1 Introduction

This chapter focuses on the following topics:

1. Historical developments
2. Membrane separation processes
3. Membrane modules

1.1 History and Background of Membrane Development

Historical developments of membranes date back to the mid of the 18th century. In 1748, Abbe
Nollet indicated that water diffuses from dilute to concentrated solution through osmotic forces.
In 1846, Schoenbein produced the first synthetic polymeric membrane. In 1855, Fick developed
his mass transfer model through the use of cellulose nitrate membrane. Subsequently, Fick and
Traube developed a nitrocellulose synthetic membrane in 1866. An ultrafiltration membrane
was prepared by Bechhold in 1907 through careful control of pore size. Availability of
commercial membranes was made possible during the first half of the twentieth century.

The rapid expansion of using membrane on industrial scale was initiated at the end of the
1950’s. This was associated with synthesis of inexpensive, efficient and stable membranes. The
golden age of membrane technology (1960-1980) began in 1960 with the invention by Reid and
Breton [1] and Loeb and Sourirajan [2] of the first asymmetric integrally skinned cellulose
acetate RO membrane. This development simulated both commercial and academic interest,
first in desalination by reverse osmosis, and then in other membrane application and processes.
During this period, significant progress was made in virtually every phase of membrane
technology: applications, research tools, membrane formation processes, chemical and physical
structures, configurations and packaging.

Membranes are an intimate part of being alive. Several examples are simple to cite:

 The skin in all mammals is a very efficient and highly selective type of membrane
controlling release of sweat to cool off the bodies through evaporation of tinny water
droplets during hot weather. Skin selectivity as apparent, when its cut the fine blood cells
and vessels that runs underneath the skin are broken and releases its blood content. A
healthy and intact skin does not release blood.
 The lungs are also a good example of effective membranes, where fine cells within the lungs
allow passage of oxygen from the inhaled air and release carbon dioxide into the same
stream. The lungs as a membrane prevents permeation of the nitrogen in the inhaled air,
irrespective of its high content.
 The kidney membranes regulate the water, salt ions, proteins, and other nutrient within the
body. The kidneys are extremely efficient that a healthy body can survive with a quarter of
both kidneys.
 On a much smaller scale, membrane walls in single cells within mammals, bacteria, and
other microorganisms maintains the cell contents intact and regulate the input/output rates
of nutrients or products.

History and Background of Membrane Development 1

Since the early days of civilization mankind have adopted simple forms of membranes. In early
agriculture communities, household sieves were invented and developed to separate fin grain
ground from coarse grain particles and shells. Similarly, cheesecloth was made from cotton
fibers and used to manufacture cheese. Both forms of separation are based on differences in
particle size. However, developments in membrane technology have focused on adoption of
other separation mechanisms, such differences in solution and diffusion rates of various species
across the membrane material.

Other than the sieve type membrane use of artificial membranes is rather new. Major landmarks
in use of artificial membranes are summarized in the following points:
 In 1823, Dutrochet gave correct explanation of osmosis (passage of solvent across a
membrane from low to high concentration) and dialysis (passage of solute across a
membranes from high to low concentration).
 In 1867, Traube and Pfeffer performed one of the first quantitative studies on performance
of artificial membranes.
 Moritz Taube, 1867, prepared the first synthetic membrane.
 In the late 1800’s Graham discovered that arranging a membrane between a reservoir of
pressurized air and another reservoir of unpressurized air could produce oxygen-enriched
air.
 Early use of membranes was applied to recovery of NaOH by dialysis from wastewater
containing hemicellulose from the viscose-rayon industry.
 Also, uranium isotopes (235 and 238) are separated in the vapor phase through porous
membranes.

1.2 Membrane Types and Separation Mechanism

1.2.1 Porous Membranes

Porous membranes are used in microfiltration and ultrafiltration. The pore dimensions is
designed to provide selective removal of particle size range of 0.01-1 m. Figure 1 shows a
schematic for porous membrane separation. As is shown, fine particles (smaller than 0.01 m)
together with dissolved matter and water passes through the membrane. The larger size
particulates (greater than 0.1 for ultrafiltration and 1 for nanofiltration) are rejected by the
membrane and its concentration increases in the concentrate stream. The permeation process is
driven by pressure gradient, which should by large enough to generate an economical permeate
flow rate and overcome friction losses within the feed chamber and the membrane pores. It
should be noted that back pressure generated by osmotic pressure or concentration polarization
is minimal because more than 99% of the dissolved solids passes through the nanofiltration or
the ultrafiltration membrane. Therefore, it is common to operate the microfiltration and
Ultrafiltration membranes at pressures of less than 500 kPa.

Membrane Types and Separation Mechanism 2

 Porous Membrane

Rejected
molecules Permeating
molecules

Fig. 1. Porous membrane separation

1.2.2 Non-Porous Membranes

These membranes are capable of separating molecules of the same size, gases as well as liquids.
Non-porous membranes do not contain any macroscopic pores. The transport is determined by
the solution/diffusion mechanism, which means that components first must dissolve into the
membrane and then diffuse through the membrane due to a driving force. Separation is due to
differences in diffusivity and/or solubility. These membranes are used in reverse osmosis and
gas separation. A schematic for non-porous membranes is shown in Fig. 2.

Slow
Permeating
molecules Non-Porous Membrane

Fast
Permeating
molecules

Fig. 2. Non-Porous membrane separation

1.2.3 Carrier Membranes

Carrier membrane separation is found in tissues of humans, animals, and plants. The process is
complex process, since it includes solution, diffusion, and reversible chemical reactions. In this
type of membranes, separation occurs by a carrier molecule transporting the desired component
across the barrier. The carrier molecule shows affinity to one component or class of components
in the feed, which means that high selectivity, can be obtained. Since the separation is
completely determined by the carrier solute, interaction of all types of components can be

Membrane Types and Separation Mechanism 3

removed: gaseous or liquid. A schematic for carrier membrane separation is shown in Fig. 3. It
should be noted that carrier membrane separation remains to be limited to research and
preliminary testing units.

Carrier Membrane
Carrier molecule

Permeating
Rejected molecules
molecules

Fig. 3. Carrier membrane separation

1.3 Membrane Separation Processes

Membrane separation process can be classified subject to:

 Phase of the feed or permeate media, which includes liquid/liquid, liquid/vapor,

vapor/vapor, and gas/gas.
 Driving force for separation, which may include concentration gradients, partial
pressure difference, electrochemical potential, or chemical potential.
 Type of permeating species, which includes water, salt, volatile organics, or gases.
 Size of permeating species, which includes varies from few microns (as in
separation of macromolecules from wastewater) to 10-5 m (as in separation of
monovalent salts from water, known as desalination).

The following sections include brief description various membrane separation processes, which
includes reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, dialysis, electrodialysis,
pervaporation, gas separation, vapor permeation, immobilized liquid supported, and membrane
contactors. Table 1 gives a summary of various membrane separation processes. Further
discussion is given in the following sections. Each section includes definition of the following:
phase of feed/permeate, driving force, transport mechanism, composition of permeate/retentate,
membrane type, and engineering considerations.

1.3.1 Reverse Osmosis

The reverse osmosis (RO) process produces fresh water from seawater or brackish water. The
phase of the feed/permeate in this system is liquid/liquid. The feed stream is seawater or
brackish water and the permeate stream is primarily formed of water and small amounts of salt

Membrane Separation Processes 4

and dissolved gases. The retentate, known as the brine stream, is formed of water and salts with
molecular size greater than 0.8-1.5 nm. Permeation through the membrane is driven by a large
pressure gradient that may vary from 1300-7000 kPa. This pressure range depends on the
salinity of the feed water.

RO membranes used for seawater desalination can be designed to remove or reject more than
99% of the dissolved salts. However, RO membranes used for desalination of low salinity
brackish can be designed to remove only 95% of the dissolved salts. Selectivity of the RO
membranes depends on solubility or sorption on the membrane surface. Transport takes place
through the large free volume regions of the membrane as well as capillary flow under a
pressure gradient. RO membranes include polyamide thin film compositie, cellulose acetates
and polysulfone polymers. The membrane configurations include spiral wound elements;
hollow, fine fibers; tubular, and plate and frame.

The RO process requires extensive feed pretreatment to remove particles, colloids, free
chlorine, bacteria, and free oxygen. Failure to provide proper feed pretreatment would result in
rapid membrane fouling and scaling. Both fouling and scaling occurs simultaneously and may
cause reduction in the production rate, decrease in product purity, membrane damage, and the
need to operate at higher pressure difference to overcome the resistance generated by the fouling
layer.

1.3.2 Nanofiltration

The nanofiltration process (NF) removes divalent and large particles from feed water. It is quiet
similar to the RO process since it removes all dissolved matter, except for the monovalent ions,
which include sodium and chloride. The process can be applied to treatment of industrial waste
water for removal of large ionic particles.

The phase of the feed/permeate in this system is liquid/liquid. The feed stream is seawater or
brackish water and the permeate stream is primarily formed of water, monovalent ions, and
dissolved gases. The retentate, known as the brine stream, is formed of water, divalent ions, and
particles with molecular size greater than 1.5-8 nm. Permeation through the membrane is driven
by a moderate pressure gradient that may vary from 500-1400 kPa.

Selectivity of the NF membrane is similar to the RO membranes. It depends on solubility and

sorption on the membrane surface. Transport takes place through the large free volume regions
of the membrane as well as capillary flow under a pressure gradient. RO membranes include
polyamide TFC, cellulose acetates, polyvinyl alcohol, polyacrylonitrile, and polysulfone
polymers. The membrane configurations are similar to the RO process and it include spiral
wound elements; hollow, fine fibers; tubular, and plate and frame.

The NF filtration requires similar feed pretreatment and it includes removal of large/fine
suspended particles, colloids, free chlorine, bacteria, and free oxygen.

1.3.3 Ultrafiltration

Membrane Separation Processes 5

The ultrafiltration process (UF) removes large particles and macromolecules from water, up to
10 nm. The process can be used for recovery of proteins. Also, it can be used for pretreatment
of brackish or seawater feed to the RO process. The phase of the feed/permeate in this system
is liquid/liquid. The feed stream is water containing large molecules and dissolved salts. The
permeate is formed of water, dissolved salts and gases, and fine particles. The retentate contains
polymers, proteins, colloids, and large particles with size ranging from 1 to 100 nm. Permeation
through the membrane is driven by a small pressure gradient that may vary from 200-1400 kPa.

Selectivity of the UF membranes is based on size; therefore, water and dissolved matter passes
through the membrane, while large particles are rejected by the membrane. UF membrane
materials include polysulfone (PS), polyethersulfone (PES), polypropylene (PP), and
polyvinylideneflouride (PVDF). Most of these materials are hydrophobic, which has the
advantage of preventing bacterial growth and facilitates the backwash and cleaning process.
The membrane configurations include hollow fine fibers, spiral wound, tubular, and plate and
frame.

The UF process requires simple pretreatment that include media and cartridge filters.

1.3.4 Microfiltration

The microfiltration process (MF) is similar to the UF process; however, the MF process
removes larger size particles ranging from 0.02-10 m. The feed contains large particles that
include bacterial cells and macromolecules. Permeation through the membrane is driven by a
pressure gradient that may vary from 15-500 kPa.

MF separation is based on hydrodynamic flow water and other solvents and hindered diffusion
of solutes and suspended particles. Selectivity is based on particle size. UF membranes include
inorganics, polyolefins, and fluoropolymers. The membrane configurations include spiral
wound elements; hollow, fine fibers; tubular, and plate and frame. The MF process does not
require any form of feed pretreatment except for coarse screens; however, frequent cleaning of
the membrane surface is necessary to remove buildup of rejected particles.

The RO process requires extensive feed pretreatment to remove particles, colloids, free
chlorine, bacteria, and free oxygen.

1.3.5 Pervaporation

The pervaporation process (PV) is used for fractionation of liquid solutions (azeotropes),
dewatering of solvents, and removal of organics from water (dehydration of ethanol). The phase
of the feed/permeate in this system is liquid/vapor. The feed stream contains a mixture of
volatile and low volatility compounds. The permeate stream is formed of volatile species, which
is more soluble in the membrane. On the other hand, the retentate stream is formed of the lower
volatilities species that have lower solubility in the membrane. Separation is driven by
temperature or partial pressure gradients, which may range from 10-60 K and 5-90 kPa.

Membrane Separation Processes 6

Separation in the PV process is based on differences in solubility and diffusion in the membrane
material. The PV membranes include a wide variety of crosslinked polymer selective to water
and polar organics. Membrane modules include spiral wound, hollow fiber, and plate and frame.

1.3.6 Vapor Permeation

The vapor permeation process is used to remove traces of condensable vapors from permanent
gases, fractionation of vapor mixtures, and removal of VOC’s from air. The phase of the
feed/permeate in this system is vapor/vapor. The feed stream contains a mixture of volatile and
low volatility compounds. The permeate stream is formed of volatile species, which are more
soluble in the membrane. On the other hand, the retentate stream is formed of the lower
volatilities species that have lower solubility in the membrane. Separation is driven by partial
pressure gradients, which may range from 5-200 kPa.

Selectivity of the VP membranes depends on solubility and diffusion through the membrane.
VP membranes include rubbery hydrophilic or hydrophobic polymers. The membrane modules
include spiral wound and hollow fine fibers.

1.3.7 Gas Separation

The gas separation process separates mixtures of gases, which may include air, natural gas, and
hydrogen gas mixtures. The phase of the feed/permeate in this system is gas/gas. Separation is
based on difference in partial pressure gradient that may vary from 50-800 kPa.

Selectivity of gas separation membranes depends on solubility and diffusion through the
membrane. Membrane materials include glassy and rubbery polymers. Configurations include
hollow fine fibers and spiral wound. Feed pretreatment focuses on removal of dirt, oil, mist,
and other fine particles through the use fine cartridge filters.

1.3.8 Dialysis

The dialysis process is primarily used for solute removal from human blood upon kidney
failure. The phase of the feed/permeate in this system is liquid/liquid. The feed stream is the
human blood stream, which contains high concentration of various solutes. The permeate
contains higher concentration of solutes, while the retentate contains the blood stream with low
salt concentration. Removed solutes have a size range of 0.02-0.005 m.

The driving force for separation is based on the concentration difference of the solutes.
Separation is governed by differences in the diffusion rate as a function of the molecular size.
The dialysis membranes include crosslinked polymers and usually configured in a hollow fine
fiber form. Membrane staging might be necessary to achieve the desired degree of purity.

1.3.9 Electrodialysis

Membrane Separation Processes 7

The electrodialysis process (ED) can be used for desalination of seawater or brackish water,
production of hydrogen or chlorine gas. Separation is driven by electrochemical potential,
where positive or negative ions passes through membranes, which have opposite charge.
Electrodiaylsis membranes include crosslinked copolymers of divinybenzene and styrene,
polyetrafluoroethylene and perfluorsulfonly fluoride. The membranes have fixed charges of
quaternary amine, carboxylate, or sulfonate. Common module configuration is the plate and
frame arrangement.

1.3.10 Membrane Distillation

The membrane distillation process is rather novel and it has great potential for desalination,
concentration of aqueous solutions, water purification, and separation of isotopes. The process
utilize hydrophobic membrane and operate at a sufficient temperature and pressure gradients
that drives the water vapor across the membrane pores. The process remains to be found on
research and development stage; actual full scale applications remain to address problems
related to preheaters, condenser, and membrane optimization.

1.3.11 Membrane Catalytic Reactors

Membrane catalytic reactors are used to increase the reaction conversion beyond the
equilibrium conversion. This is made by removing part of the product species through selective
membranes. The membrane catalytic reactors operates at high temperatures. The feed,
permeate, sweep, and product streams are all in the gas phase because of the high temperature
required to achieve the chemical reactions.

Applications of membrane catalytic reactors system include dehydrogenation, oxidation,

decomposition, and reforming. Due to the high temperatures of the catalytic reactions, ceramic,
glass, noble metals, or composite membranes are used to remove primarily hydrogen from the
product mixture. Conversions close to four times higher than the equilibrium conversion are
achieved through proper selection of the membrane material, flow rates, temperature, pressure,
and use of sweep gas on the permeate side.

Regardless of the attractive features of MCR system its use on industrial scale remains limited.
Conventional industrial systems that include use of large catalyst beds, separation, and recycle
of unreacted species remain to dominate the industry.

1.3.12 Membrane Bioreactors

Membrane bioreactors provide the means for in-situ reaction and separation. The membrane
bioreactor system usually operates on aqueous solutions, where bacteria and enzymes are used
to break down organics into valuable products.

Membrane bioreactors applications include production of alcohol fuels, pharmaceuticals, and

other organic materials from inexpensive or abundant substrates. Due to the delicate nature of
the bacterial cells and enzymes, most of the membrane bioreactors operate at room

Membrane Separation Processes 8

temperatures. However, higher temperatures, close to 50 oC, might be desirable to increase the
reaction rates or to enhance growth of certain strains.

Membrane Separation Processes 9

Table 1. Membrane separation processes
Process Function Operating Conditions Membrane
type
Gas Separation Enrichment, separation, or All streams are in the gas Non-porous
recovery of gas components. phase. The feed pressure
Applications include air may vary between 2-10
separation, natural gas bars. Product can be
enrichment, hydrogen either the permeate or
recovery, and air drying. the reject stream.
Dialysis Removal of solutes All streams are in the Porous
liquid phase. The feed
pressure is below 5 bars.
Product is reject stream
and the permeate
contains high solute
concentration..
Microfiltration Removal of suspended solids All streams are in the Porous
of size less than 0.1 m. liquid phase. The feed
pressure is below 5 bars.
Product is permeate
stream and the reject
stream contains higher
concentration of
suspended solids..
Ultrafiltration Removal of suspended solids All streams are in the Porous
of size less than 0.01 m. liquid phase. The feed
pressure is below 5 bar.
The permeate has low
concentration of
suspended solids and the
reject has higher
concentration in
suspended solids.
Membrane Removal of hydrogen gas All streams are in the gas Porous/Non-
Reactors generated in catalytic phase. The feed pressure Porous
reactions. Applications include is below 10 bars. Product
dehydrogenation, oxidation, might be the permeate or
decomposition, and reforming. the reject stream. The
permeate is usually
hydrogen.

Membrane Separation Processes 10

Table 1 (continued). Membrane separation processes
Process Function Operating Conditions Membrane
Type
Nanofiltration Water softening by All streams are in the liquid phase. Nonporous
removal of divalent The feed pressure is below 5 bars.
ions. Product is the permeate stream and
the reject stream contains higher
concentration of multivalent ions.
Pervaporation Concentration of The feed and concentrate are in the Nonporous
aqueous organic liquid phase and the permeate is in
solutions the vapor phase. The feed pressure
is below 5 bars and the permeate is
at vacuum conditions. Product is
the permeate stream and the reject
stream contains dilute aqueous
solution of the initial organic
mixture.
Reverse Water desalination All streams are in the liquid phase. Nonporous
Osmosis by removal of mono The feed pressure is close to 60
and multivalent ions bars. Product is the permeate
stream and the reject stream
contains high concentration of
dissolved salts.
Membrane Water desalination, Feed is liquid. Separation is Porous
Distillation concentration f achieved by pressure/temperature Hydrophobic
aqueous solution, gradient. Water vapor passes
water purification, through the hydrophobic pores of
and separation of the membrane..
isotopes.
Membrane Production of Feed and permeate are aqueous Porous/Non-
Bioreactors Alcohol fuels, waste solution. Bacterial cells and Porous
water treatment, and supported enzymes are placed on
pharmaceuticals. the feed side.

Membrane Separation Processes 11

A number of membrane-based desalination processes are used on industrial scale. As is shown
in Fig. 1, the membrane-based processes include reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration,
and microfiltration. Differences among these processes is shown in Fig. 1, where

 Microfiltration operates on a particle size range of 1.5 m to 0.15 m.

 Ultrafiltration operates on a particle size range of 0.15 m to 5x102 m
 Nanofiltration operates on a particle size range of 5x102 m to 5x103 m
 Reverse osmosis operates on a particle size range of 5x103 m to 104 m.

There is an inherent difference in the separation mechanism in all filtration processes and the
reverse osmosis process. In filtration, separation is made by a sieving mechanism, where the
membrane passes smaller particles and retains larger ones. In osmosis or reverse osmosis
processes the membrane permeates only the solvent and retains the solute. Further distinction
of the four membrane processes is shown in Fig. 1. As is shown, the microfiltration,
ultrafiltration, and nanofiltration processes are used to separate the suspended material. On the
other hand, the reverse osmosis process is used to separate dissolved solids. Nanofiltration is
used for partial softening of brackish water.

Reverse Ultrafiltration Particle Filtration

Separation
Osmosis
Process

Nanofiltration Microfiltration

E-Coat Pigment Whole

Aqueous Milk Proteins
Broth Cells
Salt

Gelatin Red Blood Cells Fat Micelles

Metal Ion

Bacteria
Size Endotoxin Pyrogen
Of Material
Activated
Synthetic Virus Oil Emulsion Carbon
Dyes

Colloidal Blue Cryptosporidium

Lactose
(sugars) Silica Indigo Dye

Human Hair

Microns 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000

Molecular Weight 100 200 1000 20000 100,000 500,000 1 MM 5 MM

Applied Pressure 4000-6000 kPa 2000-600 kPa 150-600 kPa

Fig. 1. Separation process, size of material, and applied pressure.

Membrane Separation Processes 12

1.4 Membranes and Modules

Two basic morphology of hollow fiber membrane are isotropic and anisotropic. In the early
1960s, the anisotropic membranes are developed, which contains a dense/ultrathin skin on a
porous structure. The semipermeability of the porous morphology is based essentially on the
spatial cross-section of the permeating species, i.e., small molecules exhibit a higher
permeability rate through the fiber wall. While the anisotropic morphology of the dense
membrane, which exhibits the dense skin, is obtained through the solution-diffusion
mechanism. The permeation species chemically interacts with the polymer matrix and
selectively dissolves in it, resulting in diffusive mass transport along the chemical potential
gradient, as what demonstrated in the pervaporation process.

1.4.1 Hollow Fine Fiber Modules

Hollow fiber is one of the most popular membranes used in industries. The hollow fiber
configuration provides the largest specific membrane area per unit volume. The hollow fiber
membrane can be operated in two modes, where the feed is introduced on the fiber side or the
shell side. Figure 4 shows the two operating modes of the hollow fiber membrane. In Reverse
Osmosis, the feed is routed on the shell side and the permeate is collected on the fiber side.

(a)

Feed Concentrate

Permeate

(b) Feed

Permeate

Concentrate

Fig. 4. Operating modes of hollow fine fiber. (a) Membrane side feed. (b) Shell side feed.

Membranes and Modules 13

Figure 5 shows a schematic of the hollow fiber membrane and a cross section of the fibers.
Figure 5a shows the overall configuration, where the feed is introduced on the shell side and
the retentate is collected at the other end of the shell side. The fibers are held together with an
elastomeric material. One end of the fibers are blocked and the other end is opened to the
permeate compartment. The pressurized feed water enters the permeator feed end through the
center distributor tube, passes through the tube wall, and flows radially around the fiber bundle
toward the outer permeator pressure shell. Water permeates through the outside wall of the
fibers into the hollow core or fiber bore, through the bore to the tube sheet or product end of
the fiber bundle, and exits through the product connection on the feed end of the permeator.

The hollow fibers have very small diameter, which is less than 1 mm. The specific surface area,
defined as the total area per unit volume, varies from 600-3000 m2/m3. This is subject to the
fiber diameter. The diameter of the whole module may vary from 5-20 cm and its length varies
between 50-200 cm. The hollow fiber module resembles a shell and tube heat exchanger, where
the feed stream can be routed on the shell or tube side. This configuration uses membrane in
the form of hollow fibers, which have been extruded from cellulosic or non-cellulosic material.
The fiber is asymmetric in structure and is as fine as a human hair, about 42 m ID and 85 m
OD, Fig. 5b. Millions of these fibers are formed into a bundle and folded in half to a length of
approximately 120 cm. A perforated plastic tube, serving as a feed water distributor is inserted
in the center and extends the full length of the bundle. The bundle is wrapped and both ends are
epoxy sealed to form a sheet-like permeate tube end and a terminal end which prevents the feed
stream from bypassing to the brine outlet.

In a hollow fiber module, the permeate water flow per unit area of membrane is low, and
therefore, the concentration polarization is not high at the membrane surface. The net result is
that hollow fiber units operate in a non-turbulent or laminar flow regime. The hollow fine fiber
membrane must operate above a minimum reject flow to minimize concentration polarization
and maintain even flow distribution through the fiber bundle. Typically, a single hollow fiber
permeator can be operated at up to 50-percent recovery and meet the minimum reject flow
required. The hollow fiber unit allows a large membrane area per unit volume of permeator that
result in compact systems.

Membrane materials are cellulose acetate blends and polyamide type material. Because of very
close packed fibers and tortuous feed flow inside the module, hollow fiber modules require feed
water of better quality (lower concentration of suspended solids) than the spiral wound module
configuration.

Membranes and Modules 14

 Feed (a)

Hollow Fine
Fibers

Pressure
Vessel

Permeate

Concentrate

(b)
Effective
Membrane Layer
0.08 m

Porous
Support
0.15 mm 0.08 mm

Permeate
Channel

Fig. 5. Hollow fiber membrane modules. (a) Assembly. (b) Fiber dimensions

Membranes and Modules 15

1.4.2 Plate and Frame Modules

The plate and frame modules have simple structure and it contains flat sheet membranes.
However, it provides the lowest specific membrane area, which may vary over a range of 100-
400 m2/m3. The membranes are arranged to form feed and permeate compartments. Spacers
and supports are placed by membrane sets to prevent membrane collapse under pressure or
vacuum conditions.

Figure 6 shows schematics of the plate and frame modules. As is shown, the flow of the feed
moves from top to bottom. The permeate and concentrate streams are collected in separate
channels at the lower end of the membrane. This assembly requires use of gaskets to prevent
leakage from the feed and permeate compartments to the surroundings. Assembly of the plate
and frame membrane modules requires careful fitting of various parts to maintain proper sealing
of the plates and frames. This might be rather difficult for the case of seawater reverse osmosis,
where the feed pressure is close to 60 bars.

Feed
Membrane
Feed
Compartment Permeate
Compartment

Permeate

Concentrate

Fig. 6. Plate and frame membrane modules

1.4.3 Tubular Membrane Modules

Tubular membranes are used for microfiltration and ultrafiltration process. The membranes are
made of polyvinylidene fluoride or polyether sulfone. This material is hydrophobic which
prevents bacterial buildup, facilitates backwashing procedure and high chlorine resistance.
Because the location of tubular membranes is inside a tube, the flow in a tubular membrane is
usually inside out. The main cause for this is that the attachment of the membrane to the
supporting layer is very weak.

Tubular membranes have a diameter of about 5 to 15 mm. Because of the size of the membrane
surface, plugging of tubular membranes is not likely to occur. A drawback of tubular
membranes is that the packing density is low, which results in high module price. Figure 7
shows a schematic of tubular membrane

Membranes and Modules 16

Fig. 7. Tubular membrane assembly

1.4.4 Spiral Wound Modules

The spiral wound configuration is formed of feed and permeate compartments. Flat sheet
membranes are wrapped around a central collection tube. The specific membrane area varies
over a range of 300-1000 m2/m3. Figure 8 shows schematic of the spiral wound configuration,
which includes membrane sheets, spacers, packing material, feed, concentrate, and permeate.
As is shown, two flat sheets of membrane are separated with a permeate collector channel
material to form a leaf. This assembly is sealed on three sides with the fourth side left open for
permeate to exit. A feed/brine spacer material sheet is added to the leaf assembly. A number of
these assemblies or leaves are wound around a central plastic permeate tube. This tube is
perforated to collect the permeate from the multiple leaf assemblies. The typical industrial spiral
wound membrane element is approximately 100 or 150 cm long and 10 or 20 cm in diameter.

The feed/brine flow through the element is a straight axial path from the feed end to the opposite
brine end, running parallel to the membrane surface. The feed channel spacer induces
turbulence and reduces concentration polarization. Manufacturers specify brine flow
requirements to control concentration polarization by limiting recovery (or conversion) per
element to 10 – 20%. Therefore, recovery (or conversion) is a function of the feed-brine path
length. In order to operate at acceptable recoveries, spiral systems are usually staged with three
to six membrane elements connected in series in a pressure tube. The brine stream from the first
element becomes the feed to the following element, and so on for each element within the
pressure tube.

The brine stream from the last element exits the pressure tube to waste. The permeate from each
element enters the permeate collector tube and exits the vessel as a common permeate stream.
A single pressure vessel with four to six membrane elements connected in series can be operated

Membranes and Modules 17

at up to 50-percent recovery under normal design conditions. The brine seal on the element feed
end seal carrier prevents the feed/brine stream from bypassing the following element.

Spiral wound elements are most commonly manufactured with flat sheet membrane of either a
cellulose diacetate and triacetate (CA) blend or a thin film composite. A thin film composite
membrane consists of a thin active layer of one polymer cast on a thicker supporting layer of a
different polymer. The composite membranes usually exhibit higher rejection at lower
operating pressures than the cellulose acetate blends. The composite membrane materials may
be polyamide, polysulfone, polyurea, or other polymers.

Product
Tube

Permeate
Spacers
Feed Water

Product
water flow

Permeate side Membranes

Feed Water
Fig. 8. Spiral wound membrane modules

Membranes and Modules 18

 References
1. Reid, C.E., and Breton, E.J., Water and ion flow across cellulosic membranes, J. Appl.
Polymer Sci., 1(1959)133-143.

2. Loeb, G.S., and Sourirajan, S., Sea water demineralization by means of an osmotic
membrane, Adv. Chem. Ser., 38(1963)117-132

Membranes and Modules 19