.
Vectors for viruses.
Control: Hard to control chemically, prophyllaxy (nematode resistant rootstocks,
hygiene in nurseries, dipping rootstocks in hot water 50°C fr 30 mins)

12.1.13 Phylloxera

12.1.14 Scale insects

Feed on the sap.
Control: insecticides.

12.1.15 Thrips – Thunderbirds – Storm flies

Several different species, very small black winged insects.
Feed on young shoots and on pollen of the vine during flowering. = Poor fruit set.
Vectors for viruses.

12.1.16 Eastern Grapeleaf Skeletonizer

Ats leaves.
Localised to US West coast
Control: spraying, natural predators (wasp, fly).

13 Nutritional disorders & cultural problems of

grapevines

13.1 Mineral requirements for vines

Highly affected by Ph of the soil.
Other factors: stress, temperature, crop load, etc.
Deficiencies and excess are both bad for the vines.

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 20

 13.2 Major elements: NPK

13.2.1 Nitrogen (N)

Deficiency: leaves turn yellow. Risk especially in spring with important vegetal
growth.
Remedy: Long term = Green manure with legumes and mow & throw technique very
efficient.
Short term = foliar sprays (urea) with quick ingestion. Useful in sandy soils. But risks
of leaching.
Be careful with vigorous vineyards.

13.2.2 Phosphorus (P)

Deficiency very seldom.
Soils with very low pH = symptoms such as chlorosis.

13.2.3 Potassium – Kalium (K)

Deficiency: Chlorotic leaf margins
Especially in times of stress such as drought.
Remedy: Short term = foliar spray.
Excess potassium in soils <> high pH levels in wine
Rootstock Riparia Gloire, 101-14, 420A low vigorous give wines with a lower
amount of potassium.

13.3 Minor trace elements

13.3.1 Boron (B)

Deficiencies seen on sandy, acidic sols in high rainfall areas.
Consequence: Poor fruit set.
Excess a problem too.

13.3.2 Calcium (Ca)

Soils with pHs below 6 can cause problems.

13.3.3 Copper (Cu)

Seldom a problem as cooper containing fungicides (eg Bordeaux mixture) are
massively used.
But excess copper is toxic in the soil (earthworms and microbial activity).
In this case, application of humus and lime, with green manuring.

13.3.4 Iron (Fe)

Required for chlorophyll production.
Deficiency seen on alkaline sols (high pH).
Remedy: Short term = Liquid fertilisers
Long term = right choice of rootstock

13.3.5 Magnesium (Mg)

Required for chlorophyll production.
Affects stems and bunches.
Remedy: short term = foliar spray (Epsom salts)
Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 21
 13.3.6 Manganese (Mn)
Deficiencies = yellow stripes along the veins of leaves
Remedy: Foliar feeds

13.3.7 Molybdenum (Mo)

Deficiencies only in Merlot.
Consequence: Coulure & Millerandage.

13.3.8 Sulphur (S)

Use of superphosphate to fight disease so never any deficiency

13.3.9 Zinc (Zn)

Affects cells division.
Remedy: Foliar sprays

13.4 Cultural problems

13.4.1 Bunch Stem Necrosis BSN

Caused by poor nutrition, over vigorous growth and shaded canopy.
At pre-flowering stage = Early Bunch Stem Necrosis = EBSN
Remedy = Addressing the right nutritional shortages.

13.4.2 Chlorosis – Iron Chlorosis – Lime induced Chlorosis

In high lime soil (pH > 7.5), iron remains blocked in the soil.
Test for active calcium carbonate. If over 5%, choice of the right rootstock.

13.4.3 Coulure
Poor flowering given the weather and conditions and/or an imbalance of nutrients
Some varieties more prone to this, eg Grenache.

13.4.4 Millerandage – Hen & Chicken

Some of the flowers do not turn into berries.
Happens in cold and wet weather at flowering stage.
Some varieties and clones (Gewürztraminer and Mendoza clone Chardonnay) are
more prone to this.

Quotes
“The fabled 1961 vintage in Bordeaux was, at many châteaux on the right bank, in
Pomerol & St Emilion, harvested from vines planted in 1957 & 1958 in the aftermath
of the horrific frosts of February 1956”

“A question that – yet again – cannot be settled simply and where the philosophy of
the grower or the grower’s economic circumstances may well be the deciding factor”

“it is interesting to note that very few of the world’s top wines are currently made
from grapes grown organically”

“The best fertiliser is the farmer’s footstep”

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 22

 “in my book, a healthy scepticism is no bad thing” (about organic & biodynamic)

“customers buying organic & biodynamic wines because they are fearful that
conventional wines might piso them should take a look at the labels – it’s the alcohol
in the bottle that’s the killer!”

Key figures
“there are 3000 separate decisions that are taken from site selection to bottle”

In Europe vines cover 8% of farmland but use 80% of fungicides.

World average yield = 57 hl/ha

Highest avg yield = Germany 98.8 hl/ha

+0.5-0.6 °C / +100m altitude

Highest vineyards 3000m+ in the Andes

Price of wine grapes: from 300$ (Central Valley California) to 6000$ (Champagne)
per ton

Up to 4 million worms/ha = 1000+ tonnes

Top 3 white grapes in the world:

Airen (Spain , La Mancha) 306 000 ha
Chardonnay 179 300 ha
Ugni Blanc = Trebbiano 136 100 ha
The top 10 is made of several countries

Top 3 red grapes in the world:

Cab Sauv 262 000 ha
Merlot 260 000 ha
Grenache 209 800 ha
All the top 10 are in the old world France / Italy / Spain

Trellising a ha of vines can cost up to 40 000 $.

10 tons/ha = 70 hl/ha

1 harvesting machine during 1 hour = work done by 5 peakers in a day

In New Zealand nearly 50% of vineyards are bird-netted

Machine harvesting:
Nearly 100% in Australia
80% in France
< 10% in Italy

= 1 hectare of vines needs up to 10 million litres of water

Reading Notes – Marion Barral WSET Dip. Page 23