Unit - 5 -Operational Amplifiers and Special Devices
Differential Amplifier:
Characteristics of a operational amplifier:
1. Open Loop gain
Open loop gain is the gain of the Op Amp without a positive or negative feedback. An
ideal OP Amp should have an infinite open loop gain but typically it range between
20,000 and 2, 00000.
2. Input impedance
It is the ratio of the input voltage to input current. It should be infinite without any
leakage of current from the supply to the inputs. But there will be a few Pico ampere
current leakages in most Op Amps.
3. Output impedance
The ideal Op Amp should have zero output impedance without any internal resistance.
So that it can supply full current to the load connected to the output.
4. Band width
The ideal Op Amp should have an infinite frequency response so that it can amplify any
frequency from DC signals to the highest AC frequencies. But most Op Amps have
limited bandwidth.
5. Offset
The output of the Op Amp should be zero when the voltage difference between the
inputs is zero. But in most Op Amps, the output will not be zero when off but there will
be a minute voltage from it.
Circuit model of ideal op-amp
Virtual Ground :
As the name indicates it is virtual, not real ground. For some purposes we can consider it as
equivalent to ground. In op-amp the term virtual ground means that the voltage at that particular
node is almost equal to ground voltage (0V). It is not physically connected to ground. This
concept is very useful in analysis of op-amp circuits and it will make a lot of calculations very
simple.
Virtual Ground – Opamp
Lets see how the virtual ground concept is employed in inverting amplier.
Virtual Ground – Inverting Amplifier using Op-amp
We can explain this concept in two different ways using two different characteristics of an ideal
op-amp.
Using Infinite Voltage Gain
We already know that an ideal op-amp will provide infinite voltage gain. For real op-amp also
the gain will be very high such that we can consider it as infinite for calculation purposes.
Gain = Vo/Vin
As gain is infinite, Vin = 0
Vin = V2 – V1
In the above circuit V1 is connected to ground, so V1 = 0. Thus V2 also will be at ground
potential.
V2 = 0
Virtual Ground – Inverting Amplifier using Opamp
Why we need Virtual Ground ?
Virtual Ground concept is very useful in analysis of an opamp when negative feedback is
employed. It will simply a lot of calculations and derivations.
Equivalent Circuit – Inverting Amplifier – Virtual Ground – Opamp
Virtual Ground vs Real Ground
Virtual Ground Real Ground
Real Ground is a terminal which is physically connected
Virtual Ground is a concept that made for easy
to ground or earth which acts as the reference point for the
explantaion and calculation purposes.
entire circuit.
Voltage is approximately Zero Voltage is Zero
Not able to sink infinite current It is an infinite current sink
Not electrically connected to Ground Electrically connected to Ground
Inverting Amplifier:
The basic OP-AMP inverting amplifier is shown in diagram. The input voltage Vin is applied to
the inverting input through the input resistor R in. The non inverting input is grounded. The
feedback resistor Rf is connected between the output and the inverting input. Since the input
impedance of an op-amp is considered very high, no current can flow into or out of the input
terminals. Therefore Iinmust flow through Rf and is indicated by If (the feedback current). Since
Rin and Rf are in series, then Iin = If . The voltage between inverting and non-inverting inputs is
essentially equal to zero volt. Therefore, the inverting input terminal is also at 0 volt. For this
reason the inverting input is said to be at virtual ground. The output voltage (V out) is taken across
Rf
Non-inverting Amplifier:
The basic OP-AMP non-inverting amplifier is shown in diagram. The input signal Vin is applied
to the non-inverting input terminal. The resistor Rin is connected from the inverting input to
ground. The feedback resistor Rf is connected between the output and the inverting input.
Resistors Rf and Rin form a resistive ratio network to produce the feedback voltage (VA) needed
at the inverting input. Feedback voltage (VA) is developed across Rin. Since the potential at the
inverting input
Op-amp as Adder:
The input signals to be added are applied to the inverting input terminal of op-amp. The
following figure shows the inverting adder using op-amp with two inputs V1 and V2.
Let us assume currents I1 and I2 are flowing through resistances R1 and R2 respectively. Since
input current to the op-amp is zero, the two currents are added to get current I, which flows
through the feedback resistance Rf.
Thus by KCL at inverting terminal, we get
Substituting for the currents,
Thus the above equation gives the weighted addition of the two input signals (in the form mX +
n Y, where m and n are the weights of inputs X and Y respectively)
If R1=R2=R
Thus the addition of the two input signals obtained with gain [-Rf/R ]
If Rf=R,
Thus the addition of two inputs obtained. The negative sign indicates that input and output are having 180̊
phase shift.
The above circuit can also be used to get the average of the two inputs, with the following substitution.
Thus the circuit can be used as an averager.
If R=2Rf
Op-amp subtractor:
A difference amplifier or op amp subtractor is a specially designed op amp based amplifier
circuit which amplifies the difference between two input signals and rejects any signals common
to both inputs.
Let us consider the above op amp circuit. Now, by applying Kirchhoff Current Law at node 1,
we get,
We have written this equation by assuming that there is no current entering in the inverting
terminal of the op amp.
Now, by simplifying the above equation, we get,
Now, by applying Kirchhoff Current Law, at node 2, we get,
We know that, in ideal op amp, voltage at inverting input is same as the voltage at non inverting
input. Hence,
So, now from equation (i) and (ii), we get,
The difference amplifier must reject any signal common to both inputs. That means, if polarity
and magnitude of both input signals are same, the output must be zero.
This condition must be satisfied only when,
In that case, equation (iii) becomes,
Again, if we make, R1 = R2, then equation (iv) becomes,
So, if R1 = R2 and also R3 = R4 then the difference amplifier becomes a perfect subtractor, which
subtracts directly the input signals.
Op-amp as integrator:
A circuit in which output voltage waveform is the time integral of the input voltage waveform is
called integrator or integrating amplifier.
The following circuit shows a basic/ideal integrator using op-amp,
The non-inverting input terminal is at ground potential and hence, the inverting terminal is
appearing to be at ground potential. The current 'I' through the resistance R is given as,
The input current to op-amp is zero so same current 'I' flows through the capacitor 'C' in
feedback path also and is given as,
Comparing the above two equations for current 'I' we get,
Integrating both the sides, we get,
Where 1/RC=≫Gain / scale factor of an integrator.
Thus output voltage is nothing but time integration of the input signal and hence acting as an
integrator.
Op-amp Differentiator:
By Exchanging the positions of 'R' and 'C' in integrator the differentiator circuit is obtained
The circuit which produces the differentiation of the input voltage at its output is called
differentiator.
The following circuit diagram shows the differentiator using op-amp.
Assume current 'I' is flowing through capacitor C. It is given as
Since input current to the op-amp is zero, same current 'I' flows through
resistance R as shown. It is given by
Equating both the above equations of 'I' we get,
Thus output voltage is nothing but time differentiation of the input signal and
hence acting as differentiator. Here 'RC' is the time constant of the
differentiator.
Unity gain buffer
A unity gain buffer (also called a unity-gain amplifier) is a op-amp circuit which has a
voltage gain of 1.
This means that the op amp does not provide any amplification to the signal. The reason
it is called a unity gain buffer (or amplifier) is because it provides a gain of 1, meaning
there is no gain; the output voltage signal is the same as the input voltage. Thus, for
example, if 10V goes into the op amp as input, 10V comes out as output. A unity gain
buffer acts as a true buffer, providing no amplification or attenuation to the signal.
What is the Purpose of a Unity Gain Buffer?
One may ask then, what is the purpose of a unity gain buffer? Since it outputs the same
signal it inputs, what is its purpose in a circuit? This will now be explained.
An op amp circuit is a circuit with a very high input impedance. This high input
impedance is the reason unity gain buffers are used. This will now be explained.
When a circuit has a very high input impedance, very little current is drawn from the
circuit. If you know ohm's law, you know that current, I=V/R. Thus, the greater the
resistance, the less current is drawn from a power source. Thus, the power of the circuit
isn't affected when current is feeding a high impedance load.
Let's look at both illustrations below:
The below circuit is a circuit in which a power source feeds a low-impedance load.
In this circuit above, the load demands and draws a huge amount of current, because the
load is low impedance. According to ohm's law, again, current, I=V/R. If a load has very
low resistance, it draws huge amounts of current. This causes huge amounts of power to
be drawn by the power source and, because of this, causes high disturbances and use of
the power source powering the load.
Now let's look at the circuit below, connected to a unity-gain bufffer:
This circuit above now draws very little current from the power source above. Because
the op amp has such high impedance, it draw very little current. And because an op amp
that has no feedback resistors gives the same output, the circuit outputs the same signal
that is fed in.
This is the reason unity gain buffers are used. They draw very little current, not
disturbing the original circuit, and give the same voltage signal as output. They act as
isolation buffers, isolating a circuit so that the power of a circuit is disturbed very little.
