CHAPTER ONE

BASIC CONCEPTS OF CARGO WORK

Bale Capacity : It is the cubic capacity of a space when the breadth

is taken from the inside of the cargo battens, the depth from the top of the
wood sheathing on the tank top to the underside of the deck beams and
the length from the inside of the bulkhead stiffeners or spar ceiling where
fitted.

Grain Capacity: lt•is the cubic capacity of a space when the length,
breadth and depth are taken right to the plating. Allowance is made for
the volume occupied by the frames. beams and stiffeners.

~~le Capacity Cr-a,n Capo.c'ity

St:1+fe.ne<.s Beams

D. B T1nk

103 o'('
Spo.v" Ce.\ Woo e.n .She.at.h·,119
Ccir-3o E>ac.-u.n ~ or "fank.-l:op Ci,I ir19

Fig. 1.1 : Bale and Grain Capacity

Obviously the bale capacity will be less than the grain capacity in
most cases but they can sometimes be the same in certai:i bulk carriers.
 ro-ro. ships, etc . .
where the hold sides
are . smooth with
strength members
being carried inside
double bottom and
wing tanks. Howeve_r
the bale capacity can
never be more than
the grain capacity.

When loading grain

type cargoes which
can flow into all cor-
ners of the hold and
in between frames
and spar ceiling, the
Fig. 1.2 : Frames and Spar Ceiling grain capacity of the
hold must be used.
When bales, bags, crates, cases, drums, etc. are being loaded, the bale
capacity must be used.

Stowage Factor: It is the volume occupied by a unit weight of cargo

usually expressed in cubic metres/tonne (metric) or cubic feeUlong ton.

e.g. Stowage factor of cork = 6.12 m3/t

Stowage factor of cop-per ingots = 0.32 m3/t

It will be noticed that stowage factor is the reciprocal of density. ..

Cargoes with a high density have a low stowage factor and vice versa. To
find out how many tonnes of cargo can fit in a particular hold, the volume
of the hold must be divided by the stowage factor of the cargo.

Worked example : How many tonnes-of bicycles (SF 3.10), beer cases
(SF 1.95) and granite stabs (SF 0.48) will fit in a hold of length 12.Sm,
breadth 9m and depth 6.3m ?

2
 ~ Volume of the hold= 12.5 x 9 x 6.3 = 708.75 m3 •

Weight of bicycles that can fit in= 708,75 = 228.~_3 t.

3.10

" beer cases " " " " = 708.75 = 363.46 t.

1.95

11
"granite slabs" " " = 708.75 = 1476.56 t.
0.48

Broken Stowage: It is the space between packages which remains

unfilled. This factor varies with the type of cargo and the shape of the hold.
a
It is greatest when the packages are of large size and irregular shape.
It is expressed as a percentage of the volume of the cargo and not of the
space stored in. Broken stowage must always be added to the stowage
factor to get the realistic space that the cargo will occupy.

Worked example : ,.If in the above example, the broken stowage of

bicycles, beer cases. and granite slabs was 14.5%, 7% and 11.2%
respectively how many tonnes of each would you be able to load in the
given hold ? ·
~ Space occupied by bicycles = 3.1 o + 14.5% = 3.5495m3/t
"beer cases = 1.95 + 7% = 2.0865m3/t
"granite slabs= 0.48 + 11.2% = 0.5338m3/t

Weight of bicycles that can fit in = 708.75 = 199.68 t.

3.5495
11
" beer cases " " " " = 708.75 = 339.68 t.
2.0865
11 11
" "granite slabs" " = 708.75 = 1327.74 t.
0.5338

Load Density : It is the maximum weight that can be safely loaded

on a unit area. It is expressed in tonnes/m 2 • The height to which cargo
can be stowed on a deck will depend on the load density of that deck and
the stowage factor of the cargo.

Worked example : If the load density of the above hold was 8.5Vm2 , to
what height could you load the above cargoes, taking into account the
broken stow age ?

'
Ans.. To find the weight loaded per m2 in the hold, we divide the total weight
loaded by the total area of the hold.
For bicycles, welght I m 2 = 199.68 = 1.775
12.5 X 9

For beer cases, weight/ m2 = 339,68 = 3.019

12.5 X 9

For granite slabs, weight/ m 2 = 1327.74 = 11.802

12.5 X 9

We can see that for bicycles and beer cases, the permissible load
density of the deck i.e. 8.5Vm2 is not exceeded. So we can load these
cargoes fully to the maximum height of1he hold. However in the case of
granite slabs the load density of the deck is exceeded if the hold is loaded
fully. So the height of the cargo must be reduced so as to be within the
permissible load density. This height can be found out in two ways :

i. Since a load density of 11.802Um2 is obtained when cargo is loaded

to the maximum height of 6.3m, a load density of 8.5Um2 is proportionately
obtained when cargo is loaded to a height of 8,5 x 6 3 = 4.537m.
11 .802

ii. If 8.5 tonnes can be loaded on an area of· 1m2 , the total weight that
can be loaded over the entire area of the hold

= Load Density x Area = 8.5 x (12.5 x 9) = 956.25 tonnes.

The volume that this weight will occupy =

actor = 956.25 x 0.5338 = 510.446m3 •
Weight x Stowage F_

The height of this cargo will be= Volume = 510.446 = 4.537m.

LxB 12.5x9

Deadweight Cargo : It is cargo on which freight is charged on its

weight.

Measurement Cargo : It is cargo in which freight is charged on the

volume occupied by the cargo.

Q. How will a shipowner know when to charge freight on weight and·

when to charge on volume?

4
A. A ship is utilized most effectively when her holds are full as well as
she is loaded down to her maximum draft. This means t hat she cannot
load any more weight nor is Jhere any space available to load cargo. If
she loads more of a light cargo, the holds will be full before she gets down
to her maximum draft, whereas a heavy cargo would bring her to her
loaded draft before the holds are full. A stowage factor of around 1.2 m3/
t is used as the basis for charging freight. Cargoes with a SF above 1.2
m3/t are charged on their volume while those having a SF less than 1.2
m3/t are charged on their weight. Whether a ship should load deadweight
or measurement cargo at any particular time can be found out by dividing
the total available space on the ship by the available deadweight.. This
will give the ideal SF for maximum capacity utilisation. The available
deadweight is the difference between the load and light displacements
making allowances for the weight of ballast, fresh water, fuel and diesel
oil. stores.constant etc.

Option al cargo : It is cargo which is to be discharged at one port

or another as decided by the shipper before the ship reaches the
discharge ports. Such cargo must be stowed so as to be available at either
of the optional ports.

CARGO DOCUME NT S

The Mat e's Receipt : This is a receipt signed by the mate of a ship
for cargo that is loaded on board. It contains details of goods to be shipped
and should be available to the mate before loading starts. He can then use
them -
1. As a pre-advice of what to expect
2. To plan the stowage of the cargo
3. To note on them any defects in the condition of the cargo, shortages
or other pertinent comments regarding quantities, marks and description
of the goods.

It is necessary that the mate's receipt reflects the condition of the

cargo accurately, to prevent claims against the ship arising at the dis-
charge port as comments on the mate's receipt appear on the relevant Bill
of Lading. The mate signs each receipt when the cargo covered by it is
loaded. It is given to the shipper as a receipt who then tenders•them to
the agent or shipowner in exchange for the bill of lading.

5
 BILL· OF LADING
~looe,
TO IIE USED WTTM ~ A A T l t s

c..,,.,,;nu IA.No. 11. .- - . N o,

ttollry aoor.u
..,

l'I••··· i>on 01 1oaa,no

' " ' " of c,ac11&r;•

~:per• c•cnpn0tt cf gooc.1 a,01:.1 ••••I\'

(Of wlllel'I OIi deck II SMppff'1 r11k: th 1 Came, no1

bentQ ..._ibte tor ION Of' d.am1oe howwoe,,., at11lno1
FrelQM payable u ~
CHA!ffVl~AA'TY CIII..,
- ·--··
FP!;!GlfT AOVANCL
Aecei¥9CI on ■ccoum of l'relOllt:

.......... ·····••·•............ ....... ......

T1me Uled tor loadlnQ
.
......... ·•t•-···........... ........... ,._ _...._ ,, ••.

cs..,.
-.,HIPPED ., I"• Pan of •LOAdl"c, '" •oc,•r•"1 qoed o~., ■ l"ICI
·"°""·
co"ttlUon on bo111ru
'"· v • .,,.., ft"r c■"''"C" to
Port of Ol1ct11ro• or to n•ar 1httf'•lo •• •"'• may .,., __ .,. g e t :n• 00001
l"•
1oeclllec1-.
W-4Qllt. ffi. . .u-., QU■ llty, qualltlly, condlllOfl,
~nown.
cont - and nlu• ....
IN Wl'TlfE$S - - 11,. ~1UIH or ,lqont ol ''"' '"'d v..., •• h,.,
th• nurn.,._, ot Dutt ot l.Jlolno Jndlc•t..d b• low • II of ,.,., .. tenor end e , , •.
,,o,,..,
l "Y one ot -hie" b•lno &CCOtftl)li1n.c, lt'Ut ("~.-.,.. shnll bft vt"ICS.

FOA CONDlnON!I OF CAnntAOI: !.I:!: OVl:RLU.F

Fre ,ont pay ■0 1• at Pla c e a no 0.:11• c1 1:. , 1:•

1'tumoer ot or101naJ e11L · S19n..s1ur•

Fig . 1.3 Bill of Lading

6
 The Bill of Lading : The bill of lading performs three main functions;
1. It is a receipt for the cargo signed·by the master or agent on behalf
of the shipowner.
2. It is a document of title to the cargo. The holder of the bill of lading
is the owner of the cargo and it is a negotiable document, which means
that the cargo can be sold just by signing and transferring the bill of lading
in the name of the new buyer.
3. It is evidence of a contract between the shipowner and shipper,
governing the terms and conditions of carriage.

The information in a bill of lading includes name and address of the

shipper and consignee, ports of loading and destination, marks, descrip-
tion and weight or volume of the cargo, number of originals and copies,
freight paid or payable, date of loading and name of the ship. The reverse
side of the bill of lading contains the terms and conditions of carriage. (see
Fig. 1°.3)

The bill of lading must contain an accurate description of the

condition of cargo and its weight and quantity. Where it is not possible to
determine the exact weight, quantity or quality of cargo (e.g. in bulk cargo
or if the cargo is in cases, cartons, crates or containers), the bill of lading
should contain terms like "said to weigh", "said to contain", "shipper's
weight", "in apparent good order-and condition" and so on. Very often
shippers insist on a "clean" bill of lading i.e. one without any clauses as
to condition of cargo, even offering to indemnify the shipowner against any
cargo claims. However this is a fraodulent practice as the shipper's
indemnity letter has no legal standing and the shipowner will not be able
to escape his liability for· cargo claims.

A bill of lading is a negotiable document and transfer of ownership

and the buying and selling of bills of lading is common practice in
international trade. A bill of lading may change several hands before it
reaches the party who will eventually claim and take delivery of the cargo
at the discharge port. The buyer expects cargo to be as described in the
bill of lading ; hence if any deficiencies are not mentioned therein, they will
be ascribed to the shipowner's neglect in the care and carriage of cargo.

The Cargo Manifest: The cargo manifest is a list of all cargo on the
ship at any time. It is prepared for customs purposes primarily but comes
in useful for several other purposes such as tallying of cargo, checking
against overcarriage and for ticking off the cargoes whose bills of lading
have been sighted.

7
 Besides the names of items of cargo, it contains the weight, quantity
or number of packages and the compartment loaded in. When·dangerous
cargo is loaded a separate manifest for the same has to oe prepared.
Proper shipping names must be·used for dangerous cargo: trade names
are not permitted. in addition the commodity must be identified by its
U.N.No.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

1. How many tonnes of the following cargoes would fit in a hold 12m
x 9m x 3.5m,
Without any broken stowage?
ii With the broken stowage as mentioned?.

Stowage factor(m3fil Broken Stowage

a. Copper Ingots 0.31 8%
b. Machinery Cases 1.03 13%
c. Rubber Bales 1.61 6%
d. Jute bales 1.94 6.5%
e. Chemical drums 1.64 11.2%
f. Cinnamon 2.86 NIL
g. Steel billets 0.34 7.5%
h. Wire coils 0.76 13".5%
i. Tyres 4.12 15%
j. Logs 2.38 11.3%

2. How many tonnes of the following commodities will fit in a hold of

dimensions 13 x 10 x 8.5 and bale capacity 1015m3 ?

Stowage factor/m~fil Broken Stowage

a. Wheat 1.32 Nil
b. Fruit cases 1.98 4.5%
c. Bones in bulk 2.23 0.8%
d. Bagged Rice 1.63 6.0%
e. Scrap metal 0.67 1.2%

3. A ship's hold has a bale capacity of 580m3 and a grain capacity of

635m3 and is filled with maize stowing at 1 .37m3/t. It is now intended to
discharge 125 t of maize and load bagged maize in the same hold. The
bags are 0.5m x 0.4m x 0.3m and weigh 50 kgs. The space lost between
the bags is 11%. How many tonnes of bagged maize can be loaded?
8
 (Assume that the ratio of bale capacity to grain capacity is same through-
out the depth of the hold.)

4. The dimensions of a t'ween deck which gave a bale capacity of

780m3 are 13m x 1Om x Gm. This space is to be filled with 220 t of cotton
bales (S.F. 2.34m3/t and B.S. 7.5%) and carpet rolls (4m in length and
0.85m in diameter). What is the maximum number of carpet rolls you can
carry and show how you will fit them in with a plan view of the t'ween deck.

5. A hold Sm x Gm x 4m is to be filled with steel pipes (S.F. 1.0Gm3/t)

and paint drums (S.F. 1 .85m3/t). If the load density of the tank top is 3.20U
m2 , upto what height should the steel be loaded so that the hold is filled
without exceeding the load density? How many tonnes of steel pipes and
paint drums can be loaded?
oR..
6. A hold 14m x 1Om x 3m is to be filled with jute and cotton bales. The
jute bales measure 1 m x 0.5m x O.Gm and weigh 180 kgs. and the cotton
bales measure 1m x 0.5m x 0.8m. and weigh 250 kgs. How many bales
of jute and cotton would you load if
i. the shipowner was paid by the tonne?
ii. the load density of the deck was 1.8Gt/m2 ?
iii. the freight for jute was $5.50 per tonne and the freight for cotton was
$5.20 per tonne?
iv. If the SWL of the slings used for loading was 1.5 t, how many slings
would you require in the above three cases?

..
II
 CHAPTER TWO

CARE OF CARGOES

PRECAUTIONS BEFORE LOADING

HOLD PREPARATION :.

1. Holds should be thoroughly swept and washed depending on the

cargo to be loaded. A final rinse with fresh water reta.rds corrosion and
accelerates drying. Special attention to be paid to inaccessible places e.g.
behind frames, top of beams, underside of hatch covers etc.
2. Bilges to be thoroughly cleaned and washed. Bilge suctions to be
tried out satisfacterily. It is important that this be done prior to every
loading, as should water enter the hold through any means and the bilges
cannot be pumped out, there is every danger of the ship sinking.
3. Rose boxes (strum boxes) to be cleaned and placed securely in
position.
4. Bilges may be lime or cement washed or coated with bitumastic
paint.
5. Bilges should be free from any traces of previous cargo and contain
no water or foul odours. Tween deck scuppers should be clear.
6. Dunnage should be laid as appropriate for the particutar cargo.
Dunnage to be clean and undamaged. Extra dunnage to be neatly
stacked and ready for lifting on deck. Damaged dunnage and sweepings
to be lifted out from the hold and disposed off properly.
7. Ventilation system to be tried out for proper and efficient functioning.
Flaps to rotate freely. Ventilation system may be used to dry the hold after
washing.
8. · CO2 system and smoke detecting system of the hold to be checked.
The CO2 system is to be blown through with compressed air at regular
intervals and checked that all nozzles are clear.
9. Spar ceiling to be examined and repaired if required. Limber boards
to be checked and if necessary caulked with oakum and tar or patented
fillers.
10. Hatch boards and tarpaulins to be checked to be in good condition.
If mechanical hatches are fitted check that they are weathertight, the track
ways are clear and the underside of the pontoons are free from any
residues of the previous cargo.

10
 11. Guarq rails, chains and staunchions are to be placed around open
t'ween decks as per dock regulations.
12. Bilges to be covered with burlap and sealed with cement.
13. Lighting in the hold to be properly functioning.
14. Means of access to be clear and safe from any hazards.
15. Cargo gear to be thoroughly checked to be in good condition and is
to be rigged ready for loading. Winches to be tested and confirmed
working.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN CARRYING CARGO

FIRE:
A thorough knowledge of the fire fighting system, fixed and portable
on the ship is required of the duty officer keeping a cargo watch. When
loading any cargo. the ways and means of fighting a fire, should it occur
and the location of equipment necessary for fire fighting should be known.
Some cargoes are liable to heat up spontaneously and catch fire. The fire
hazards of such cargoes and others must be known to the ship's officers.
Appropriate precautions must be taken to prevent a fire which will include;
1. No smoking signs put up and strictly enforced.
2. No naked lights permitted on deck or in the holds.
3. Fire hoses to be rigged, fire main charged and other fire fighting
apparatus kept in a constant state of readiness.
4. Spark arresters to be fit1ed over the funnel, galley exhausts and hold
ventilators.
5. No hot work, chipping or painting to be in progress on deck to avoid
.. creating sources of ignition .
6. Flashlights, walkie-talkies etc. to be intrinsically safe.
7. No oily waste, wood, rope, gunny, etc. to be left in holds or on deck
where it can catch fire by spontaneous heating or otherwise.
.. 8. Fire patrol and gangway watches to be maintained.

SWEAT AND VENTILATION :

Humidity is the amount of water vapour contained in a parcel of air.

Relative Humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour

contained in a parcel of air to the amount of water vapour that will saturate
it at the same temperature. ·

Dew point is the temperature at which a parcel of air if cooled,

becomes sciturated and water vapour begins to condense out.
11
 Sweat is formed when the water vapour in the air condenses out into
water droplets when cooled below its dew point. Sweat may be formed
in two ways and is known as ship's sweat and cargo sweat.

Ship's sweat is formed when a ship goes from a warm place to colder
places. The air in the cargo hold is warm but the air surrounding the ship
is cold. This cold air cools the ship's structure and the warm air inside the
hold which is in contact with the ship's sides and deck gets cooled below
its dew point. This causes it to give out water vapour which condenses
_in form of water droplets on the ship's side and deck. This ship's sweat
may run down or drip onto the cargo.

Cargo sweat mostly occurs when ventilation is carried out while

going from a cold to a warm place. The cargo is cold and the incoming
air is warm, which when coming into contact with the cargo is cooled below
its dew point and water droplets condense on the cargo. In such cases
ventilation should be restricted until more favourable conditions are
obtained. Indiscriminate ventilation often does more harm than no
ventilation whatsoever.
To prevent the formation of sweat, a careful watch should ·be kept on
the wet and dry bulb temperature of the air. If it is found that the dew point
of the outside air is less than .
the temperature of the air inside the hold, then only should ventilation be
carried out. The aim Qf ventilation should be to ;eplace the air in the hold
with colder, drier air which has a lower dew point ~nd so prevent the
formation of sweat as far as possible.

Note : Ideally the dew point of the outside air should be less than the~
QQi.n1 of the air inside the hold when ventilation is carried out. But since
it is not practicable to whirl a psychrometer or lower a hygrometer inside
the hold we use the temperature of the hold air instead of the dew point
to obtain a fairly good idea whether ventilation should be carried out or not.

Worked example : State if ventilation is to be carried out in the following

cases:

Outside Temp. °C Hold Temp. oC

Dry Wet Dry
1. 32 28 24
.2. 27.5 26 26
3. 24 22 21

12
 ~ From the dew point tables find out the dew point temperature.
1. The dew point of the outside air (26.8°C} is greater than the
temperature of the air inside the hold so ventilation is not to be carried out.
2. Yes, ventilation can be carried out as the dew point of the outside
air (25.5°C) is less than the holct air temperature.
3. The dew point temperature of the outside air (21 .1 °C} is almost same
as the hold air temperature and ventilation may be carried out if necessary
for the cargo or for entry into the hold.

Ventilation can be carried out in two ways - through and surface.

In through ventilation air is passed over the entire area of the hold
right down to the bottom. This is done by trimming the leeward ventilator
into the wind and the windward ventilator away from the wind. The
direction used here is the apparent wind direction. The greatest air flow
rates are achieved with through ventilation.

Surface ventilation is carried out with the windward ventilator turned into
the wind and the leeward turned away from the wind. This is necessary
for certain cargoes where only the surface of the cargo is to be ventilated
e.g. Coal.

1 Ir/ R_ 0 Ll & 1-1 5UKFAl[

wi ncl

t t
t ~\ --'7
_J
~ ~

~ ~ ➔

J \ \ _J
UrR.Cro
f- ~ ~

i ~ -? i
Fig. 2.1 : Through and. Surface Ventilation
13
..
 Ventilation can ideally be achieved if mechanical fans are fitted and
there exists a system whereby the air in the hold can be dried and
recirculated. It will not then be necessary to depend on the weather and
dewpoint of air.

DUNNAGE :

The damage caused by sweat may be minimized by adequate use .

of dunnage to line the boundaries of the compartment. The permanent
dunnage on the ship's sides is known as spar ceiling or cargo battens. It
consists of timber 150 mm X 50 mm fitted over the side frames, horizon-
tally into cleats on the frames. These cargo battens are spaced approxi-
mately 230 mm apart. They may also be fitted vertically. Spar ceiling may
also be fitted on the fore and aft bulkheads of the hold. The tank top should
be covered with a double layer of dunnage consisting of wooden beams
50 mm X 50 mm or broader, spaced approximately 1 m apart. The bottom
layer is laid athwart ship to ensure free drainage to the bilges. The upper
layer consists of planks 25 mm X 150 mm laid fore and aft about 20 to
30 cm apart. In some ships a permanent wooden sheathing about 70 mm
thick is laid on the tank top in the square of the hatch closely fitted
together. This is to protect the tanks top and does not replace the
dunnage just mentioned.

A similar arrangement of dunnage to be laid in t'ween decks especially

at the ship side as water tends to accumulate there. Second hand timber
may be used for dunnage. But care should be taken to e nsure that it is
free of stains, nails, large splinters etc. New timber should be free of
strong smells or resin coatings.

SEPARATION :

Separation is to prevent different cargoes or different parcels of the

same cargo from inadvertently getting mixed. The method of separation
depends on the type of cargo being carried e.g. bagged cargo is separated
by cloth or netting. steel billets, pipes, logs or packaged timber can be
separated by chalk marks or water paints. Plastic or polythene sheets are
increasingly being made use of nowadays." When cargo is packed in
containers the need for separation is reduced.

Proper separation can substantially reduce overcarried cargo which

can cause a great deal of unnecessary expense and inconvenience. The
system of checking the discharged cargo with the manifest as well as the
physical inspection of the cargo hold should be carried out.

14
PILFERING:

The ship is responsible for the safe carriage of cargo_. If valuable

cargo has to be loaded great care should be taken to prevent pilfering.
The following precautions may be followed :

1. Valuable cargoes should be stored in lockers which can be locked

or it should be overstowed with other suitable cargo.

2. Preferably work only by day. If night work is unavoidable, good

lighting in all corners of the hold to be provided.

3. Watchmen to be put on duty. If shore watchmen are used, ship's

officer must check on them frequently.

4. Ventilators and other means of access should be covered.

5. Hold accesses to be locked after cargo work and other means of

entry like portable ladders to be removed.

CONTAMINATION:

Certain cargoes that can taint easily e.g. tea, coffee, tobacco, flour,
meat, etc., should be kept well away from strong smells. If a pungent
cargo e.g. cloves, cinnamon, turmeric etc. is carried previously, the
odours may still persist in the hold and deodorising may be necessary.
Particular attention must be paid to the bilges. Special precautions must
be taken to separate cargoes likely to mix. e.g. grain and seeds. Dirty
cargoes e.g. paints, oil, animal products, coal, etc., should not be carried
in the same compartment as clean targoes e.g. textiles, foodstuffs etc.
Liquids in drums or barrels should not be stowed over other cargoes.
Some cargoes have an inherent vice. e.g. perishable goods.

HANDLING, CHAFING, CRUSHING :

Cargo must be prevented from damage due to careless winch work

which results in crushing against the shipside; railings, hatch coamings
etc., dragging of cargo by winch to and from the wings, improper use of
hooks, crowbars, slings, dropping of packages from a height, improper
slinging and other ways. Paper rolls and baled goods are susceptible to
chafing especially when the vessel is working in a seaway. This can result
in spontaneous combustion. To prevent this, goods must be stowed on

15
flat and firm platforms, secured carefully and broken stowage filled in with
dunnage. Crushing may result from inadequacy of packing or by overstowing
with heavy goods. Tea chests, rubber cases, cartons of footwear, etc., are
frequently damaged this way.

LASHING :

All cargoes should be stowed and secured in such a way that the ship
and persons on board are not put at risk.

The safe stowage and securing of cargoes depends on proper

planning, supervision and execution.

Personnel executing tasks of cargo stowage and securing should be

properly qualified and experienced.

Personnel planning and Sl!pervising the stowage and securing of

cargo should have a sound practical knowledge of the application and
contents of the "Cargo Securing Manual", if provided. If not, then refer-
ence should be made to the "Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage
and Securing,"

In all cases, improper stowage and securing of cargo will be potentially

hazardous to the securing of other cargoes and to the ship itself.

Decisions taken for measures of stowage and securing cargo should

be based on the most severe weather conditions which may be expected
by experience for the intended voyage. '

Ship-handling de.cisions taken by the master, especially in bad

weather conditions, should . take into account the type and stowage
position of the cargo and the securing arrangements.

No Cargo Operation can be safe if the safety of

dockworkers and crew is not ensured. For Regulations
pertaining to the safety of dockworkers, please look up
the Dock Labour Regulations explained in Chapter 12.

16
 CARGO-RELATED DUTIES

BALLASTING OR DEBALLASTING : · ·.

This should be carried out according to the mate's instructions.

When ballasting tanks, DB tanks must not be·pressed up.as should there
be a leak in the tanktop, cargo would be damaged. Ballast and liquid cargo
operations must be carried out in close liaison and co-operation with the
engine-room staff. Soundings and flow rates must be monitored continu-
ously. When loading, discharging, ballasting or deballasting at a high rate,
ensure that moorings are taut, ship is alongside the jetty and gangway is ·
clear of obstructions.

LOG BOOK ENTRIES :

During cargo work appropriate entries must be made in the Mate's

log book to prevent cargo claims bein'g made later. Entries should include:

1. Inspection of the cargo hold by Surveyor prior to loading.

2. Opening and closing of the hatches.

3. Time of arrival and departure of the stevedore labour on the ship and
the number of gangs.

4. Time of commencement and ceasing of cargo work.

5. Any interruptions or stoppages during cargo work and their reason.

e.g. machinery break down, strikes, inclement weather, shortage of
cargo , etc.

6. The hatch numbers being worked.

7. The morning and evening drafts.

At sea, entries should be made of the weather and sea conditions,

especially if adverse. Times when ventilation is carried out, the wet and
dry bulb temperatures when doing this and inspection and tightening of
cargo lashings.are also to be entered.

17
DAMAGE

An alert watch must be kept for damage to the cargo or to the ship.
Damaged cargo is to be rejected or the number, marks and description
must be noted, A damage report must be prepared for damage to the ship
describing hatch number, location, nature of damage, and reasons for
damage and the signature of the cargo foreman obtained as soon as the
damage occurs.

STABILtTY

During the loading of cargo, due regard must be had for the vessel's
stability. The cargo should· be so distributed that there is a reasonable
metacentric height (GM) on completion of loading. A high GM makes a
ship stiff, resulting i·n violent movements in rough weather causing cargo
to strain the lashings and shift especially on deck. A low GM may become
negative making the ship unstable, if D.B.Tanks are consumed, free
surfaces are created or weight accumulates on deck by snow falling, ice
accretion, shipping of seas, shifting of weights, etc.

Excessive trim and list to be avoided.

Load density of the deck and tanktop must be kept in mind especially
when loading high density cargoes.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

State if ventilation is to be carried out in the following cases:

Outside Temp. 0
c Hold Temp. °C

Dry Wet Dry

1. 15 12 14
2. 19.5 17 14
3. 14 10.5 14

18
 CHAPTER THREE

LIFTING GEAR

A lifting gear is made up of several components. e.g. a derrick

consists of the derrick boom, blocks, shackles, wires, etc.

Each component of a lifting gear can bear only a certain load safely
without danger of it breaking. If the load is increased progressively, a
stage will be reached when the component will not be able to bear the load
and will give way and break.

Safe Working Load is the stress that a component of a lifting

apparatus can safely bear in normal use.

Breaking Stress or Breaking Strength is the stress at which a

component will fracture.

Factor of Safety is a factor used to divide the Breaking Stress to

obtain the Safe Working Load.

Whenever any equipment such as ropes, wires, blocks, shackles,

etc. are received on the ship, they should be accompanied by a test
certificate. The test certificate will include:
i) Size or dimensions of the component
ii) The breaking strength
iii) The safe working load
iv) Name of the testing authority
v) Name of the certifying authority

In the factory, every one in a batch (foI blocks, shackles, etc.} or the
last two metres in a coil (for ropes and wires) are tested to destruction.
The breaking stress so obtained is divided by the appropriate factor of
safety for that component (as recommended in the chain register}, to
obtain the safe working load.

Breaking strengths can be obtained from the following formulae,

where D is the diameter in mm, and the result is in tonnes;

\ 19
I
l
ROPE : Manila 2.Q.2 .Polypropylene ;3,Q2 Terylene ~ 2 • Nylon .5.0.2
300 300 300 300

CHAIN :Grade I Stud 2.0.Q? Grade II stud..aQQZ- Grade Ill Stl!d ~i

. 600 600 600

WIRE : 6 strand. 12 ~ir~s per strand 1502/500

6 .strand, 24 wires· per"-strand 2001/500
6 strand, 37 -wires per strand· 21 02/560·

The safe working load must b~.clearJy and Jegibly marked on every
component of- a lifting gear-.

Where a lifting gear is made up of several cor:nponents of different

SWLs, ~he SW~ of the gear is the SWI:. qf ttis weakest component.

The SWL o( a component cannot be exceeded at any time during

normal• use. It can only
•
be
.
exceeded
• • . 1,·
.
1) when the component· 1s being tested, or
2) when it is being used for an emergei")cy such as the use of ground
tackle for ungroundi~g a ship.

When a component of a lifting gear is to be tested we cannot test

it lo its breaking s~rength as this would destroy the component. We have
to apply a load on it, more than tne safe workihg load sufficient to assure
os that when it .is loaded upto its SWL, it will safely bear this l.oad. This
load that VJ~ apply more than the SWL, is called the Proof Load. The proof
load depends on the component ·and its size. ·

COMPONENT PROOF LOAD

1. Chains, rings, hooks, shackles, swivel~.~2St 2 x SWL
2. Single sheave pulley blocks · 4 x SWL
3. Multiple sheav~ blocks ~251 SWL 2 x SWL
" " " 2St -160t SWL •933 >t- SWL + 2?t
" " >1Wt SWL 1.5 x SWL
4. Pitched chains, hand operated gear 1.5 x SWL
5. Derricks <20t SWL SWL + 25%
20t - sot SWL SWL + St
>50t SWL SWL + 10%

Derricks and cranes can be tested in two ways. A static test and a
dynamic test. In a static test a spring balance is shackled to an eye on

20
deck and the derrick or crane runner wire is used to pull on it till the proof
load is reached. This method is normally used for smaller capacity
derricks and cranes. In a dynamic test a pre weighed load equal to the
proof load is brought by a barge or truck to the ship side from where it is
lifted by the derrick or crane. The derrick is swung side to side and up
and down with the weight suspended. After testing it is most important
to check components of the lifting gear for any elongation, deformation or
fracture.

The regulations for maintenance, testing and annealing of

cargo gear form a part of the Dock Labour Regulations
which are explained in Chapter 12.

Blocks and Purchases

A purchase is used to advantage when the load moves in the same

direction as the effort. When the load moves in an opposite direction to
the effort it is rigged to disadvantage. The words, advantage and disad-
vantage do not have their literal meaning in this context. They only pertain
to the direction of movement of the load and effort.
In fig. 3.1 if the top blocks are fixed and the load is attached to the
lower blocks, they become rigged to disadvantage. If the lower blocks are
fixed and the load is attached to the upper blocks, the purchase is rigged
to advantage.
The names of the purchases and their rigging should be studied in
order to be able to solve problems.

Mechanical Advantage is the ratio of load to effort.

M.A. = .l.Qact (without friction) or Resistance

Effort Applied force
Velocity Ratio is the ratio of velocity of effort to velocity of load.
Velocity = Distance/Time and since the time when the effort and load
moves is the same, (the load does not keep moving after the effort is
stopped),the formula can be modified to

V.R. = Velocity of effort = Distance effort moves

Velocity of load Distance load moves ·

Velocity Ratio is also equal to

i. Number of parts of rope at the moving block

ii. 'n + 1' when the purchase is used to advanta·ge and 'n' when used
to disadvantage, where n = number of sheaves.
21
 WATCH OR.
CUN TACKLE LUFF TACKl,.E
SINGLE WHIP

DOUBLE OR GYN TACKLE THREE FOLD

TWO FOLD

Fig . 3.1 : Blocks and Purchases

In a perfect machine, all the effort that is put in is used to do work

on the load. However there is no perfect machine. Part of the effort that
is put in is used to overcome friction which is present in all machines. This
is not useful work. In a purchase, friction increases the load by about 10%
per sheave. Thus , work put in by effort =
Work done on load + Work spent in overcoming friction.

22
 Effort x o. =(Load+ n x 10% x load) x o.
Rearranging, E =(W + nW/10)
V.R.

where E = effort, W = load, f2t,; Distance effort moves = V.R.

Dw Distance load moves

The formula will change if friction is other than· 10%.

Efficiency of a system is = Useful work done on weight x 100%

Work applied by effort

= W x Ow x100% = MA x 100%
EX o. VR

Worked example :
i. A gun tackle rigged to advantage is used to lift a load.of 3 tonnes.
Find out the effort and minimum size of polypropylene rope required.
ii. If the hauling part of this purchase was secured to the moving block
of a watch tackle used to disadvantage, find out the effort required,
efficiency of the system and minimum size of·
nylon rope required for the watch tackle_.
(Assume friction as 12% per sheave for both the.
purchases and use a factor of safety=6)

~
A gun tackle has_2 sheaves.
So n = 2. W 7' 3 tonnes
The velocity ratio for a gun-tackle used to
advantage is 3 using any of the three methods.
Friction = 12% per sheave.

E = ( W t nw x 12/100 ) =( 3 t 2 x 3 X 12/100 )
V.R. 3

= 3 +O 72 = 1.24 t.
3

It will be noticed that the effort is borne by

the single rope of the hauling part, while the load
Fig. 3.2 is being shared by three ropes. Th·eretore the

23
 I

rope must be able to bear a SWL of 1.24 tonnes which is the effort.
Breaking Stress of this rope will be 1.24 x 6 = 7.44 t

Breaking Stress of polypropylene rope= 3.QZ

300
Therefore, a.Ql = 7.44
300

D = 27.3 mm or 28 mm.

The minimum size of polypropylene rope required for the gun tackle
is 28 mm diameter.

Now 1.24 tonnes, the effort of the first purchase, becomes the load
for the second purchase. W = 1.24, n = 3, V .R. = 3 for watch tackle used
to disadvantage.

E = ( W + nW x 12/100 ) = ( 1.24 + 3 x ].24 x 121100 ) = 1.24 ± 0.4464

V.R. 3 3
= 0.562 t.

Thus the SWL that the nylon rope of the watch tackle will have to bear =
= 3.372 t. Also Breaking
0.562 t and it$ breaking stress will be 0.562 x 6
Stress for nylon rope = fil2Z
300
Therefore, .5.Q:l = 3.372 D = 14.22 mm or 15 mm
300
The minimum size of nylon rope for the watch tackle is 15 mm diameter.

Efficiency of the system = M.A.. M.A. = ..LQad.. = _3._ = 5.338

V.R. Effort 0.562

Velocity Ratio of the combined system may be considered to be the

product of the individual velocity ratios i.e. 3 x 3 = 9

Efficiency=~ x 100 = 59.31%

9

24
THE SIMPLE DERRICK

A simple derrick consists of derrick boom which is raised, lowered

and moved sideways by several different purchases. The derrick boom
is supported at it's base and allowed to turn around as well as up and down
by a gooseneck arrangement which is welded to the mast or samson post.
The load is lifted by means of the ginfall or runner Wire which is the only
wire connected to a winch. The derrick is moved sideways and positioned
by means of the side guys. Once the derrick is positioned the weight is
taken by the preventer guy which has to be made taut. The preventer guy
is a thick wire with a chain or other easy means of securing at one end.
It takes the weight of the derrick and load during working of the derrick.
The side guys are rope purchases and are not meant to take the weight
of the derrick and load during cargo work. They should be slightly slacker
than the preventer guy. The derrick is raised or lowered by means of the
topping lift. This wire is wound on a drum near the winch. The drum also
carries a bull-wire. To raise or lower the derrick, the bull-wire is wound
on the winch drum, the brake on the topping lift drum is lifted and the winch
is rotated to drive the topping lift drum in the direction desired - to raise
or lower the derrick. When in the desired position, the brake is lowered
and the bull-wire is unwound from the winch drum.
Simple derricks come in sizes ranging from 2 - 20 tonnes SWL. They
are easy to operate and maintain; requ_iring little attPntion ~esides regular
greasing, p~inting and inspection. · ·

THE UNION PURCHASE SYSTEM

A simple derrick, by itself, is not of much use. Most often, two are
used together in what is known as the Union Purchase system. Here the
runner wires of both derricks are 'coupled' or 'married' through swivels to
a union hook and worked in conjunction with each other. The inshore
derrick is plumbed over the quayside and the other derrick is plumbed over
the hatch. The preventer and side guys are rigged so as not to obstruct
the movement of cargo between the hatch and quay. Sometimes the side
guys are replaced by a schooner guy which always remains clear of the
cargo working area.

When working a union purchase system the following precautions

must be taken into account:

1. The SWL of a union purchase rig must be calculated in accordance

with classi!ication society or dock labour regulations. In the absence of the

25
 Fig. 3.3 : The Simple Derrick

above, the Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant Seamen recom-
mend that the SWL should not exceed one-third the SWL of the smaller
derrick.
2. The operating angle of the derrick should preferably be not less than
30° to the horizontal and in no case should it be less than 15°.
3. The maximum included angle between the cargo wires should not
exceed 120° so that forces in the rig are kept to a minimum. To ensure ..
this, unduly long slings must not be used and winchmen must not lift the

26
 "'--1'0 P?in~ I.,; ft /S~n facklt..
Sd..oo,, LdSi« (i~

Fig. 3.4 : The Union Purchase System

load above guard rails and hatch coamings beyond the minimum required
for safety. ·
4. Runners should not be allowed to rub against the hatch coamings
and guard rails or bulwarks as this will result in their deterioration.
5. Winchmen should be experienced and should coordinate well.

THE HEAVY LIFT "JUMBO" DERRICK

The simple derrick lacked manoeverability and the union purchase
was restricted in it's capacity. The heavy lift derrick was designed to
overcome these limitations. It's components were of a larger size and
strength to bear the greater load, ropes were replaced by wires and all
purchases led to winches so that slewing, topping and raising or lowering
of the load could be carried out simultaneously.
Several pa\ent designs of heavy lifts were developed by various ship
27
 All lint!. It.ad to "'inch,~.
Fig. 3.5 : A Heavy Lift Derrick

yards; most famous of these being the 'Veile' and 'Hallen' derricks for
loads upto 50 tonnes and the 'Stuelcken' derrick which can lift upto 500
tonnes or more.

Precautions when handling heavy lifts :

1. All gear involved should be carefully examined before use.
2. All wires and blocks to be checked for any defects; sheaves to be
examined for free rotation.
28
 3. All gear selected should be of adequate SWL.
4. Allowance.should be made for the weight lifted plus the purchase
weight.
5. End links, rings or shackles to ride freely from whichever point they
hang.
6. Strops, wire slings, eye bolts etc. to be examined that they are of
adequate strength.
7. While slinging, wood or other packing to be use~•,) protect the sling-
from any sharp edges on the load and to prevent the sling from cutting
into the load.
8. Avoid shocks due to load slipping or sudden starts.
9. Winch-men should be experienced, co-ordinate well and operate
smoothly.
1o. Stability: The ship must have an adequate GM because when the
load is lifted its centre of gravity rises to the derrick head. Hence the
centre of gravity of the ship rises. A negative metacentric height (-GM)
must be avoided. In this connection free surface effect may have to be
reduced.
11. The ve,.c;el should be initially upright with moorings taut and manned
as the vessel will acquire a list when the load is swung out board.
Gangway must be clear of the jetty.
12. Barges that are not in immediate use must be cast off.
13. Preventer stays may have to be rigged onto the mast.
14. Winches must be put in double gear.
15. Steadying lines must be secured if possible to the corners of the
load.
16. Remove guard rails if possible.
•
STUELCKEN DERRICKS

The main feature of a Stuelcken Derrick is the fork-type, twin, V-

masts which enable the derrick to be swung through the masts and work
hatches fore and aft of it's position without any re-rigging. There are
different types of Stuelcken Derricks; mainly classed on the way the cargo
tackle is brought from for'd to aft and vice versa.

1.Rotary Type : The cargo tackle is brought from for'd to aft and vice
versa by rotating the boom through 180° when in the vertical position. In
this type there is a swivel at the top of the boom (below the slewing/topping
blocks and above the ginblocks) and a pivot at the bottom.

2.Pendulum Type : The cargo tackle is arranged on one side of the boom

29
 Fig. 3.6 : A Stuelcken Derrick

and swings from for'd to aft position or vice versa when the boom is swung
through.

3.Double Pendulum Type : In this, the cargo tackle is suspended on

both sides of the boom and attached to the cross bar. To swing from
forward to aft or vice versa, the lower blocks on the cargo tackle are
disconnected from the cross bar, one is taken around the boom and
attached at the opposite ends of the cross bar. The tackle is now ready
to be operated on the other side of the derrick.

30
4.High Speed Version : In this type a second drum can be attached to
the topping lift or to the gin fall; thu5 the speed of reeving the tackle or the
span is doubled. ·

5.Log or Container Type : For simi.:ltaneous operation on both sides,

this type is equipped with two cargo booms.

Advantages of a Stuelcken Derrick :

1.Absence of all guys and preventers for slewing the derrick.
2.No manual tackle work even when swinging the derrick through the post
or when changing to smaller loads.
3.Facility of swinging the derrick through the post permits hatches both
fore and aft of the mast to be served.
4.One man can operate all controls. Remote control operation is also
possible.
5. The whole derrick installation needs minimal maintenance by equipping
it with sealed anti-friction bearings.
6. Speed of cargo handling can be substantially increased by using
suitable powered winches.
7 .Ordinary light cargo derricks can be attached to the posts and operated
on the sides opposite to which the stuelcken derrick is operating.
8.Stuelcken derricks can be built to handle e~tremely heavy lifts _upto 500
tonnes.

CRANES

Cranes are the most easiest to use of 'all ship's gear. They are very
versatile and have a high degree of manoeverability. Ship's cranes are
normally built from St - 75t capacity. Cran~s are manoevered from two
controls - one for, the cargo hook and the other for slewing/topping.
Automatic cut-outs can be set to prevent the jib from being raised or
lowered beyond set limits, to prevent the crane from being slewed beyond
set angles or to prevent a load greater than the SWL from being lifted.
These limits can be by-passed when parking the crane, testing it to its
proof load, etc. Granes and some derrick winches too have another safety
feature that in case the electric or hydraulic system fails at a crucial
moment when the load is suspended, it is possible to bring the load safely
down by manual means.

31
Fig. 3.7 : A Crane

32
EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

In the f0llowing problems unless mentioned otherwise, use a value

of 10% of the load, per sheave for friction and a factor of safety of 6 for
ropes and wires.

1. A weight of 8 tonnes is to be lifted using a two fold purchase to

advantage. Find the effort required and the efficiency of the system. Use
the different formulae to confirm your answer.

2. Using a three-fold purchase rigged to disadvantage, to lift a weight

of 9.6 tonnes, find :
i. the tension in the hauling part
ii. the efficiency of the system
iii. the minimum size of manila rope that can safely be used in the
purchase.

3. A steel girder weighing 6 tonnes is to be lifted by a single derrick

using a gun tackle to advantage. A lead block at the derrick head leads
the wire down to the winch . Find the minimum size of 6 X 24 wire to be
used for the runner wire.

4. If friction accounts for 12% of the.load per sheave, find the minimum
size of nylon r~pe that can be used in a watch tackle to life a weight of
5.5 tonnes.

5. A 6 tonne weight is to be lifted using a gyn-tackle to advantage. If

there is a lead block on the masthead find:
i. the effort required
ii. the efficiency of the system
iii. the minimum size of polypropylene rope to be used.
Assume friction to be 8% of the load per sheave.
6. A gun tackle reeved to disadvantage is used to lift a weight of 4.5
tonnes. The hauling part of this purchase is secured to the block of a
single whip rigged to advantage. If the velocity ratio of the system is equal
to the product of the individual velocity ratios, find the effort required to
lift the weight and the efficiency of the system.

7. A gyn tackle reeved to advantage and a luff tackle reeved to

disadvantage are together used to lift a load of 22 tonnes. The weight is
suspended from the gyn tackle whose hauling part is secured to the
moving block of the luff tackle. Find the minimum size of 6 X 37 wire to
be used in these two purchases.
33
 CHAPTER
'•
FOUR

CODE OF SAFE PRACTICE FOR·

SOLID BULK CARGOES

AIM OF THE CODE:

1. To highlight the dangers associated with the shipment of bulk

cargoes.
2. To give guidance on procedures to be adopted.
3. To list typical materials currently being shipped in bulk.
4. To describe test procedures to determine various characteristics of
bulk cargoes.

DEFINITIONS :

Solid Bulk Cargoes : Solids in particle or granular form, generally

homogeneous in composition, loaded directly in the ships holds without
any packaging.

Ang le of Re-
pose : It is the
. angle between a
horizontal plane
, and t h e cone
slope obtained
when bulk cargo
is loaded on this
pl_ane.

Fig. 4.1 : Angle of Repose

Concent rates : It is material obtained after physical or chemical

separation of undesirable ingredients from natural ores. Natural ores
contain a large percentage of large particles and lumps. Concentrate$
usually consist of fine particles or pellets.

34
 Moisture Migration : Concentrates have moisture entrained in
them. Due to compaction and vibration at sea this water may corpe to the
top and Gause the.surface of the concentrate to behave like a liquid. Thus
a flow state develops, when the mass looses its internal shear strength·;
resulting in a wet shift of cargo.

Moisture Content : Moisture content of a sample is the percentage

weight of the water contained in the total weight of the sample.
MC - = Weight of water x 100%
Total weight of sample

Flow Moisture Point (FMP) : It is the percentage moisture content

at which a flow state develops.

Transportable Moisture Limit (TMU: It is the maximum moisture

content of a concentrate considered safe for carriage by a general cargo
vessel. It is around 90% of the flow moisture point (FM P):

HAZARDS DUE TO BU LK CARGOES

STRUCTURAL STABILITY CHEMICAL

Reaction ire
Load Shear Force & r-1-----, I
Density Bending Moments Corrosion Toxic Spont Extnl
(Local) (overall) Vapours Combus lgnitn

Initial GM Shift of G
Too stiff or
I
too tender
Horizontal (List) Vertical (Loss of GM)

Dry X
(Ores & Others)
'1et
(Concentrates)

STRUCTURAL HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS :

High density cargoes are those that have a stowage factor less than
.56m3 I tonne. General cargo vessels are usually full up of space and
down to their marks at stowage factors between 1.39 to 1.67m3 / tonne.
There is a danger that because the hold looks empty after loading high
35
density cargo, due to ignorance too much cargo may be put into the hold.
At any time the l_o ad density-of the deck must not be exceeded.

1. Hold wise distribution of high density cargo by weight should not

differ appreciably from that of general cargo. This prevents excessive
Shear Force and Bending Moments.

2. Maximum quantity of cargo loaded in any hold should not exceed 0.9
x L x B x D, where L = length of the hold in metres, B = average breadth
in metres and D = summer load draft in metres and the result is in metric
tonnes.

3. Where cargo is untrimmed or partially trimmed, the height of cargo

peak above the tank top should not exceed 1.1 x D x SF metres, where
SF is the stowage factor in m 3/tonne and D is the summer draft.

4. If cargo is trimmed level, 20% increase over No. 2 is permitted but

complying with No. 1. ·

5. If a shaft tunnel passes through the hold, 10% increase over Nos.
2,3 & 4 is permitted but again complying with No. 1.

NOTE: The above points may be ignored where the shipyard has given
precise loading instructions for high density cargo on a particular ship.

TRIMMING REQUIREMENTS

a. for Bulk Cargoes having an Angle of Repose>~~

Fig. 4.2 : Trimming of Cargo with Angle of Repose> 35°

36
1. The cargo should be loaded to cover the entire tank top and trimmed
to reduce the· pile peak height and, equalise the load on th~ bottom
structure.
2. The cargo should be levelled within the hatch square, sloping
uniformly to the hpld sides and the fore arid aft bulkhead.
3. Cargo may extend through the t'ween deck hatchway.provided :
i. The peak height is not exceeded.
ii. Load Line Rules are not contravened.
iii.The cargo is clear of the t'ween deck so that if it slides it will go
into the lower hold.
iv. The t'ween deck has no cargo in it.
v. The tank top is not overstressed.
vi. The angle of repose is > 35°.
4. If cargo is carried in the t'ween deck the material sho.uld be trimmed
reasonably level or secured in bins.

.6... for Bulk Cargoes with Angle of Repose < or = 352.

1. Compartment to be filled fully or if not practicable then the surface
to be levelled reasonably.

2. If shift of cargo in t'ween de.ck or lower hold is likely to result in

excessive list, then shifting ~oards or stowing in bins may be necessary.
1',...,ber Pldn ks -----
;le,,,, -x. 25 un ~

Upr·1 aht.s
/Sc,.,. x 10 e.rn
si~ I
we.ld~d.
bYc.c..lceh
-u> decl<
Fig. 4.3 Shifting Boards
37
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS WHEN
. LOADING
. .- :: BULK CARGO :
1. Inspect hold for suitability prior loading.
2. Ensure that bilge wells, strainer plates, sounding pipes, bilge suc-
tions etc. are tested and satisfactory.
3. Protect deck machinery against dust.
4. Accommodation air-conditioning system to be screened ·and put on
recirculation.
5. Sound bilges before and after loading.
6. While loading high density cargo the cargo should not fali directly into
the empty hold as the tank top may get damaged. A few slings of cargo
should be gently lowered at first.
7. With a high GM, for a given transverse shift of cargo, the list will be
less for a stiff ship than for a tender ship. Because of this, ttie entire cargo
is to be loaded in the lower hold only. However, if the lower hold tank top
gets overstressed or if the vessel tends to become too stiff then some
minimum amount of cargo may be put in the t'ween deck.
8. Bulk cargoes are loaded at a high rate so deballasting, loading
sequence, trim, list.....9ang~ay, _moorings etc. must all be attended to.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

1_ While loading discharging -0r transporting bulk materials, all appro-

priate national and international safety regulations are to be observed.
Medical advice is given in the MFAG (Medi9al First Aid Guide for use in
accidents involving dangerous goods.) Certairr bulk materials are liable
to oxidation, emission of toxic fumes and self heating, particularly when
wet. Shipper should inform the Master prior to loading on all chemical
hazards. ·

2. Bulk material may cause oxygen depletion in a cargo space. Entry

of personnel into enclosed spaces should not be permitted until adequate
ventilation and testing of the atmosphere is done with appropriate instru-
ments. Emergency entry may be undertaken only with self-contained
breathing apparatus and protective clothing. -

3. a
Dust created by certain cargoes may constitute health as well as
an explosion hazard. Use of dust masks, ventilation and hosing down
rather than sweeping are methods to combat this hazard.

38
 CONCENTRATES

PROPERTIES OF CONCENTRATES

Cargoes which may liquefy includes concentrates, certain coals and

other materials listed in Appendix A. At a moisture content above the
TML, shift of cargo may occur as a result of liquefaction. Such cargoes
appear to be in a relatively dry, granular state when loaded. But due to
compaction and vibration on the voyage, the moisture migrates to the
surface. In the resulting fluid state, cargo may flow to one side of the ship
with a roll. But all cargo will not return with the roll the other way. Thus
the ship may progressively list dangerously and capsize.

HAZARDS OF CONCENTRATES

1. High density
2. Ory shift (below TML)
3. Wet shift (above TML)
4. Spontaneous combustion

PRECAUTIONS WHEN CARRYING CONCENTRATES :

1. General cargo vessels may carry concentrates only when cargo is

at or below the TML. However concentrates having moisture content
greater than TML may be carried with prior approval of the administration
provided that special divisions are fitted to reduce the shift of cargo.
These divisions should not be constructed of wood and should be
sufficient in strength to restrain the immense forces generated by the
movement of high density bulk cargoes .. The ship's structure bounding
such cargoes may also have to be strengthened. Cargoes with moisture
content > TML may be carried in specially constructed cargo ships with
permanent boundaries arranged to reduce the shift of cargo to an
acceptable limit.

2. Wet cargoes or liquids should not be loaded in the same compart-

ment as concentrates.

3. Cargo work should not be carried out during rain. Entry of water, rain,
spray etc into the hatches at sea should be prevented.

4 . To decrease the effect of oxidation the cargo should be trimmed

reasonably level on completion irrespective of the angle of repose, to
reduce the ~urface area.
39
5. Some concentrates such as sulphides are subject to oxidation and
spontaneous comtru"tbn if the moisture content is very low. In such
cases. water may be used only as a spray to cool the cargo and bring up
the moisture content. However, a flow state should not be allowed to
develop.

6. 8hipper must produce a certificate from a competent laboratory

stating the FMP, TML, and MC. Test samples to be taken from the stock
pile nearest to the shipping point.

7. In case the stock pile is exposed to precipitation then test samples

must be taken just .prior to loading.

8. When delivery of cargo is by road, rail or barge and entry of water

into the vehicle is suspected, then random checks at the surface and at
half c.iepth should be made of one in five vehicles.

SPOT CHECK ON BOARD

Half fill a can (e.g. beer can) with

a sample of the concentrate. Bang the tin
sharply against a solid table or on deck
from a height of about 20 cm. Repeat the
same about 25 times at one or two
second intervals. If. free moisture ap-
pears on the surface or a flow state
develops, get a laboratory analysis of the
concentrate done to check the FMP, TML
and MC
before any further loading.

Fig. 4.4 : Spot check

Worked Example : In a hold 17m long, 12.5m broad and 1Om high, how
many tonnes of soyabean meal (SF 1.48m3/t) and mang.3:nese concen-
trate (SF 0.55rn3/t) would you load and what would the maximum height
of the cargo be, in the following cases, if the summer draft of the ship was
8.8m?
i. the cargo was untrimmed
ii. the cargo was trimmed
iii. a shaft tunnel ran through the length of the hold

40
Ans.,. Maximum cargo that can be loaded in the hold
= 0.9 x L x Bx D = 0.9 x 17 x 12.5 x 8.8 = 1683 tonnes

The formula used above is independent of the stowage factor so the

figure obtained (1683 tonnes) is the maximum weight that can be loaded
whether the cargo is soyabean meal or manganese concentrate.

However before . making a decision, it would be prudent to see

whether 1683 tonnes of the cargo would actually fit in the hold given its
dimensions.

Volume of hold = 17 x 12.5 x 8.8 = 1870 m 3 •

Volume of soyabean meal= 1683 x 1.48 = 2490.84 m3 •

Obviously 1683 tonnes of soyabean meal will not fit into the hold. The
maximum amount of cargo that will fit in = 1fil.Q = 1263.51 tonnes.
1.48

The maximum height of the soyabean cargo pile peak

= 1.1 x D x SF= 1.1 x 8.8 x 1.48 = 14.33m.

Since this height is greater than the height of the hold, the maximum
height to which the cargo can be loaded whether there is a shaft tunnel
passing through the hold or not is 1Om.

The volume occupied by 1683 ·t of manganese concentrate = 1683

X 0.55 = 925.65 m3
This is less then the volume of the hold so we can load 1683 tonnes
of manganese concentrate.
The maximum height of the concentrate pile peak= 1.1 x 8.8 x 0 .55
= 5.324m.

If the cargo is trimmed, then the amount loaded can be increased

by 20%, giving a weight of 1683 + 20% = 2019.6m.

This will occupy a volume of 2019.6 x 0.55 = 1110.8 m3 which will

fit into the hold.

If a shaft tunnel passes through the hold, the weight and the height
of the cargo pile peak can be increased by 10%, giving a height of 5.324
+ 10% = 5.856m.

41
 The increase in height and WE!iQ_ht is permitted provided the weights
in }?ach hold should not differ a·p preciably_fro111 if general ~rgo was
loaded.

Although not asked in the question, note that. if ·the c·argo was
trimmed and there was a shaft tunnel passing through the hold the weight
of cargo loaded can be increased by 30%.

EXAMPLE FOR EXERCISE

1. Hold No. 1 (L = 14m, B = 9m) and Hold No. 2(L= 17.Sm, B= 10.Sm)
are available to load coal (SF = 1.23m3/t) and iron ore (SF = 0.38m3/t) on
a bulk carrier whose summer draft is 12.8m. Find out how much o f ~
cargo you would be able to load in .bQtb holds separately and the maximum
height of the cargo if;
i. · the cargoes were loaded without trimming
ii. the cargo was trimmed
iii. the holds had a shaft tunnel passing through them
iv.the cargo was loaded and trimmed in a hold containing a shaft tunnel.
State what restrictions given in the code could prevent you from loading
the full amount of iron ore as calculated. ·

42
 CHAPTER. FIVE

SOME COMMON CARGOES

CQAL

See IM DG Code, Code of Safe Practice fo~Bulk C_~rgoes, M- Notice

Nos. 970, 971 and MS - Notice Nos. 19769, 4/ 15. :

HAZARDS

Coal is categorised according to the hazards associated with it.

Whenever coal is shipped from any place, the history of previous ship-
ments must be known, so as to be aware of the hazards of that particular
type of coal. Coal may have all or some of the following hazards.

1. Spontaneous heating
Coal is very liable to spontaneous heating. Freshly mixed coal
absorbs oxygen, forming peroxides which break up into carbon
monoxide(CO) and carbon dioxide(CO2). This is an exothermic reaction
and the heat produced causes further oxidation and mOf'e heat. CO has
a large flammable range (12%- 75% by volume) and besides is also highly
tox.ic. If the heat is not dissipated, spontaneous combustion can occur.
Oxidation depends on the surface area available for absorption of oxygen.
Hence breakage of coal into smaller pieces ·while it is being loaded is to
be prevented. If considerable breakage occurs, the small pieces will
accumulate in the centre of the hold while the large pieces will roll.to the
sides. This agg ravates the situation as the large coal gives way for the
air to flow to the smaller coal where spontaneous combustion is most likely
to occur.

2. Emission of Methane
Coal emits methane or marsh gas particularly immediately after
loading and when newly worked or freshly broken. Metha:1e is a flam-
mable gas and when mixed with air forri-.s an explosive mixture. It is lighter
than air and thE1ref9re accumulates in the upper regions of hold and other
spaces. This gas can find its way into tanks, cofferdams, store rooms etc.,
so these compartments have to be kept well ventilated at all times and

43
tested before man entry. If gas is present, a self-contained breathing
apparatus must be used during entry.

3. Corrosion
"Pond Coal" is the term given to coal left over from earlier mining
which has been dumped into fresh water ponds and later reclaimed for
shipment. It has a high moisture content together with a high sulphur
content. This type of coal gives rise to high temperatures from self heating
and in the presence of moisture and sulphur leads to the release of
sulphuric acid, resulting in corrosion of the ships holds.
The ship should carry instruments for measuring ph value of bilges which
must be done regularly.

4. LiQuefaction
Liquefaction is the process whereby moisture in the cargo migrates
to the surface due to compaction and vibration resulting in the develop-
ment of a flow state . This is particular in the case of coal slurry, coal duff
and mud coal. The surface of the cargo behaves like a liquid and a
transverse shift of cargo results in reduced ship stability which can be
extremely dangerous.

PRECAUTIONS :

1. Ventilation
'
Surface ventilation is an important necessity during the carriage of
coal for two reasons :
i. To carry away any methane gas which may be given out
ii. To dissipate any heat formed by oxidation of the coal.

Through ventilation must in no way be carried out as introduction of

air into the cargo promotes oxidation and thereby spontaneous combus-
tion. It is recommended that for the . first five days after loading all
ventilators should be utilized for removing the gas; thereafter the venti-
lators to the lower holds are to be plugged and opened only for 6 hours
every two days. Each hold containing coal should have at least two
ventilators - one forward and one aft and t'ween deck and lower hold
ventilators should be independent. Before discharge careful ventilation
should be directed towards removing the gases from both Mt"-'een deck
and lower hold. A sudden influx of air into coal compartments before-

44
discharge may have disastrous results. In fine weather hatches may be
opened to facilitate surface ventilation. Attention to be paid to store
rooms, tanks and other spaces where methane or carbon monoxide can
accumulate.

2. Temperature
Temperature pipes leading down to the bottom of the cargo are to
be provided particularly below the hatchways. Monitoring of temperature
at three levels in the hold to be done at least once a day. Particular
attention to be paid to cargo stowed against hot bulkheads, which is to be
avoided if possible. The decks are to be kept cool in tropical areas by
rigging awnings, covering with dunnage or running deck water. Temper-
~t9 pipes are to be closed to prevent entry of air into the cargo. Spon-
taneous heating can become accelerated in some coal cargoes at tem-
peratures as low as 38°C (100°F). At temperatures around 55°C and
showing rising tendencies, the existence of a fire should be strongly
suspected. The cargo spaces should be shut down and sealed against
entry of air.
The master should seek expert advice immediately and should consider
making for a suitable port of refuge.

3. fu
(See Fire/Chapter 2). In addition,
i. A sufficient number of safety lamps _are to be carried in all coal
carrying vessels.

ii. All electrical cables and components situated in cargo sp~ces should
be free from defects and suitable for use in a methane/ dust atmosphere.
Points of entry and exit of cables should be sealed to prevent passage of
gas into adjacent spaces. If necessary, electrical circuits in spaces where
gas accumulation is suspected should be isolated till the space is gas-
freed.

iii. If there is evidence of cargo burning the space should be closed,

ventilation stopped and sealed against entry of air. Boundary cooling to
be carried out but at sea no water or steam to be directly applied to the
coal as coal reduces the water to hydrogen and forms carbon monoxide- ·
- both flammable gases. Introduce CO2 , inert gas or high expansion foam
into the compartment. Keep the hold closed till arrival port and obtain
specialist a'dvice as to precautions necessary before opening and the time
45
when it is safe to open the hold. Water or steam may be used in port in
c9pious quanti~ies, !f no C~2 or inert ga~ l_s available. However, due regard
must be had for the stability of the '..
ship. . .
iv. The ship should regularly monitor the methane, oxygen and carbon
monoxide concentrations in the hold and in spaces where the gases could
accumulate with suitably calibrated instruments.

4. Shifting
A certificate is obtained from shippers stating the moisture content
of the cargo. If this figure is suspected, an on board test of the moisture
content is to be carried out and ascertained that it is not higher than the
Transportable Moisture Limit. Precautions should be taken to prevent
ingress of waler into the cargo. Cargo work to be suspended and hatches
closed during wet weather. Stock piles must be drained and freshly tested
for moisture content before loading. The cargo should be trimmed into
the wings and ends of the compartment as far as is reasonable and
practicable. Hold bilges should be regularly pumped out to remove any
water. Trimming also prevents air from permeating to the body of the coal.
Coal shipped in a wet condition could turn out about 3% less by weight.
Bills of Lading should be claused accordingly to protect the ship from any
claims.

PREPARATION OF HOLDS

(See Ho!d Preparation/Chapter 2). In addition,

i. All cargo battens should be removed to prevent air pockets forming

and helping through circulation of air.

ii. Boundaries of cargo compartments should be resistant to fire and

liquid. Coal should not be stowed against hot bulkheads. Segregation as
per IMDG Rules are to be carried ·out.

46
 SULPHUR

See IMOG Code;

PROPERTIES

Sulphur is toxic ·in nature. It does not heat spontaneously but is

easily inflammable. It readily1uses when heated slightly. When it burns
it gives out sulphur dioxide which is toxic ancf has a pungent smell.
Sulphur combines with salt water producing sulphuric acid.

HAZARDS

1. Fire 2. Oust Explosion 3. Corrosion.

PRECAUTIONS

1. (See Fire/Chapter 2). In addition,

i. No loose metal objects e.g. bilge covers, lashing gear, etc. to·be left
in holds, as during discharge the grab could strike against it and produce
a spark. ·
ii. Fresh water hoses to be rigged on deck.
iii. If fire occurs a fine spray of fresh water may be used or more sulphur
shovelled onto the burning area to smother it. If the fire is large, close the
hatches and hatch entrances and use CO2•

2. Sulphur dust can readily ignite causing an explosion. Henc.e Sulphur

is wetted with fresh water b~fore loading to prevent dust rising. While
sweeping the holds, this hazard may arise and hence holds should be well
ventilated. By hosing down instead of sweeping, this danger may be
avoided.

3. Sulphur is loaded in a wet condition to prevent dust being raised and

to retard flammability. The presence of water enhances the corrosive
power of sulphur and on discharge it will be seen that the steel work in
the hold especially the tank top and rusted areas have been badly
corroded. To protect the hold it should be liberally coated with lime,
particularly areas where the paint coating is removed.

47
HOLD PREPARATION

1. Holds should be cleaned thoroughly and all inflammable material like

rags, pieces of wood, etc. to be removed. No loose metal objects to be
left in the hold.
2. Bilges to be t~sted and covered with limber boards. Any chinks
should be caulked,. to prevent ~ust from finding its way into the bilges.
3. Holds to be lime washed prior loading.
4. CO2 system to be tried out. .
5. On discharge, holds to be thoroughly cleaned with particular atten-
tion being paid to underside of hatch covers, box beams and ledges where
dust can lodge. ··-

As Sulphur is loaded wet, the quantity may tum out to be less by weight.
Bills of Lading should be suitably claused to prevent claims -being made
against ship. Bilges may fill up on voyage and a record must be kept of
sounding~ to determine quantity of water being pumped out. This recor<;I
is to be produced if the discharged quantity is disputed by consignees.

COTTON

HAZARDS

Cotton is shipped in tightly pressed bales covered with coarse gunny

and bound by steel, wire or nylon bands. A great risk pf fire is present
with cotton cargoes. This cargq,is liable to produce heat especially if wet
and can be subject to spontaneous combustion by frictton between bales
or if the bales have been stained by oil or grease.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN LOADING COTTON

1. The hold must be clean, perfectly dry, well aired and absolutely free
of oil or grease. Cotton must not be stowed in freshly painted holds as
heat produced is likely to cause ignition of paint vapours.

2. Fire fighting equipment must be tested and ready for immediate use
and all other precautions observed. (See Fire/Chapter 2). If using steam
to fight a fire, the decks should not be cooled as this causes the steam
to condense creating a vacuum inside the hold·which draws air into the
hold thus assisting the spread of the fire instead of containing it.

48
3. All bales should be clean, perfectly dry and free.from any grease or
oil stains. Wet bales if stowed ·in a confined space will heat and
deteriorate. Wet and dry bales should not be stowed together. Wetness
rriay not be ·readily apparent as the outside of the bales may get dried
q·uickly. ·

4. Loosely packed bales or those with broken ba!ldS and torn wrapping
should be rejected as these permit air circulation and catch fire easily.

5. Where second hand hessian wrapping is used some countries may

insist on fumigation of the bales. So new material must be used for
wrapping and for replacing parts of wrapping cut off for sampling or
grading of the cargo. .

6. Port marks should not be obliterated and the cargo should be well
segregated to prevent over carriage or delay in discharge.

7. Dunnage used. should be clean, dry and free from oil or grease
stains.

RICE

PROPERTIES

Rice is mostly carried in bags except for very short voyages when
it may be carried in bulk. In such cases holds should be prepared as for
grain cargo and loading to be carried out as p_
er grain rules. Rice requires
an efficient and elaborate ventilation and drainage system because :
1.lt evolves carbonic acid gas,
2.lt has a high moisture content which can lead to ship's sweat
forming,
3.lt is liable to heat.

The loss of weight in rice could be as much as 5% due to moisture

being given out. This moisture condenses on the ships sides, decks and ·
steel bulkheads. If the cargo is dampened or wetted by this moisture, rice
in stowage quickly rots. This reaction generates great heat and emits a
foul odour which affects other rice bags in the vicinity. Rice is easily
tainted and the taint is not noticeable till after it is cooked.

49
HOLD CLEANING AND PREPARATION

Holds should be cleaned and made free from foul odours by thor-
ough washing and then complete drying. Bilges should be cleaned and
sweetened. No dampness to be present in fhe holds o r bilges. If sufficient
time is not available for washing and drying, then the holds may be
sprinkled with sawdust and broomed down thoroughly with hard brooms.

DUNNAGE

Dunnaging of the rice cargo has to be very thorough with special

attention being paid at the turn of the bilges and on stringers, brackets and
other parts likely to collect condensed moisture. Double dunnage is laid
on the tank top consisting of 8 cm2 wooden battens laid athwartships and
2 112cm x 15 cm wooden planks laid on top of them. The lower battens are
spaced 25 cm apart and the top ones 1Ocm apart. The aim of the dunnage
is to prevent any bags coming into contact with the steel tank top and to
facilitate free drainage of water to the bilges.

SPAR CEILING

Spar ceiling is to be closely spaced and carried well upto the top of
the hold, if not, bamboo is to be secured to the same, closely spaced, to
prevent any bags coming into contact with plating, frames etc. as well as
to ensure free circulation of air between the ship side and the cargo.
Matting to be placed over any steel parts not covered by spar ceiling. e.g.
pillars, beams, etc.

RECEIVING THE CARGO

The cargo must be inspected before it is loaded. Bags are checked

that they are dry and not torn or bleeding. Bags are filled with a mixture
of clean rice and paddy. This is because paddy prevents the rice grains
from forming an aggregate which is impervious to ventilation air currents.

LOADING AND VENTILATIOtll

Temporary vertical box v'3ntilators are fitted in position as follows;

one at each corner of the hatchway and one in the middle of the hatch
coaming on each side making six in all for the hatchway. Two are fitted
at each end of the hold, one to port and one to starboard. These lead to
permanent ventilator shafts.

50
 Fig. 5.1 : Box ventilator for rice

r, r n Ir, n

n r n ~ n

n r-, n D r,

r, I r, n Ir ,-,

Fig. 5.2 : Transverse cross section of hold showing layout of ventilators

51
 Three tiers of cargo, bag on bag, are loaded all over the hold.
Horizontal wooden ventilator boxes are now laid athwartships at every five
bag space. Bags are loaded all over i:, between the athwartships box
ventilators. Horizontal fore and aft box ventilators are now laid on top of
the athwartships ventilators. Bags are now loaded in between the fore and
aft ventilators. This completes one system. It is repeated after every
three tiers. Above the final tier of bags there stiould be a clear space of
15 ems for ventilation.

Through ·ventilation is to be carried out thrtughout the voyage and

sweat formation prevented at all cost.

Fig. 5.3 : Position of box ventilators within the cargo

52
 CE ME N .T

GENERAL : There are many types of cement, varying greatly in

their relative densities, and therefore in their stowage factors. It may be
shipped in barrels which should be paper lined, in kraft bags or gunny
bags. More recently it has been shipped in bulk in specially designed
ships with mechanical means of discharging the cement (Self-unloading
ships).

PREPARATION : Holds should be well swept, and the limber

boards made dust tight, this should enable the siftage to be recovered as
clean as possible and there will probably be a considerable amount of this.
Should sugar have been recently carried in the compartment, then the
cleaning of frames, beams etc. should be thorough, and the hold carefully
inspected prior to loading, as sugar, to the extent of only .001 percent
mixing with cement has the effect of rendering the cement worthless as
a binding mixture. The hold should be well dunnaged to prevent the bags
coming into contact with the steelwork. Use could be made of dunnage,
paper and bamboo mats to cover bulkheads and pillars.

LOADING : Care must be taken to avoid damage to containers

during loading. Canvas slings to.rt>e used with bags. Slings must not be
dragged and a proper landing platform should be used.

STOWAGE: As mentioned above, cement should not be loaded in

the sarr:a compartment as sugar, ammonia or its sulphate as their fume::.
or gas alters the character of the cement to a quick-drying cement. When
overstowing other cargo with bagged cement a firm and level floor or
platform is essential. Boards should be -placed so as to withstand the
weight. As there will be a lot of dust, any goods which might be adversely
affected should not be overstowed with cement. Any fine goods should
be carefully covered.

DURING THE VOYAGE: Sweat and any form of moisture must be

kept to a minimum. In order to achieve this careful attention must be paid
to ventilation. (see notes on ventilation).

DISCHARGING : The same care must be taken as in loading to

prevent excess leakage. Separation of different parcels is usually made
easy by the shipper using bags of different co~ours for different ports.

53
 CHAPTER SIX

.THE INTERNATIONAL
-· . . .
' .
MARITIME
:.. . '... ~ '

DANGEROUS GOODS -·( iMDG) CODE

AIM

1. To regulate the transport by sea of dangerous goods to reasonably

prevent injury to persons or damage _to the ship.

2. To regulate transport by sea of marine·po1tutants to prevent harm to

the marine. environment.

However any regulations should not unnecessarily impede the

movement of dangerous goods.

REG. 1 : APPLICATION

Applies to all ships carrying dangerous goods as classified in Reg.

2 in packaged form or solid form in bulk except ship stores and equipment.

REG. 2 : CLASSIFICATION

Dangerous goods are divided into the following classes :

Fig. 6.1 ·: Labels

An lettering black
Class 1 : Explosives oRA
e.g. Nitroglycerine, cyclonite
(ROX), ammunition

Class 2 : Gases, compressed, liquefied

oi dissolved under pressure.
e.g. Argon, Nitrogen, Vinyl
chloride, Petroleum Gases.
54
Class 3 : Flammable liquids
e.g. Wood preser:vatives, tolu-wHiTe
ene, petroleum distillates.

Class 4.1: Flammable solids

_.-. e.g. Zinc dust, textile waste,
· paint or varnish in solid form.

Class 4.2: Substances liable to sponta-

neous combusiion
e.g. Iron and steel swart, phos-
phorus:

Class 4.3: Substances which in contact

with water, emit flammable
~
e.g. Sodium, Potassium, Cal-wH1Te (~~l; DANGE~.g.s WHEN
.7 cium, metals and certain al-- ~• ?'!f
~~- -- . 4

Class 5.1: Oxidising substances \ R_E_o_► 4

-e.g. Strontium Peroxide, Po-.
tassium Chlorate, Sodium 1
Peroxide.
YELL
I
I
Class 5.2: Organic peroxides '
e.g. Peroxyacetic Acid ,'.
Decanoyl Peroxide.

Class 6.1: Poisonous <toxic) substances!

e.g. Tear Gas, Prussic Acid, :
Tetraethyl Lead. : WHITE

55
Class 6.2: Intectjous substances
e.g. Biological substances and
diagnostic specimens.

Class 7 : Radioactive materials

e.g. Thorium and certain iso-
topes of cesium, strontium,
cobalt and even iron.

Class a : Corrosives
e.g. Sulphuric Acid, Caustic
Soda.

Class 9 : Mjscenaneous dangerous sub-

stances .
e.g. Ammonium Nitrate Fertil-
izers, Whtte or blue asbestos,
Dry Ice (Solid CO2).

BLACK
WHIT.E LETTERS

REG. 3 : PACKING .
--
1. Packing to be well made, in good condition and capable of withstand-
ing ordinary risks of handling and carriage by sea. The interior surface
of the packing which comes into contact with the contents should not be
dangerously affected by tt.

2. Where absorbent or cushioning material is used in the packaging of

liquids in receptacles, it should be capable of minimising the danger
associated with the liquid, not be -subject to movement but ensure that the
receptacle remains surrounded and be of sufficient quantity to absorb the
liquid in the event of breakage of the receptacle.

3. An ullage should be kept sufficient to allow for expansion at the

highest temperature normally expected on the voyage.

56
4. Cylinders for gases under pressure should be adequately con-
structed, tested, maintained and correctly filled.

5. Empty uncleaned receptacles to be treated as filled receptacles

unless adequate measured are taken t~ nullify any hazard.

REG. 4 : MARKING, LABELLING, PLACARDING ,

1. Correct technical name is-to be durably marked; not trade or local

name alone.

2. Packages are to be provided with distinctive labels, stencils of the

labels or placards to make clear the dangerous properties of the goods.

3. The information provided by labels, ste.ncils or placards are to be

identifiable on packages surviving at least three months immersion in the
sea. Hence account should be taken of the method of marking and affixing
the labels, durability of the materials used and surface of the package.

4. Packages containing dangerous goods of a low degree of hazard,

or packed in limited quantities or if stowed and handled in units that are
identified by labels or placards are exempted from the requirements of this
regulation.

REG. 5 : DOCUMENTS

1. Correct technical name is to be used in documents and correct

description given according to classification in Reg. 2.

2. Documents are to i"nclude a signed certificate or declaration from the

shipper that the shipment is properly packed and marked, labelled or
placarded and in proper condition for carriage by sea. ·

3. Every ship shall have a special list or manifest or stowage plan for
dangerous goods, showing class and location of goods on board.

REG. 6 : STOWAGE REQUIREMENTS

1. Dangerous goods are to be stowed safely and appropriately accord-

ing to the nature of the goods. Incompatible goods shall be segregated
from one another.

57
2. Explosives are -to be stowed in a magazine, securely closed while
at sea and segregated from detooat!)rs. Electrical apparatus and cabling
in such compartments shall be so designecfand used as to minimise the
risk of fire or explosion.

3. Dangerous goods in packaged form which give off vapours shall be

stowed in a mechanically ventilated space or on deck. Dangerous goods
in solid form in bulk which give off dangerous vapours shall be stowed in
a well ventilated· space.

4. In ships carrying flammable gases or liquids special precautions

shall be taken against fire or explosion.
. .
5. Substances which are liable to spontaneous heating or combustion
shall not be carried unless adequate precautions against fire are taken.

REG. 7: EXPLOSIVES IN PASSENGER SHIPS

Explosives are divided into subdivisions 1.1 , 1.2, 1.3 1.4 and 1.5.
They are further grouped into compatibility groups A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
H, J, K, Land S.

1. Explosives in subdivision 1.4, compatibility group S may be ~rried

in any amount in passenger ships together with any one of the following:
a. Explosives in compatibility groups C, 0, E - maximum 10 kgs.
b. Explosive articles in compatibility group G, ·not requiring spe-
cial stowage - Maximum 10 kgs. .
c. Explosive articles in compatibility group B - Maximum 5 _kgs.
d. Explosive articles for life saving purposes ~ maximum 50 kgs.

2. Additional quantities or types of explosives may be carried in passen-

ger ships in which special safety measures approved by the Administra-
tion are taken.

Annex Ill of the lnternationm-Gonvention for. the Preven-

tion of Pollution from ships 1973 as modified by the
Protocol of 1978 (Marpol 73178) is reproduced in full in the
IMDG code. It contains regulations for the prevention of
pollution by harmful substances carried by sea in pack-
aged form. ·

58
SEGREGATION

Dangerous goods belonging to different classes cannot be

stowed together. They have to be segregated from one another and the
type of segregation depends on the properties of substances in each class
and the way they react with substances of another class. The following
table shows the general segregation require.d between each class. Ho~-
ever individual entries s~ould always be consulted. .

Class 2(a)- Inflammable

gases 1• ~(3 ~(b 3 4.1 4.:! 4.3 S.l 52 6.1 6..! 7 8 9
Class 2(b) - Non-inflam- 1• ~ ·4 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 X ·~ 2, 2 X
mable gases
2~ 4 ~ X 2 I 2 1 2 4 X X 2 1 X

Nl,lmbers pertain to the 2\b 2 x~ 2 X I X X 2 X X 1 XX

. ,-
following terms which are
defined below : - 3 4
4.1 4
,__ 2 2~ I

4.2 4 2 ,I
I X I~ I I
2
2 2 I '3 X X 2 1 X
1 2

1~ 1 2 2 XX .2 1
X' X 2 1 X
x·
1. Away from
2 . Separated from 4.3 4 I X 2 1 1~ 2 2 X X i 1 X
3. Separated by a S.l 4 2 X 1 1 2 2~ 2 X X ·1 2 X
complete compartment
or hold from
s.i 4 4 2 3 2 2 2 2~ X X 2 2 '•X
4. Separated longitu- 6.1 X X X X X- X X X x~ XX X X
-
dinally by an intervening 6.2 X X X X X X X XX x~ X X X
complete compartment I
7 2 2 I 2 2 2 2 I 2 XX ~ 2 X r
or hold from i
X. No general segre- 8 2 I X I I 'I I 2 2 X X 2~ X
gation recommended. 9 X X X X X X X XX X X X X ~
Consult individual en-
tries.
Fig. 7.?, : Segregation Table

TYPES OF SEGREGATION

REFERENCE PACKAGE -

PACKAGE_OF INCOMPATIBLE GOODS -

DECK RESISTANT TO FIRE AND LIQUIDS· - t----t

59
 Fig. 7.3 : Types of Segregation

1. Away from
May be carried
in the same compart-
ment or on deck pro-
vided a minimum
horizontal separation
of 3m projected ver-
tically is maintained.

2. s e p a r at ed
frQrn .--r---,_----r_,.---,L..,__-,
Can be carried
in the same compart-
ment if the interven-
ing deck is resistant
~ ~ /---r--'----,
to fire and liquids;
otherwise separate
holds.
On deck, a
horizontal separation
of at least 6m.
3. Separated bya
complete compart-
ment or hold from
I
There must be
-
•
either a vertical or I
I
longitudinal separa-
tion by a complete ~
compartment or t-- -
~
hold, and two bulk-
heads or decks re-
sistant to fire and liq-
t- ~

uids.

~ ~ ~
On deck - a horizon-
tal separation of at
least 12m even if one
package is stowed
below deck.
60
4. Separated 100-
gjtudjnaUy by an in-
tervening complete
compartment or hold
from
A vertical sepa-
ration is not allowed.
The packages must
11111
be horizontally sepa-
rated by a complete
compartment.
On deck a horizontal
separation of at least
24m is required and
between an "on
deck" and "under
deck" package, 24m
+ an intervening
compartment.

There are separate rules for segregation on Container ships, Ro-Ro

vessels and LASH ships.

GENERAL INDEX
SUBSTANCE IMDG UN CLASS PACKAGING SUBSIDIARY EMS MFAG TABLE
OR ARTICLE CODE NO. GROUP RISK LABEL NO. NO.
PAGE

Allyl Acetate 3180 2333 3.2 II Poison 3.02 330

In the first column proper shipping names have been used. Other
names have been included in the index with a (eference to the page on
which the proper shipping name appears.

Second column shows the IMDG code page where the particulars of
the individual substance appears.

UN Number : The United Nations committee of experts on transpor-

tation of dangerous goods has compiled a report dealing with the classi-
fication, listing and labelling of dangerous goods and the transport docu- •
ments required. It has assigned a number for every substance, material

61
or article and this number is called the UN number. The U.N.No. helps
overcome language barriers when identifying dangerous goods. The.re is
a numerical index also which lists goods according to their U.N.No.
' .
Class: It lists the IMDG class and.subdivision and for Class 1, the
compatibility group also.

- Packaging Group : Except for classes 1 , 2, 6.2 and 7 dangerous

goods have been c:$vided into three packaging groups according to the
degree of danger tfley present.
Great danger - packaging group 1 (I)
• Medium Danger - Packaging group 2 (II)
Minor danger - Packaging group 3 (Ill)

Subsidiary Risk : Goods which present a secondary dangerous

property (or properties) should be labelled with a secondary label(s)
showing the hazard (or hazards). Class number should not be present
on a subsidiary risk label.

Ems No. : The "Emergency Procedures for ships carrying Dangerous

Goods" is a supplement to the IMDG code. It describes the action,
procedures and emergency equipment to be carried when carrying goods
of that schedule number. In the general index the substances for which
emergency procedures vary from group emergency schedule are under-
lined.

MFAG Table No. : The wMedical First Aid Guide for' Use in Accidents
involving Dangerous Goods" is a supplement to the IMDG code. After
looking up the M FAG Table No., see the table in the MFAG. It gives likely
signs, symptoms, treatment and other advice as per the effect of goods
under that table. It suggests treatment in case of skin contact, eye
contact, inhalation and ingestion. The procedures for the treatment are
also mentioned.

PRECAUTION FOR LOADING DANGEROUS GOODS

In addition to other normal precautions, (see Chapter 2)

1 . Refer to the IMDG code and find out the particulars for the cargo to
be loaded with regard to hazards. compatibility, stowage and segregation.
2. The appropriate international code of signals by day and by night is
to be displayed.

62
3. Nq bunkering operations are to be carried out during loading or
discharging.
4. Wireless transmission should not be done of voltage exceeding 50
volts. .
5. Radar should not be operated during loading or discharging.
6. Forklifts should not to be used in the vicinity of dangerous goods.
7. Loading is to be s.uspended if inclement weather threatens.
8. Defective packages should not be accepted.
9. Port regulations are _to be complied with.

Additionally for Explosives

1. Explosives must be stowed in a magazine, which is a wood or wood-

lined compartment, sometimes specially constructed to stow explosives
safely.
2. No electric cables should pass through the magazine. If this is
unavoidable, the cables should be sheathed by an approved, s_ealed, non-
combustible barrier and tested before loading. .
3. Explosives are unstable when wet and should be stowed in a c;:ocil,
dry, well-ventilated space away from hot bulkheads or decks:
4. Electrical fittings must be disconnected in compartments containing
dangerous goods; ventilation fans to the space must be flame-proof, if not
disconnected.
5. Explosives must be stowed away from living quarters.
6. Masts must be fitted with an efficient lightning conductor as lightning
presents a grave danger.

63
 CHAPTER SEVEN

UNIT LOADS AND CONTAINERS

The concept of unit loads is to increase the speed of cargo work by

reducing the number of occasions when a cargo is handled and replacing
manual handling by mechanical means. Unitisation means consolidating1
of several small packages into one unit of standard size. The cargo is
secured together with bands or shrink wrappers to form a unit which
together with a base i.e. a pallet or a skid allows mechanical handling
equipment such as fork lifts to lift and transport the UC)it.

Forms of unitisation include :

1. Preslinging the cargo
2. Palletisation
3. Containerisation &
4. Lighters or barges on lash ships and RO-RO vehicles.

PRESLl)NG CARGO

· In this method the cargo is loaded in units with the lifting slings in
place so that at the port of discharge it is only_necessary to hook in the
slings and lift off the cargo. Preslung loads should be made up and held
together in one unit by means independent of the sli11g. It can be used for
a variety of cargoes like steel pipes, timber, etc. · It results in quick
turnaround and substantial savings in discharge ports where stevedore
costs are high, notwithstanding the cost of the slings.

PALLETISATION

In palletisation the cargo is consolidated into a unit and placed on

a pallet. The packages should be lashed into a unit and secured to the
pallet. Palletised cargo handling is used for a wide variety of cargoes
which are carried in boxes, bags, cartons, cases, drums and bales or rolls
of paper. Four way entry pallets are considered to be the most suitable
for ship board use. ·

64 .
 APYANTAG·es Of PALLETISATION :
1 .It eliminates the
cost of heavy pack•
aging.
2.tt reduces handling
and thereby the
labour required.
3 .Increases · the
speed of loading and
discharging.
4.Reduces the
amount of dunnage.
required.
5.Permits cargo to
be stored compactly
and tidily thereby
reducing broken Fig. 7 .1 : Four way entry pallet
StQ1,0ge.
6.Facilitates tallying of cargo.

DISADVANTAGES:
1 .Loss of space if the cargo hold is other than a square shape.
2.Loss of space below th.e deckhead._
3.Loss of space due to the space occupied by the pallet.
4.Extra cost for the pallet.-

Pallet sizes depend on the size and type of cargo, the duration of the
voyage and the mode of transport to the loading port The load itself on
the pallet must be solid, secure and evenly distributed on the pallet. The
pallet must be loaded on a level base. In all unit loads, a discount in freight
tariffs is given to shippers; thus the benefit of time saving is shared.

CONTAINERS

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A CONTAINER:

.-
A cof1tainer js a· box made of steel, aluminium or fibre glass. The
standard sizes as recommended by the ISO (International Standards
Organisation) is 20 ft length x 8 ft height x 8 ft width, called TEUs (20 ft.
equivalel")t- units) or 40 x 8 x 8 called FEUs (40 ft. equival~nt units).

65
Containers weigh around 2.2 tonnes{4.1t for. a FEU) anch:an carty about
18 tonnes (26 t for a FEU). ·

A container is an article of transport equipment having the following

features : ·
1_.lt is of a permanent charae:ter, strong enough for repeated use:-
2.lt .is designed to facilitate the transport of goods from one mode·to
aAother i.e. fron:rroad to sea or rail to sea without intermediate reloading.
3Jt .i s designed so as to be easy for stuffing o~ destuffing. ·
4.lt is fitted wit~ facilities to permit easy handling when transferring from
6.ne mode of tra~.~ portto another. · -

The container has a .strengthened deck and comers... The•decl<is

lineq with wood. The sides are corrugated to provide strength as the sides
and roof of the container are very susceptible to ·damage. Tlie ·•main
strength lies in the frame. The International Convention for Safe Contain-
,er.s (ISC 1972) specifies structural requirements for containers and
cont_ains regulations for inspection, approval and maintenance of contain-
ers. Most ·containers are built with fork lift pockets.

TYPES OF CONTAINERS :
1. Closed box or general purpose containers are most common and are
used for various types of cargoes.
2. Open sided contaii1e($ can be loaded from either ~ide foiward or aft
and have hatch covers that cfrop down on either side.
3. Dry bulk cpntainers have loading hatches inthe ropf and one or more
discharge tja_tches on the sides.
4. Tank containers are used for carrying bulk liquids.
5. Half heig.ht containers are normally used for high density cargo.
6. Reefer containers have a compartment for the compressor. There
should be·special provisions for the supply-of power especially at dock and
inland points. Streamlined procedures are required for clearing and
foiwarding to prevent variations in temperature. Most cargo claims arise
in reefer containers.
7. Other special types are pen containers for livestock, tillable contain-
ers for grain, open top containers, collapsible containers etc.

Containers are mainly carried on specially designed ships which

have special blocks or cell guides giving permanent secure stowage for
sea transport. The cell guides run vertically and divide the hold vertically.
transversely and longitudinally into bays. Each bay.is indicated position-

66
 L,.,, 1U.-rotl<.
Por'l:Ahle. .
Du.ks.
~ ,~-

- --c(P
(1)? ca~r(
wr--·
\[tntA\0.£00
Pi.d:~

Fig. 7.2 :· Types of Containers

67
wise by a cc>n:mination of letters and numbers. 8 to 1Otiers may be loaded
below decks and 3 to 5 tiers above deck. Containers can also be carried
in general cargo ships provided special gear for lashing and securing the
containers are available. Some of the gear is shown in fig. 7.3.

STOWAGEANDSECUffiNG:
It is not possible for ship's staff to examine or monitor the securing
of cargo inside the container; although the Master has the right to open
and check any container if he suspects that all is not in order. In addition
to the normal precautions for deck cargo (see Chapter 8) following are
some recommendations for the safe stowage and securing of containers
on deck: · ·

1. Containers are to be stowed in a fore and aft direction with the doors
preferably aft, to prevent sea and spray from entering through leaks in the
doors.
2. Containers containing valuable goods should if possible, be placed
door to door flush with eaeh 0th.er.
3. Containers should be secured on the top as well as bottom as they
can become extremely buoyant when water is shipped on deck.
4. Containers on deck or on the hatch top should be carried one high
unless the upper containers are secured to prevent the container from
sliding or tipping.
5. The securing systems should not impose·on the container or its
fittings any stress in excess of that which the container is designed for.
6. The container should not over stress the deck or the hatch top.
Hatches should be battened down completely before loading containers
on top. The structural strength of the deck and hatch covers should be
kept in mind when loading containers and also when fixing lashing points
on deck.

STABILITY:
The old rule of heavy weights at the bottom should be followed for
containers as well, to give a large GM. In a filled container the centre of
gravity generally lies below mid-height of the container. This is due to the
extra s~rengthening of the deck and the wood lining. For stability
calculations the centre of gravity of the container is assumed at mid-height
to make an allowance for safety.

68
fw,·st Lock

r ,,

-fwYnbuckle..
<

F.IQ .7.3 Container Lashing Gear

· 69

..
LIFTING A CONTAINER :
A con-
tainer, is de-
signed to ·be
~s
lifted from four
top corners. Any
otherform of lift-
ing imposes
strain on the
container and
may cause it to
over balance. A
container sling
consisting of a
rectanpular
frame with 4
hooks hangi_ng
vertically is nor-
mally used. The
hooks being in-
serted into the
corner castings
pointing out-
wards from the
ends of the con-
tainer. Contain-
ers should never
be lifted directly
by wire slings
fixed to the cor- Fio. 7.4 : lifting a Container
ners without the
use of spreaders. In modern terminals spreaders with automatic locking
arrangements which do not need the presence. of a man are used.
Containers that are loaded without seals or locks on the door should be
suitably claused and fresh seal or locks put.

ADVANTAGES OF CONTAINERISATION:
1 . Saving in packing costs as the container itself is of sturdy construc-
tion and forms a skin.
2. Less damage to cargo during handling.
70
3. Prevention.of theft .and:pitterage.
4. Less-handfing.time·ateveryl)Ort resulting in cost saving:·
5. lower jnsurance premium for shippers due Jo less ch~nces of
damage and pilferage. ·
6. Preserves ·the quality and purity of .cargo from taint.
7. Reduces the port time for ship and improves the, working ratio. ( Time
running to time spent in port.)
8. Easy tallying and documentation.
9. Amenable- to computerisation. ,
1o. For a shipper less inventory costs and stable inventory control is
made possi>le by a regular con!~iner ship schedule.

PISAPYANTAGES :
1. Highly capital intensive as container ships cost twice as much ·as
other ships and shippers have to pay for leasing of the containers.
2. High degree of training is necessary for smooth operation.
3. Repositioning of containers after discharge is required.
4. Infrastructure on land like roads, bridges and availability of transport
has to be developed for successful transportation of containers on land.
. .
The biggest advantage that cont:3inerisation offers is door to. door
delivery onan international scale via intermodal transportation systems or
combined transport system. Here a combined transport op~rator under-
takes to pick the container from the shippers premises and deliver it
virtually to the con·signees door step by various modes of transport which
may include road, rail or air together with sea. The facilities provided are
customs formalities, provision of bill of lading or combined transport
document, competitive freight rates, regul·ar shipping schedules. single
w indow for payment of freight, etc: In India inland container depots have
been formed to cater to the needs of inland shippers and the multimodal
system is being developed and streamlined to fulfil its objectives of door
to door delivery.

LASH AND RO-RO SHIPS

Lash stands for Lighter Aboard fil:!ip. This concept came about as
a means to avoid delays in waiting for a berth. Cargo is loaded into lighters
or barges which can be covered and made watertight. The lighters are
towed out into the anchorage area -where the mother ship lifts them up
from astern by means of a large gantry crane and loads them into the
holds. Lighte,rs for discharge are picked up from the ships hold and floated
in the water from where they are towed to a jetty. •

71
 The concept of lash ships has not caught on for various reasons. A
large capital investment in ships and lighters is-required. Besides, waiting
for a berth was experienced in ports with inadequate facilities and these
same ports did not have the towing and other administrative capabilities
to cater to these type of ships. Further an improvement in port" facilities
coupled with a slump in shipping reduced waiting time at ports making
the investment in these ships unrenumerative.

Lash ships are useful in coastal trade where lighters have to be

towed through inland waterways between factories and industrial areas
and the sea.

RO-RO SHIPS
(For a diagram, see front cover).

The roll on - roll off system is a radical change from the traditional
method of lifting cargo in and out of the ship's holds. It has incorporated
sweeping changes in ship design with absence of any lifting gear, cargo
area extending the length of the ship and divided vertically by movable
decks with ramps connecting the decks. The bow, stern and sometimes
a section of the shipside too opens up and can be lowered to form ramps
over which the vehicles are driven into the ship. The ramps rest on the
jetty and can be raised or lowered to take changes in the ship's draft or
tidal effects. In later designs, the ramps can be slewed sideways also.
The ship is geared to carry cars, trucks and anyttiing that can be driven
on and off it. The main deck may be fitted with cell guides to stow
containers. Cargo is loaded on a trailer and properly secured to form a
unit. The trailer is driven to its stowage position on-sh.ip by a motorised
vehicle where it is detached and secured. The motorised vehicle returns
to tow other trailers.

The greatest advantage of ro-ro ships is the speed at which cargo

can be loaded and discharged. Port calls last for a few hours only and it
is possible to completely load or discharge the ship in less than a day.
Securing of cargo is the most important aspect to be attended to. Because
of the units being on wheels, the decks should not be wet, greasy or
slippery, brakes should be on and the engine in gear and for heavy
vehicles, beside8 the normal securing arrangements, movement must be
resisted by jacking or placing rough material between the unit and the deck
to increase the friction.

72
 CHAPTE~ _EIGl-:(T

REFRIGERATED ·A ND DECK CARGOES

Refrigerated Cargo~s can be divided into three ·classes.

1. Frozen Cargo: eg. meat, butter, poultry and fish. These cargoes are
carried in a hard frozen state at temperatures around -8°C to -12"C to
prevent the growth of bacteria, ..
2. ·· · Chilled Cargo : eg. cheese, eggs and fresh vegetables. Tempera-
tures maintained in the compifrtment·for these cacgqes are around -2°C
to 6°C. Beef may also be carried in a chilled state as the tissues get
damaged sometimes ~Y freezing. Maintajning the right temperatures is
more critical with chilled cargoes than with frozen cargoes as condensa-
tion of moisture due to variation of temperat~re encourgges bacterial
growth. ·
3. Air Cooled Cargo : eg. fruits. Here temperatures of around 2°C to
12°C are maintained by air circulation.

The temperatures at which individual cargoes are -carried may vary

beyond the above-mentioned limits depending on the nature of the cargo,
the ambient temperature at the loading port, the duration of the voyage.
and the state in which the cargo is to be delivered. (whether ripe, frozen,
ready for consumption, etc.)

REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

Just as the natural flow of water is from a high Jevel to a low level,
the natural flow of heat too is from a body at a high temperature to a body
at a low temperature; and just as we would need a pump to reve.rse the
flow or pump water upwards, we need mechanical work to be done or a
heat pump to transfer heat from a body at a low temperature and give it
away to a body at a high temperature. This is the principle of refrigeration.

In a refrigeration system, gas at a high pressure P 1, low volume V

and high temper~ture T, (35°to 400C) is obtained from the compresso/ · ·
It is allowed to expand slightly and cool in the condenser to a liquid at
pressure P2 , volume V2 and sea water temperature T2 • This coole<;I riquid
gas is suddenly allowed to expand by passing through an expansion-valve.

73
The expansion of the gas to volume V, is accompani~ by a slight fall in
its pressure and a large fall in its temperature to P, and T, (+5° to 25°C)
respectively. The gas is now kept in contact with the substance to be
cooled. It absorbs heat from the substance cooling it, while in tum its own
temperature rises to T4 (25° to 35°C) and pressure and volume to _P4 and
V,. respectively. It is then compressed in a compressor to its pressure,
volume and temperature at the first stage, i.e. P1 , V1 , and T 1•

g,.; ne ft-t.i'I\
.fyc,n can1 artooits
~----""-'--~
lDM P RE,%OR..

V
Fig. 8.1 : Principle and working of a refrigeration system
•
. The refrigerant is so chosen because its physical and chemical
properties increase the efficiency of the plant, reduce its size and elimi-
nate hazards in handling the refrigerant. Ammonia was used for several
years till it was replaced by carbon dioxide which was less toxic. Today
freon is used extensively, although it is being phased out due to pressure
from environmentalists as it contains chloro-fluoro carbons (CFCs) which
have been found to harm the ozone layer.

74
 In ship's refrigeration systems, direct expansion and circulation of
the refrigerant is not advisable except for small refrigerated chambers and
provi~ion stores. This is because in large installations it becomes c;iifficult
to monitor th~ pipes for leakages which would result in a wastage of
expensive gas. For large refrigeration systems we therefore use the
indirect method and a second refrigerant. The primary refrigerant is used
to cool ·a tank of brine and this·cooled brine is then circulated through the
compartment. Brine is chosen because of its low freezing point, 20° to
30°C, depending on its concentration and composition.

C ::t----"'='>oi-=---~

rt====::~t::=:::::::::::==1A
t-C=---=----=-1-~=::;==~R.

r-=='..l----4-t======:=t: G 5
_-_-:..-=,.-=..-::.=.::J
t - t - - - - " - , , . _ ,.............. Op
SEPA~Af. A
£-,.p AN St
I/AL "es C
E
s=
Fig. 8.2 : Brine gri~s

The brine is passed through separate grids surrounding the same

compartment. If one grid is blocked or choked, the brine supply can be
increased to other grids so that cooling will not be affected. Also different
groups of grids, each with its own expansion valve is used to maintain
different compartments at different temperatures by adjusting the flow of
gas. For fruit cargoes, not only cooling but also ventilation is to be carried
out. For this, instead of circulating the brine around the compartments, air
is passed over the brine grids and this cooled air is blown through ducts
into the compartment. Cooling is often carried out by a combination of cold
brine and cool air circulation .

75
 CARGO OPERATIONS .

The success of refrigerated trade depends principally on the condi-

tion in which cargo arrives at the discharge port. This not only depends
on .the efficiency of the refrigeration plant or the insulation but greatly
depends on the efforts of the cargo officers with respect to stowage
· precautions prior to and during reception of cargo and maintenancEi of
correct temperatures in transit. Any departure from the highest standard
of efficiency can cause deterioration of cargo resulting in loss of value and
large claims to the ship.

Following are the main points to be borne in mind during the carriage
of refrigerated cargo.

1. Preparation of the Compartment :The compartment must be clean,

dry and free from any odour or taint. If necessary, it must qe deodorised
using ozone, sodium bicarbonate or patent
deodorisers but strong disinfectants must not be
U$ed. Bilges are to be cleaned, deodorised and
suctions checked. The insulation and permanent
dunnage is to be checked and repaired as nec-
essary. Scuppers are to be cleaned and brine
traps checked, tested and refilled. Brine traps
prevent warm air from entering the compartment
and cold air from escaping; at the same tim~ -
allowing drainage of water. Thermometers should
be in position and ventilator plugs to the compart-
ment fitted in place and tightly wedged. All opens
ings are to be seated against' entry of air. Brine
pipes are to be tested to ensure that they are not
choked and that no leaks occur at the joints.

fig. 8.3 : Brine traps ·

2. Precooling of the Compartment : The compartment should be cooled

down prior to loading, to a temperature slightly lower than the transit•
temperature, to allow for fluctuations during loading. Dunnage laid in the
compartment is also to be cooled before cargo is loaded, otherwise it will
stain the cargo in contact with it. When the compartment is ready for
loading a survey is carried out by a cargo surveyor who inspects the
compartment for cleanliness, fitness fOI the loading of the cargo con-
cerned and for satisfactory working of the refrigeration plant. A loading -

76
certificate, showing the temperature of each compartment, is issued
before any cargo is stowed in the space.

3. Reception and Loading of cargo : Local port regulations should be

known to ship's officers with respect to opening and closing of compart-
ments and accepted working temperatures f0r stevedores to avoid friction
with them and delay to the ship. The stowage should be so aimed so as
to allow a free circulation of cold air around the cargo. The cargo should
be secured in a seaway. Clean cargo should nor come in contact with dirty
cargo. Utmost care should be taken to inspect the incoming cargoes for
inherent damage. This can be done by taking random samples. Any
overripe or damaged cargo must be rejected. When loading a lower hold
through a refrigerated t'ween deck, canvas or tarpaulins must be hung
around the opening to restrict-.the escape of cold air. Temperature must
be maintained during stoppages for meals, etc. During loading or dis-
charging when the compartment is open frost may form onto the brine
pipes. This must be brushed away onto tarpaulins and removed to prevent
its falling on cargo and causing damage by wetting. After loading, all
outside accesses should be.sealed with paper to ensure good circulation.
The hatch covers are normally self sealing. The shipper must provide the ,
vessel with loading and carrying temperatures and any other special
requirements.

4. During Transtt: Temperature control is most essential and must be

strictly maintained. Daily records showing the temperature in each com-
partment are to be kept for each watch. Nowadays automatic temperature
recorders keep a continuous record of temperatures. During transit of
chilled meat, a certain amount of CO2 (10%.by volume) is introduced to
preserve the meat. Excessive CO2 can discolour the consignment. Hence
it is essential to keep a record and control of CO2 concentration. An
instrument called a thermoscope is us~d to monitor the concentration of
CO2 • Conversely', in the case of fruits, the ripening of the fruit causes ·
evolution of CO2 , which, if present in concentrations of above 5% spoils
the fruit. This excess CO2 can be dissipated by allowing fresh precooled
air occasionally into the hold, taking care not to cause large variations in
temperature.

5. Durjnq Discharge : Prior to discharge a cargo surveyor is generally

called to check the transit temperature and CO2 records. If the concen-
tration of CO2 is higher than 7% the compartment must be vented with
fresh air prior to man entry for discharge.

77
 Here are some properties of refrigerated cargoes with their carrying
temperatures.

Apples (-1° to 2°C) should be in good condition. Can taint other cargoes.

Bananas (around 12°C) are carried as a special trade. They are shipped
on their stems in a hard, unripe state. Daily inspections of the compart-
ment _are to be made and any ripe fruit plucked. Too low temperatures
can permanently arrest the ripening process. Shipment is done in such
a state as to arrive at the discharge ports and reach the markets, ripe and
ready for consumption.

B.u11fil is carried frozen, while cheese (3° to 6°C) is chilled. Both are liable
to taint.

Citrus fruits (3° to 7°C) leave behind a strong, fruity smell which must be
removed before loading any other cargo.

Chilled beef (-2°C) should not have any whitish, mould marks.
It is hung from hooks, not too close together, to permit ventilation and
prevent chafing.

Frozen meat (-10°C) Soft carcasses should be rejected and bloodstained

wrapping regarded with suspicion. May be loaded in smaller pieces in
bags .

.Egg_s_ are fragile and must be handled carefully. They are easily tainted
and may require stowage in a separate co~partment.

Drugs and experimental samples are often sent in refrigerated ships.

Instructions of the shipper must be strictly followed.

Chemicals and gases are shipped in refrigerated condition in special

ships. Their carriage is a separate subject in itself.

DECK CARGOES

Cargoes are often carried on the decks of ships like container and
timber carriers. General cargo ships too carry a wide range of cargoes
on deck which may include motor cars and other vehicles, iron and steel .
pipes or girders, dangerous goods, containers and sometimes even
livestock. Besides, heavy lifts and unusually shaped goods such as

78
 locomotiv~$, yachts and small launches, large tanks or pressure vessels
and other such machinery may also be shipped on deck.

Deck cargo requires special attention during loading and ·carriage

which will include the following :

1. Load Density ·

The deck load should not be concentrated but should be distributed

over a large area by using dunnage to spread the load. The load density
of the deck must never be exceeded. If necessary, the deck may be
supported from underneath by rigging temporary wooden or metal beams
and pillars.

2. Stability

The metacentric height (GM) which is a measure of the ship's

stability, should be adequate at all stages of the voyage. Shift of the centre
of gravity due to fuel or water consumption from DB tanks, creation of free·
surface effects or accumulation of water, ice or snow on deck should not
adversely affect the stability. The weight should be properly distributed
to avoid any list or excessive trim. Deck cargoes offer .a greater wind
resistance and can increase the heeling ~oment due to wind.

3. Stowage

All openings in the weather deck e.g. hatch covers, hatch accesses,
etc. must be securely closed and battened down before deck cargo is
stowed on top of them. Ventilators, air pipes·and other working gear must
be in good order and protected from damage. Access is to be maintained
to safety equipment, controls for remote operation of valves, pumps, etc.,
emergency steering gear, sounding pipes, machinery spaces, crew quar-
ters and all fore and aft parts used for the working of the vessel like
storerooms, etc. It should be possible to properly close and secure
openings to such places. The height of deck cargo should be such as not
to impair visibility from the bridge. Deck cargoes should not extend
beyond the shipside.

4. Lashing

Proper lashing is important not only for the safety of the cargo but
.. also for the safety of life and ship. Improper securing of cargoes have

79
 caused several ship casualties and loss of life, even during loading and
discharging. lashing must be carried out by competent persons in
accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual or Code of Safe Practice for
Cargo Stowage and Securing. The size of lashing material should take
into account the forces exerted on the cargo as a result of the motion of
the ship in the most severe weat~er conditions expected for ,hat voyage.
The method of lashing is to be appropriate for that type, size and weight
of cargo/J Chocking may have to be carried out and spaces between the
~fured with dunnage. Eyes for lashing should be welded at
strengthened points. lashings should be regularly inspected and tight-
ened and particulars of the same entered in the mate's log book.

5. Protection of Personnel

A clear walking space on deck at least 600mm wide should be

provided for access for personnel to and from their work places. If this
is not possible, then a walkway is to be built over the deck cargo. The
walkway is to be of sound construction and firmly secured. Three courses
of wire or rails to a height of 1m are to run on each side of the walkway,
supported by staunchions along its length. Projections, slack steel bands
and other such foot traps and hazards should be marked and highlighted.

80
 CHAPTER NINE ,

TANKER OPERATIONS

FLAMMABILITY

The surface of petroJeum evaporates into vapour when left standing.

The amount of evaporation depends on the volatility of the liquid, its
temperature, surface area and other factors. The vapour is hydrocarbofl
gas (CH gas), so named, because it consists of hydrogen and carbon
atoms in various complex combinations.

Petroleum gas and air forms a flammable and explosive mixture.

However all vapour - air mixtures are not explosive. If the percentage of
CH vapour is too low the mixture will not ignite and is said ~o be ·,oo lean".
If the percentage of CH vapour is too high, the corresponding percentage
of air (rather the oxygen in the air) will be too low and the mixture will not
support combustion. It is then said to be "too rich". The mixture will only
ignite when the vapour - gas proportion is within a certain range called the
flammable range.

DEFINITIONS

Lower Flammable Limit <LFL) or Lower Explosive Limit <LEU : It is

the concentration of CH gas in a i r ~ which there is insufficient Qtl to
support and propagate combustion.
Upper Flammable Limit /UFU or Upper Explosive Limit IUEL) : It
is the concentration of CH gas in air abQya which there is insuilicient air
to support and propagate combustion.

Flammable Limits and Flammable Range of a few petroleum vapours

expressed as a percentage volume of CH gas in air are given below :

Ga·s Upper Lower

Propane 9.5 2.2

Butane 8.5 1.9
Pentane 7.8 1.5

A value of 10% and 1% is taken in practice for most oil cargoes.

· 81
 look at the graph in Fig. 9.1

The.flammable range is between 1% and 10% for CH gas, 21% and

11.5% for oxygen. If 10% of CH gas is introduced in air, the proportion
of oxygen ·reduces to 21 x 90 = 18.9% (Point D)
mo
When oxygen is minimum (.11.5%), CH gas must be at least 1.5%
(Point E). At 1% CH gas, the oxygen must be at least 20.8% for the
mixture to be flammable (Point C). If the concentration of CH gas and
Oxygen is outside the flammable range, the mixture will not burn.

,,.

.,
:;
.,
::,
0
>
►
: 10
.."
<
.,z
u
ffi
..
L
I
<
"z s
~G
"'
<
8
~
►
:r.

0 s 10 I<

Fig. 9.1 : Flammable Range Diagram

When we dilute a CH gas - air mixture with air, (let's say having the
concentrations as shown at point F), air will slowly replace the CH gas till
the mixture becomes 100% air. The concentrations of CH gas and oxygen
will take the path FA. The path passes through the flammable range and
at some time during the dilution, the mixture could explode if a spark was
applied. We must try to avoid passing through the flammable range during
d ilution with air. To do this the mixture is diluted with inert gas (along the
line FH) till a point H is reached below the critical dilution line. This is
known by sampling and testing the tank atmosphere with gas measuring

82
instruments. Now if oxygen (air) is let in freely, the dilution will take place
along line HA, without passing through the flammable range at any time
causing no danger of fire or explosion.

METHODS OF GAS-FREEING TANKS

Tanks must be gas-freed before man entry or hot work is carried out.
Inert gas, air or steam is used to replace the tank atmosphere.

1. Using Inert Gas : The tank atmosphere can be diluted with inert gas
or displaced by purging. In dilution, the inert gas is introduced at a high
velocity into the tank to penetrate to the bottom as CH gas is heavier then
inert gas or air. To maintain this velocity, many tanks shouId not be diluted
at the same time.

In displacement, inert gas enters from the top of the tank at a low
velocity. The interface of the incoming and outgoing gas must be stable
without any turbulence. The CH gas escapes through suitable piping
leading out from the bottom of the tank. ·

The oxygen - gas concentration must be monitored at different

heights often during the operation using suitable instruments. The
a
outgoing gc,is must be vented at safe height above the deck.

2. .8yAk: Hydraulic, pneumatic or steam driven fans may be used to

blow in air or extract the gas. The materials used in the construction of
these fans must be spark-free. Vented gas must not be allowed to ~nter
the accommodation or other tanks. The capacity and penetration of the
fan should be such as to gas free the tank in· the shortest possible time.
It takes about 25 - 30 replacements of the atmosphere to bring down the
concentration of CH gas in air from 50% to below LFL. Tank lids must
not be opened till ventilation starts and should be shut immediately after
the ventilation operation when the gas is tested to be safe. Wind sails with
long canvas trunking, were often used.previously as an inexpensive way
of ventilating when fans were not available.

3. By steam: Steam was used previously to inert tanks before inert gas
became available. The hazard with steam is that because of its high
temperature, it assists the evaporation of oil, especially with volatile oils,
forming flammable mixtures. Steam introduced at a high velocity causes
a static charge to accumulate, which may lead to creation of a spark.
Steam velocity must hence be.kept low and steam must not be put into

83
a tank having an earth~ probe nor should a probe _be put into a tank ·till
at least 10 min:.ite·s after steam•is stopped to allow it to settle·and stable
distribution of charge and concentration is achieved..

TANKER .OPERATION SYSTEMS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED ·PIPE-

LINES

1. Q.amQ : The cargo pipelines commence from the rhanifotd on deck.

The shore pipeline is connected at the manifold and the manifold valve
opened to let in oil. The ·cargo pipelines run on deck and brarich ouno
the different tanks where they lead dowrr to the bottom. The di$Charge
pipelines start from the various tank suctions and lea'd to the cargo
pumproom and the cargo pumps. While loading cargo is pumped from
ashore and during discharge, ship's pumps are used. From the pumps
the oil is led to the deck and out through the manifold.

2. Stripping : A smaller diameter cargo One is used to strip the last

remains of cargo which is below the suction of the main cargo pumps.
Stripping lines lead to stripping pumps w~ich may be of the reciprocating
or eductor type, also situated in the pumproom.

3. .B.alla.s.t : Ballast may be taken into cargo tanks before which they
must be washed. When cargo is loaded, the ballast must be pumped out.
Care must be taken that ballast pumped out is clean within the limits as
set out in the Marine Pollution Regulations to avoid stiff penalties. Ballast
is also taken in tanks which are exclusively used for ballast. However the
cargo pipelines and pumps service these tanks. They·are known as Q!e.a.o.
Ballast Tanks. If ballast tanks have their own pipelines and pumps
separate from that used for cargo, they are called Segregated Ballast
Tanks. Segregated ballast tanks are often protectively located around the
hull to reduce damage to the cargo tanks and the resultant pollution in
case of an accident. (collision, grounding, etc.)

Ballast tanks have their own stripping arrangements.

4. inert Gas : To maintain the atmosphere in an inert condition, inert

gas is generated in the inert gas generator which is usually situated near
the funnel, aft of the accommodation. The line branches out to the
different tanks where inert gas is let in at the top. While loading, this gas
is displaced by the cargo and it must be let out safely as it will·be mixed
with CH gas. The ventilation system leads to the PV valves (Pressure-
Vacuum valves) and PV breaker which functions as a safety valve. In

84
some ships High Velocity Vent Valves (HVVV} may be fitted to discharge
the gas high above the deck.

5. Crude Oil Washing <COW) : The crude oil washing (COW) lines lead
off from the main discharge line to the COW mach;nes. The carg~· itself ·
is used to wash the tank and stir up and dissolve the waxy, asphaltic
deposits which are carried out as the cargo is discharged. COW has been
found to be more effective than water washing. When water washing is
done, sea water is led from the deck fire main through hoses or pipes to
the washing machines.

6. Steam Heating Coils : To maintain the cargo in a viscous state and

reduce the thickening and formation of waxy deposits, it is heated slightly.
Steam, generated in the boiler.is passed through coils running along the
bottom of the tank.

For other ship operations involving compressed air, deck water and
to fresh water, fuel oil and other tanks there are several other smaller
pipeline systems.

TYPES OF CARGO PIPELINE SYSTEMS

Tankers have a varied and sometimes complex pipeline system

which is basically based on three main types:
1. The Free Flow System ·
2. The Direct Line System and
3. The Ring Main System

1. The Free Flow System : This system is: mainly used on large crude
carriers which carry only one grade of cargo which is required to be
discharged quickly. Large gate valves built into the bulkheads of the tanks
allow the oil to flow from the side tanks to the ce,ntre tanks, from where
the stern trim of the vessel causes the oil to ·now to the aftermost tank,
where the suctions of the main cargo pumps are situated. The large
bulkhead sluice valves permit a good drainage of the cargo. Any residues
are discharged by the stripping pumps.

2. The Direct line System : This system permits two or three grades
to be carried and is suitable for VLCCs as it facilitates quick loading and
discharging. The arrangement is simple with lines leading directly to the
tanks. Due to the straight lengths of pipeline, there is better suction and
less loss o.f pressure due to friction. Fewer bends and valves mean less

85
 fREE fLOW SYSTEM DlR£CT LINE SYSTEM RING MAIN SYSTEM

,, !
a·
(D
N
0
...I»
'
0)
a,
'8
,:,
~-
~
5·
<D
(II

-
'<
(II
11)
3
(II

Fi9 . 'f.Z,
➔ f,u,k Valvt "':rut s11dioi, lo C4r'jO pump = Bu/kJ,,AJ 1oft ···ltt ® MashrValve ~ CnssovtrVcilve

l
 erosion and leaks, reducing the mainten·ance required. The time spent
·in line washing is also reduced; however thorough.washing vf the line is
not possible unless the washings are flushed into ttie tank and discharged
from there. Due to there being fewer valves, leaks are difficult to control
and many grades cannot be carried as the required line and valve
segregation is not provided.

3. The Ring Maio System : This system is ideal for product carriers
where several different products are to be carried simultaneously in the
different tanks. From the figure, it will be noticed that any pump can be
connected to discharge any tank, making_it very versatile. Cargo may
have to be pumped in a roundabout route but the required two valve
segregation between products can always be met. Line wast\ing can be
carried out thoroughly without flushing into the tanks but it takes a longer
time due to the number of bends, joints and valves. Due to this the
pumping rate also is affected and leaks due to erosion become common
as the ship becomes older. The initial cost of fitting this system is higher.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

The procedures for loading are discussed here. Similar procedures

have to be followed (maybe in reverse) for discharging.

1. Before the tanker arrives at the berth, an exchange of information

takes place between the port and terminal authorities and the ship
regarding ·
i) Particulars of the ship, draft and trim..
ii) Any defects in hull, machinery or equipment.
iii) Berthing arrangements, tugs, maximum draft at berth, etc.
iv) State of the cargo tanks, whether inerted, washed, etc. and the
oxygen concentration in the tanks.
v) Ship's manifold details, including size, location, number, type and
material of the connections.
vi) Any requirements for tank cleaning, disposal of slops and/or oily
ballast residues. ·

2. After the ship is berthed the terminal representative appraises the

chief officer of the following:
i) Specifications of the cargo to be loaded (flash point, vapour pres-
sure, etc.), and any other characteristics requiring special attention.
ii} Quantity of the cargo to be loaded and the loading sequence.

87
iii) Number and sizes of hoses or arms available and the manifold
connections required for.each product or grade of cargo.
iv) The .maximum shore pumping rate, topping off rate and the pressure
available at the manifold.
v) Establishment of an efficient communication system with signals for
emergency stop and the standby time required for r)Ormal pump stopping.

3. The chief officer informs the terminal representative of any limita-

tions which may require adjustments to be made to the loading operation.
In addition he ·has to appraise the terminal representative of
i) Any part cargo already on board; its grade, volume and location.
ii) Quantity, distribution and composition .of ballast and pumping out
time.
iii) Proposed method of venting tanks.

4. On the basis of the above exchanged information, an operational

agreement in writing is made between a responsible ship's officer and the
terminal representative. A ship/shore safety check list is also completed
jointly. wherein a physical verification of the items contained is carried out.
(The items in the check list are covered in Safety Procedures).

5. A cargo surveyor or inspector may board the vessel to inspect the

ship's tanks prior to loading. It is possible to use ullage or sighting ports
for this but if entry into the tanks is required, they must be gas free.

6. The pipelines are now set to receive the c·argo ih the appropriate
tanks. The valve positions must be checked by the duty officer not only
from the indicators in the cargo control room but also by physical
verification. Direct loading is carried out bypassing the pumproom.

7. The gas relief lines are set up by shutting the bypass valves and
checking that the PV valves and PV breaker are set to operate at the
correct pressure. Sea intake and overboard discharge valves are to be
securely shut and lashed.

8. Cargo is started at a slow rate to ensure that it is going into the

correct tank and to reduce the build up of a static charge. Gangway and
moorings must be constantly tended to, to prevent the ship from surging
or ranging which may cause the hos~ to rupture.

88
9. As the cargo is being loaded, .samples of the cargo, its temperature
and relative density is· taken to determine the final ullage. This may be
different from the pre-computed ullage due to ,actual temperature and
relative density of the cargo being different from the assumed values.
When this levelis neared, the tank valve is slowly shut, at the same time
another tank valve is slowly opened to prevent excess pressure b.eing built
up in the line. When the final tank is being loaded, the pumping rate from ·
ashore is first reduced and finally stopped when the required ullage is
attained. The pipeline is emptied into the tank by blowing through with
compressed air or inert gas.
. '
10. The manifold valve is closed. Finaf ullages, temperatures and
relative density values are taken, quantities are determined and pocu-
ments signed.

11 . Other valves,·ullage openings, etc. are securely closed, PV valves

are reset, pipeline is disconnected, o.ilspills are cleaned up and the ship
prepared for sailing.

While discharging,

1. The inert gas system must be able to cope up with a large demand,
otherwise discharge may have to be slowed down or stopped.

2. Emergency shut down procedures must be decided and remote

operated switches for cargo pump shut do,,._.,n tried out.

SAFETY PROCEDURES

The general principle in eliminating risk of fire or explosion on a

tanker is to avoid a source of ignition and a flammable atmosphere being
present in the same place at the same time. In cargo compartments,
pumprooms ano the tank deck, petroleum vapoµrs can always be ex-
pected and so sources of ignition must be strictly eliminated from these
areas. In the accommodation and engine room there are innumerable
sources of ignition from electric appliances, motors, smoking, tools, etc.
and so flammable vapours should not be allowed to enter these spaces.
In deck workshops, storerooms and forecastle areas both flammable
gases and ignition sources are to be safely controlled.

89
 1. -. Smokiag is.to be permitted only at time's and in.places designated
by the Master.. Such places are so chosen wher~ entry .of flammable
vapours is highly improbable. Matches and cigarette lighters should not
be carri~d outside the accommodation. It is extremely foolish to smoke
in hiding. ·

2: 'Naked lights should not be permitted on the tank deck. All flashlights
and other portable equipment stl~uld be approved by a con:ipetent
authority for safe use in a flammable atmosphere. They should be care-
fully examined for defects, with no damaged insulation and securely
~ttached to the cable. Notices against smoking and the use of naked lights
sh6uld .be prominently displayed. Rxeq .electrical equipment must be
properly_maintained so that it or its wiring does not become a source of
ignition. Air driven lamps, fitted with means to avoid accumulation of static
electricity may be used in flammable atmospheres.

3. UHFNHF transceivers should be intrinsically safe. Wireless trans-

mission of medium or high frequency can induce an electrical potential in
derricks, masts, stays, metal posts, etc. so these should be efficiently
earthed. Radar, telephones and closed circuit television should not be
operated if-the ship is in a hazardous zone where an electric potential can
, , be.induced in shore conductors. VHF, UHF and satellite communications
are generally safe.
4. Bef0,·a b, ,y chipping, hammering or any other hot work is carried out
or any power toot is used outside the engine room or accommodation, the
officer should ensure that a hot work certificate is "o btained and the space
remains gas free throughout the work period. The space should be
checked for adequacy of oxygen and absence of any:toxic or flammable
gases.

5. Before entering into enclosed spaces, spaces which have flammable

or toxic gases or are deficient in oxygen and the pumproom whenever it
is used, thorough and efficient ventilation must be carried out. Entry into
the pumproom is to be only permitted when the extractor (or blower) fans
are running and extracting air right from the bottom of the pumproom. A
breathing apparatus set should be rigged ready and easily accessible. All
doors , portholes and other openings into the accommodation and engine
room must be kept shut. Ventilation or air-conditioning units must be put
on recirculation. ·

6. Aluminium equipment like gangways, portable ladders, etc. when

dragged on deck leaves a smear which, if subsequently struck, can give

90
rise to an incendive spark,· Magnesium, and to a lesser extent, aluminium
anodes, give rise to an: i_nce119iV-~ spaf1< on-impact with rusty-steel. · Only
zinc anodes·-are permitted in oil tanks. • · · ··· ·
.· .
7. Cloth, wood and ~ther materials, ·when stained with oiI:·espec1al1y
vegetable oil, gradually .heat up and can ignite by spontaneous combus:..
tion. Such materials should nofbe stored near oil, paint or chemicals or
be lying· around. ·C~rtain ctiemicals can spontaneously ignite' when
permitted to.evaporate: A_ny petroleum or other oils should not be-allowed
to fall or be sprayed ont<;> hot surfaces. :· · .. •

8. Fire fighting equipment must be kept in constant readiness. Portable

fire extinguishers ·m ust be kept star:idby at thef manifold. It ·Should ·be
possible to cover th·e manifold and other areas with ·sea-water or f0ani
from two nozzles simultaneously. · .. · ."

9. Special precautions to control sources of igRition ·must be.1aken in

the engine room. Funnel uptakes, inert gas uptakes and boiler tubes must
only be blown before arrival at or after departure from port. =· Spark
arrestors must be in good condition, oil spills cleaned and a high standard
of personal safety and hygiene maintained. In-the galley, only stoves with
an integral heating element should be used and these toomust be shut
down if stern loading is in progress.

10. Emergency towing wires must be made fast to the ·offshore bollards
with sufficient slack and suspended about a metre above the water. The
main engines must be available at short notice.

11. lnternatfonal code of signals 'J' (8 flag.by day and one all round red
light by night) is to be continuously displayed.

12. Scuppers and overboard discharges should be plugged, oil contain-

ing and dispersing equipment kept r~ady and all other pollution prevention
measures taken. .

STATIC ELECTRICITY· HAZARDS AND PREVENTION

Certain tanker operations give rise to an accumulation of electric

charge, especially on dissimilar metals, which may be released suddenly
in electrostatic discharges with sufficient energy to ignite flammable
vapours. The two metals are oppositely charged and the charge seeks
the easiest way to travel between the two metals and neutralise itself in
the form of a &J)ark.
'.
91
 A static charge may be formed in different ways e.g. passage-of oil
through a pipeline (forming especially at the flanges), eJection of a liquid
or gas through a nozzle, creation of a mist or spray, splashing or agitation
of a liquid if dropped from a height, bursting of air bubbles in oil, at the
interface due to the relative motion of two different liquids, passing a steel
tape or ~ounding line through gloved hands, -etc.

· After loading a tank, sufficient time must be given for the charge to
disperse before introducing an ullage tape, sampling container, thermom-
eter or anything else into the tank. Synthetic ropes must not be used for
lowering as they accumulate a charge. All ship/shore hoses, tank washing
machines, etc. must be properly bonded to present a path~for the charge
. to flow to earth. An insulating flange is inserted between the shore pipeline
to prevent charge from travelling to the ship. White oils are static
accumulators and should be made to flow as smoothly as possible.
Compressed air or inert gas should not be used for line clearing unless
the air or gas is not allowed to enter the tank. ·

GAS DETECTING INSTRUMENTS

1. Explosimeter or combustible gas indicator

It is used for the detection and measurement of combustible gases and

vapour. It depends for its operation on the heat developed by the actual
combustion of the flammable portion of the sample. The sample is drawn
over a heated filament which forms one arm of a balanced Wheatstone's
bridge circuit. The current for the circuit is pro~ided by six standard dry
cells. Combustible gas in the sample is burnt on t~e filament. Thus its
temperature is raised and its resistance increases .in proportion to the
amount of combustible gas burnt i.e. in proportion to the amount of
combustible gas in the sample. The circuit is now unbalanced which
causes a deflection of the meter. The scale is graduaJed in percentage
of the lower explosive limit. The initiai balance of the circuit is achieved
in fresh air with the meter at zero by adjustmer'lt Qf a rheostat R6 in the
figure.

The limitations of the explosimeter are :

1. As the explosimeter only indicates the presence of flammable gases

and vapours it may be dangerous to enter the compartment as no
indication of toxicity is given, or sufficiency of oxygen.

92
 Fig. 9.3 : Explosimeter or combustible gas indicator

2. A compartment which is ir:iitially safe may be rendered unsafe by

future operations e.g. stirring or handling bottom sludge in a crude oil tank.
Hence frequent tests are required while· the work is in progress.
3. If a compartment · having a high boiling point- liquid i_s heated by
welding or other processes the vapour concentration will ·inc~ease and
such an atmosphere which originally. showed a low concentration vapour
·may now be rendered ·explosive.
4. When testing at a "high temperature s-ome of the vapour may
condense in the sampling tube of the instrument, so only a small concen-
tration of v.apour will be indicated by th_e instrument.
5. As the instrument-depends on combustion of.the flammable portion
of·the sample "it cam1ot detect .in a steam or inert atmosphere due to tt:ie
absence of 0 2 . In the case of inerted tanks of vessels carrying crude-or
refined petroleum products an instrument called a tankscope has been
specially designed to detect and measure the concentration of hydro
carbon vapour in the absence of oxygen.

93
Tankscope (Diagram same as for explosimeter)
The sensor element of this instrument is a non-catalytic hot filament. The
composition of the surrounding gas is determined from the rate of loss of
heat from the filament, without combustion, which is indicated by its
temperature and resistance. The presence of CH gas changes the
resistance of the sensor filament and this 1s shown by a deflection on the . ,,
Wheatstone's bridge meter. The filament is not affected by the concen-
tration of the gas in the sample. In a very rich gas mjxture the meter goes
to the maximum_position and remains there. The scale is directly
graduated in percentage volume of CH. The instrument is calibrated using
gas mixtures of a known CH concentration.

Multlgas detector or Draeger Multitube detector ·

-------
bd-.ut:o,, fultt Uo b&
!r,-oken cat hol:h #.:na .s.) - - -- -- -
-~L--- -- --
- -~ - ---
-~5 -----
CIQ.C
- - 0 - - - ·- - -

. .
Fig. 9.4 : M~ltigas detector
.
This is used to detect the presence of a variety of toxic gases inside the
compartment. They work on the principle of chemical absorption of the
gas to be detected by a re-agent which gets discoloured. A sample of the
atmosphere is drawn into a tube containing crystals of the reagent. The
tube is graduated and the level of discolouration indicates the concentra-
tion of the vapour in the sample. The amount of air drawn through the tube
must be.exactly the same each time; to ensure this .the bellows must be
fully compressed and allowed to expand to the full limit of the limiter chain.
The tubes have a shelf life of two years. Both ends of the tube are broken
before use and one end is fitted into the pump head. Different tubes are
used for detection of different gases.

94
Oxygen ·AQ.alyser:
;

Fig. 9.5 : Oxygen Analyser

This i~stwment is used to ch~.ck the 0'2 cont~m .of t~e atmosphere w~thin
a tank or _o ther -confined space_.· Samples o_f the atr-nospher~ are drawn
by means of a rubber aspirator bu.lb arid passed over ·a sensor._ -The
sensor is the most important part of the instrument and can be of various
types :

1. Par9magnetic Sensor-: . The.magnetic properties.of oxygen is used

to deflect_a_~ight, metal b,ody, ~uspended in -a .magnetic field: When the
gas is drawn t_hrough t~e -~en, the suspei:id~d body experiences a force
' .
 Boiler-
Upt:.a.ke.
\/A./ ve.

G-
A
s SC.KUB ~

Fig. 9.6: Insert Gas·System

proportional to the magnetism of the gas. An equal and opposing force

is produced by an electric current passing through a coil would round the
suspended-body. This equalising current is proportional to the magnetic
force of the gas which depends on its 0 2 content.

2. Electrolytic Sensor: In this type oxygen is passed into an electrolytic

cell causing a current to flow between two electrodes separated in a liquid
electrolyte. The current flow between the electrodes is directly propor-
tional to the 0 2 concentration in the sample. In this type, certain gases
may affect the sensor or poison the electrolyte giving rise to false
readings.

3. Chemical absorption liQuid : In this type a -known volume of the

sample gas is brought into· contact with a measured volume of a liquid
which absorbs o; c~using·a change in its volume. The change in volume
is a measure of the 0 2 content of th~ sample.

Before use, the 0 2 analyzec must be correctly calibrated. Zero

calibration can be done by immersing the probe in nitrogen or CO2 •
Maximum check is carried out in air. Tt-ie adjustment screws are used to
set the meter to the correct reading. The instruction manual must always
be consulted for proper operation and maintenance.

96
 p/v VAive..__,,
V°'t \,nd
71
CAR.~

-BER.

THE INERT GAS SYSTEM

Flue gas from the boiler is cleaned, cooled and tested before use.
Exhaust from the main engine is not used for two reasons :
1. Inert gas is most required during discharge in port, when the main
engine is not running.
2. To ensure complete combustion of the fuel, extra air is fed into the
engine (turbocharged) resulting in a greater concentration of oxygen in the
exhaust.

The Boiler Uptake Valve must be opened before the system is

started. The gas passes through a back flow prevention device, which
acts like a deck seaL The back pressure has to push the water up the
U-tube whose height is made sufficient to take the maximum back
pressure expected.

In the Scrubber. the gas is cooled by bubbling it through sea water.

It is then washed thoroughly under a water spray by making it take a
tortuous path through venturi slots, impingement plates and baffle trays

containing silica, ceramic chips, stones, etc. The gas is now almost free
of soluble gases like SOz, S03 , NO and NOz as well as insoluble particles
like soot, dust. etc. Its temperature has come down from 250° to 300°C
to within 5° of the sea water temperature. Moisture is trapped by the

97
 , .
Demister Pad and the gas flows to the blowers. The scrubber is internally
coated with a good polyurethane or epoxy coating to resist corrosion.

The Blowers must be at least two in number with a total capacity of

1.25 times the total rated capacity of all the cargo pumps. Valves to
control the flow (and backflow) of gases, are fitted on the line, on both
sides of the blowers. Some shipowners go in for two similar blowers, so
that same spares can be used and parts interchanged. Other prefer one
large blower to be used during d_ischarge and a smaller blower when
topping up at sea.

An Oxygen Analyser tests that the gas does not contain more than
5% oxygen. The oxygen content of an oil tank should not exceed 8%. At
the same time its temperature should not be high otherwise the gas is
vented to the atmosphere or recirculated.

A Pressure Regulating Valve regulates the supply pressure and

alarms sound if the pressure becomes too high or too low.

The Deck Seal and Non-Return Valye are automatic and manual
devices to prevent backflow. Backflow of gas could result in CH gas from
the cargo tanks reachir:ig the boiler, leading to an explosion.

The line branches out on deck, after the Peck Main Valve, to the
various cargo tanks. Gas from the tank is vented out to the atmosphere,
high above deck through PV Valves. PV Breakers or High Veloctty Vent
Valves (HVVVs).

Crude Oil Washing (COW)

Washing the tanks with crude oil has been found to be advantageous
in several ways. Crude oil stirs, agitates and disperses sludge and
sediment, holding it in suspension and carrying it out during discharge.
Sludge deposits reduce efficient drainage resulting in prolonged stripping
operations. It also lowers the ship~s carrying capacity causing loss in
earnings, prolongs water washing, dirties clean ballast and can cause
pockets of CH gas to form, thus impeding gas freeing of tanks. COW
saves time and expenses in tank cleaning and also improves the out turn
of cargo . .Pollution risks are reduced, so is corrosion of pipes and plating
and contamination of cargo by.sea water.

98
 However, COW increases the work load in port, reduces the dis-
charge rate and it requires trained personnel to carry it out safely.

COW is carried out using fixed machines with one or two nozzles.
The nozzles can rotate in the vertical and horizontal plane and the
machine can be programmed to wash sections of the tanks as the cargo
is discharged.

Tanks must always be inerted during COW. Water washing is also

to be carried out if carrying a cleaner oil on the next voyage or ballast or
for man entry.

s·rAc..E r

Fig. 9.7 : Crude Oil Washing

POLLUTION

Pollution is introduction into the sea by man, of substances delete-

rious to the marine environment. Pollution causes harm to marine birds
and fish and aquatic flora and fauna. It harms beaches, marinas, scenic
99
spots, harbours, desalination plants, fish farms, etc. - the.list is endless.
It reduces the amenities for fishermen, sailors, pleasure craft owners,
those who drill for oil and mine for minerals, for the sea has plenty of them
in abundant quantity, hydrographic and other surveyors · and all other
legitimate users of the sea. ·

Pollution is caused by shore based industries as well as by marine

transportation, especially of oil and other marine pollutants. At sea, it is
caused in two ways :
1. Operational Pollution during tank washing, deballasting, etc.
2. Accidental Pollution when stranding, grounding or collision occurs.

The IMO has had pollution prevention regulations in force for several
years - the latest being the Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution at
Sea (MARPOL 73178) and all its subsequent amendments. The regula-
tions have 5 annexes covering .oil, noxious liquid substances in _ bulk,
harmful substances carried in packages, sewage and garbage. It
regulates the concentration of oil in oily-water mixtures to be discharged
and controls the discharge rate and quantity of oil discharged. Oily water
cannot be discharged in special areas and is restricted at sea, especially
close to land. Ships must be fitted with an Oil Discharge Monitoring and
Control System (ODMCS) and Oily Water Separator (OWS). Load-on-
top, slop tanks, COW and retention on board for disposal to a shore
reception facility are mandatory methods foe reducing and disposing off
slops. All operations involving loading, discharging and transfer of oil
must be entered in the Oil Record Book.

To reduce pollution, cargo officers must be duty conscious and

knowledgeable. Tanker operations, if carried out correctly will always be
safe. The International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals
(ISGOTT) must be followed. A continuous watch must be kept for
pollution. In case of an oil spill, shut down cargo, raise the alarm on ship
and at the terminal and take measures to control the spill and prevent a
fire or explosion.

CARGO CALCULATIONS
. .
The weight of cargo is determined from the product of its volume and
density. The depth of cargo is measured from ullage readings and tables
give the volume of the tank for various depths. Both the volume and
density are affected by changes in temperature, so this must be carefully
measured and allowances made. American Petroleum Institute (API)
Tables are extensively used on board ships for this purpose.

100
Worked Example 1 : A tank 9m x 8m-x 8m is to be loacied with oil of RD
0.92 at 20"C. ·How ·many tonnes c;,,l-oil should ~e loaded if an-allowance
of 3% of the tank volume is to be made for expansion of the ail ··at the
highest temperature (28°C) expected on t~e voyage? The temperature
at the loadport is 15°C. What is the ratio of tr'ee space to occuP.ied space
in the tank at the loading port? (Density correction factor 0.0005.fOC) .
~ Once oil is loaded in a tank, its mass does not ch~_ nge; only its volume
changes with change of te!'Tlperature. If 3% of the tank volume is ·to be
left for expansion at the highest temperature, tl')en the ullage to be left will
be 3% of the height' of the tank (assuming the tank to be of constant area).
Sounding= Total Height - Ullage
Volume of oil= L x 8 x Sounding
Therefore, Volume= 9 x 8 x (8 - 3%.of 8) = 9 x 8 x 7,76 = 558.72m.
RD at 28°C = 0 .92 - 0.0005 (28 - 20) = 0.92 - 0.004 = 0.916
Note that relative density decreases with increase of temperature
and vice versa.
Mass of oil at 28"C which is same as the mass of oil to be loaded
is therefore = 558. 72 x 0_916 = 511.79 tonnes.
The volume that this o il occupies at the loading port t emperature
a 511,79 = 554.79 ffi3 •
0.92 + 0.0005 (20 - 15)
Therefore ratio of free space : occupied space• 9 x 8 x 8 - 554.79 : 554.79
= 1 : 26.16
r-
Worked Example 2 : A tank of
constant area has a volume of
20,000 m3 and a depth of 20 m.
1 u
L
L
A
Oil of RD 0.79@ 20°c (correc-
tion factor 0.0009/"C) is being .
loaded. If the maximum tem-
perature expected during the voy-
_ J:°£EE · Su(F""-£
,.._ I•
-~4
age is 42°C, and a safety margin
of 2% of the volume of the tank
is required at that temperature, 0\ L
find the ullage on completion of
loading and the mass of oil
loaded, if top of the ullage pipe
extends 0.5 m above the tank
top.

Fig. 9.8

101
 -~ V~tun:i~-:,(>f._t~,:i_k ~ V~!u~e qf~il + fr~e ~pace
.. .. \ ~0900 ·... v-..z .-f: ..?°lo-p[;~0q:., 1v4t. ':"'·A_
. 19600.Q'L3 , -..-·: . j • :.::. • :·io• o -::.••,._
. The_refore,,. · , V42:~ . ·: ·
Mf.ss.~~ oil, ~ . ,V42 X _0 42 = 19?00_XJP}.~,~_9.q9u~ .x (42 -.·2.0)]
19600 .X· 0~7702 =- "15095..92 t" , . ., · . . t" ~ •
~~l_u111~-,o f _oil _at 2~~. ~20,: "' ~35$ 0(9iVD.~Ds~y.at 20°C,·
• .... ' . . . ., -150952/.Q·.79 = 19108.76m3 •
Free-Space~ =·20000 - 19108.759. 89tJ?4·1m3 • •
Free height@ 200C ..::89"1·:Z41 :1 1000··= 0.891 m.
Ullage @ ·20°Q :dre·e height it; •heightof ullage pipe
= o:891 ·+ o.5 = 1,391 m! . - · --· ·
·-.
·

~ .• • • • I •

EXAMPLES FOR E)<ERCISE

1. . ' A tank of cdostant area is 1O·m deep and has a volume of 3000 m~
Oil oh~!::("():86 @"30°C (correction factor 0.0006/0C) is. being:loaded at
38°C: If an allowance of 2% of the volume of oil loacfed is to be made for
·expansi°:n, fin?
the ullage·on completion and the mass of oil. l~aded. ·
. .
-2 . · A vessel-has a rectangular tarik of depth .22m and cross section 18
m X 18 m . The loading is carried out at 22°C. A minimum i.Jllage of 1.5m
is required during the ·voyage with maxrmum .temperature of 38°C ex-
pected-: Given specific gravity of oitis o:81 at 1S°C, corre_ction f~r specific
gravity = 0.0006/"C, find the ullage at loading port and ullage during
Voyage if the temperature unexpe·~tedly rises upto 41°C. : !
~ .
3. A tank of constant area has a· volume of;-8500 ·-m3 (irmfuding ~
trunkway ol500m3). The depth of the tank alone is .10 rh a'nd thetrunl<way,
anathe(1 m. 5670 t of coconut oil of RD 0.7 is to ·oe
loaded . .Find the
ullage_on completion of loading, if the ullage plug · is at ·the .top of the
trul')kway.
. .
4. A tank of volume 6000m' is 12 m deep. It is being loade.d w~p oil
of RD 0.762. The tank has an ullage pipe extending 0.7 m above·thetank-
top. The shore pipeline is 8 km long and 40 cm in diameter. If tlie ~ntire
oil in Jhe pipeline is also to be loaded, and an _allowance. of 2% ·of ~he
volt1me of the tank is to be left for expansion, find .
(i) the ullage at which the order to shut the refinery valv.e ~hould be
given, ·
(ii) -the ullage -on completion of loading and
(iii) the mass of.~il loaded. (Take to be 3.14159).

102
5. A ship of 40,000 t DWT has five centre tanks of 4000 m 3 volume each
and ten wing tanks of 3000 m' each. Bunkers and stores and FW totalling
to 1000 tare on board. Oil of RO 0.85@ 20"C (correction factor 0.0007/
°C) is to be loaded. Each tank is of constant area and 1O m deep, and
has an ullage pipe projecting 0.5 m above the tank-top. If all are to be
filled so as to reach an ullage of 1 m at a maximum temperature of 30°C
on passage, except No.5 centre which may remain partially full owing to
ship being down to her marks, find ullage and mass of oil in each tank on
completion of loading.

103
 I CHAPTER TEN

· MORE ·CARGOES

SUGAl:l

Sugar in bags is a moist commodity from wtiich a ·considerable

amount of syrup drains, resulting in a loss of weight of nearly 10-12%. The
worst form is jaggery (unrefined sugar). This should not be stored near
or above dry, refined sugar as it is readily damaged by the-draining syrup.
Sugar may also be carried in bulk.

Hold Cleaning and Preparation : Holds should be made free of

acid and oil stains and thoroughly washed, cleaned and dried. Bilges are
to be washed, cleaned, tested and cement washed. DB tank manholes,
sounding pipes and all air pipe connections to the tank top plating should
be checked for water tightness. Limber boards should be made sugar
tight by caulking.

Receiv ing the Cargo : The cargo should be inspected before

loading especially if it is arriving by barges. The cargo should not be
wetted by salt water. Bags should not be torn and bleeding . Port marks
to be clearly legible on the bags. Separation of the cargo should not be
carried out by paint marks or water colours.

Loading the Cargo : The cargo is loaded all over the holds. No
loading should be carried out during wet or threatening weather as sugar
ferments in the presence of moisture. The fermentation can be detected
by the presence of alcoholic vapours. When such vapours are detected
thorough ventilation should be carried out. No naked lights should be
permitted in the vicinity of the hold. Any entry inside the hold should be
with proper breathing apparatus. In case of fire, flooding of the compart-
ment is recommended but this should not be carried out in open seas.
Ventilation should not be restricted during the voyage except during wet
and very damp weather.

Discharge : Before discharging, the hold should be thoroughly

ventilated before entry is allowed into the compartment. After completion
of discharge, the hold should be thoroughly washed with salt water and
rinsed with fresh water.
104
 SALT ·
. .
Properties of Salt : The main property of salt is that it is hygroscopic
i.e. it absorbs moisture aAd-dissolves-into a liquid. The bilges will have
to be pumped out regularly-during th·e voyage. Salt is also corrosive and
damages the ship's structure. Salt is a crysta~ and in hot, dry conditions
will give out its water by evaporation.

Preparations for loading : Prior loading, all steel work in the hold
is given a coat of lime (white-wash) . The bilges are cleaned and
sweetened. Side battens may be removed or covered with mats made
of palm leaves. Pillars in the hold must be similarly covered. Separation
cloth may be used to keep the salt away from the steelwork.

Loading, carriage and discharge : Salt may be loaded by con-

veyor. belt or by canvas slings. After loading, the cargo should be neatly
trimmed from side to side. Good ventilation must be maintained through-
out the voyage to prevent sweat formation. The air inside the hold must
be kept dry. On long voyages, the loss of weight may be 5% or more due
to evaporation. Dry goods liable to cake from moisture should not be
stowed~with salt. Salt should neither be stowed near wet or moist goods
or in insulated compartments or refrigerated containers. On completion
of discharge, the hold should be thoroughly hosed down, removing all
traces of salt particles and finally rinsed with fresh water to ensure proper
cleaning.

RUBBER
Rubber is the coagulated sap or milk obtained from a variety of
tropical trees, originally from Brazil but now also from Malaysia, Indonesia,
India and Sri Lanka from where it is exported to Europe and the U.S.A.
Rubber is a clean cargo and is suitable for stowage with most other goods.
However, fine cargoes such as tea and coffee, may get tainted with the
smell of rubber.

Factors affecting_rubber :

1. Rubber is readily damaged by heat. Hence effective ventilation

should be carried out to prevent accumulation of heat.

2. . Rubber is damaged by contact with oils, grease or acids. .

Rubber which has come into contact with any oil is useless. Hence it
should .be effectively separated. from oily cargoes.
105
 3. -· Rubber will deterio_rate an,d get.-mouldy if it comes in.contact with
moisture or moist goods which are liable to heat and sweat like cotton or
copra. Many claims arise"_from··m_ildew damage·'i.vliich i$' causecl.ei_ t her
·· beGause the contents we·re not thbr.qughly dried when p~o~ed•or because
the packages were wetted by rain before sliipn'l~nt': Very"often the outside
of the packages get ·quickly dried·under th:e_:-tro_pical surr bUt ·ifis-very
difficult to know the true condition of:the eargo; whetner wet ·or-dry, inside
the package. Hence a thorough watclJ. s_ h ould be ~ept and any stained
'packages s~oi.Jld·b~ rejected. When u-sing-duryhagtionly thoroughly dried
cl~nnage is _to be us¢d _as wet or damp dunnage in contact with packages
of ·rubber will cause ·mildew to form on ·their'contents. -·

4. Rubber is mostly often shipped-in thiri·plywood cases which are liable

to collapse unqer very _ordinary pressures_, f~sulting in spli~ters penetrat-
_ing the col")tents and getting embedde~ in the.wrapping. Crushing da·m age
is th_e other reason Jor heavy claims. The r~sult being that sheets become
compressed·and stuck together. To·prevent crushing.damage, cases or
bales· ot"rubber should not be stowed on rough, uneven surfaces. If
·stowing on top of another cargo, the surface should he made level ·by
adequate !JSe of dunnage. The entire rubher ca·s e should.be supported
uniformly on a firm and level floor. Fairly wide dunnage lengths ·should
be used for flooring and should be closely spaced so that packages are
well supported along most of its ·underside·. Cases should be stowed
square and upright, never tilted and as compactly as possible. Ample
dunnage should be used at the turn of bilge, in V;1ay o~ stringers and
brackets and for filling broken stowage. Rubber cases should not be
stowed deep as the lower cases will be crushed by the ~eight of higher
cases. ·Rubber should not be overstowed with another cargo unless the
cargo is very light. The spar ceiling should be overlayed with vertical
boards to avoid the bales part hanging on the.edge of the bottom and part
unsupported.

Separation : It is best effected by a double layer of matting. Talc

should be only sparingly used to prevent sticking because of opposition
by labour in some countries. Separation may sometimes be done by
plastic sheeting which is difficult to retain in position as men walk and roll
bales over it. The cargo should be separated from ladders, pillars,
stiff~ners, brackets etc. by dunnage and matti!)g to prevent contact with
sweat. Rubber is shipped in sheets, blocks or crepe form and is packed
in cases, bales or bags. Crepe rubber 1s shipped in-a tacky.condition and
is subject to cold flow. To avoid it blocking scuppers.and bilges, it should
be given t'ween deck stowage, away from warm.bulkheads and not in the

106
square of the hatch to -avoid exposure from the sun. Mats and dunnage
should not be used in this typ_e of rubber but talc should be liberally spread
to prevent sticking. While dischargrng by slings, care should be taken that
the bale in the sling is not stuc_k to one in the hold, as it is liable to fall when
the load is lifted.

PULP AND PAPER ROLLS

Paper is made from vegetable matter reduced to pulp. Wood of

balsam, spruce, hemlock, cottonwood and other materials such as es-
parto grass, flax refuse, straw, jute and rags also may be used. Paper
usually is shipped in rolls, the ends of which are, in some cases, protected
by circular discs of wood; in other cases the rolls are simply wrapped with
thick paper with extra layers over the ends. Rolls of paper vary from 0.5
- 2 min length, with diameters varying considerably, averaging in mixed
shipments to about 0.9 m. The main categories of paper consist of
newsprint, printing paper and Kraft paper.

Handling of Paper Rolls : Paper rolls are extremely sensitive to

mechanical damage particularly at the flat ends of the rolls. Any such
damage to the ends, flattening of the rolls or distortion of the core may
make them useless for modern high-speed printing machines and may
result in heavy claims for damage. Modern mechanical, hydraulic or
vacuum operated lifting equipment and trained personnel are employed
in load ing. Slings made of webbing-(man-made fibre) or soft rope should
be used, if modern equipment is not available. Utmost care must be taken
.when using swinging derricks to prevent the rolls from banging against
hatch coamings, the ship's side , etc. , which tends to destroy their shape
and inflict other mechanical damage. Dragging into or from the wings, and
the use of cargo hooks or crowbars should never be permitted when
handling paper.

Stowage : Holds must be properly prepared before loading. They

must be clean and any sharp protrusions should be cushioned in the best
possibl~ manner, to avoid damage to the paper. Ventilator or fan
openings must however be left free to operate as air circulation is very
necessary to avoid sweat damage to the paper.

Paper rolls are most often stowed on end in a vertical position as fo_rk
lifts are designed to handle them this way: However, to fit in under the
deck, the top roll may be stowed on the bilge or roll (sides) . A few slings
in the hatch square may be preslung, to provide space for landing and
working the fork lift at the discharge port.

107
 u ... , ... T,,,..,..c..,a, .,.
U!t 1"1Sc 9:9""t'""

Fig. 10 .1 - Handling of paper

108
- - - -- - - - - - - - - - -
 Rolls of paper should be_stowed solid and well chocked, to avoid
movement when th.e vessel is at sea. If the top tier is stowed on its side
or bilge, every precaution must be taken to ensure that this top tier is
adequately chocked. If the vessel is stiff or normally has a violent motion
in a seaway, this form of top tier stowage should be avoided if other
suitable cargo is available. It is extremely difficult to chock the top tier,
causing serious ·claims in such stowage due to rolls breaking loose.

In end holds, where the sides taper, care should be exercised to

ensure that the platform on which the upper tiers are stowed is both level
and firm. The most satisfactory way of doing this is by building a series
of platforms (or bridges) of suitable width to take the diameter of the larger
rolls, the platforms themselves resting on firm supports.

All staunchions, ladders, etc., should be well covered with burlap or

other protecting material to avoid chafing; dunnage should be used
throughout to fill in gaps and prevent movement of the rolls, particularly
so if the cargo does not entirely fill the hold or compartment. Nowadays,
air-filled bags are available in place of dunnage, for chocking the rolls. The
amount of broken stowage with a cargo of paper is very considerable. The
smaller rolls may, with reasonable care, safely be utilised for filling in
between larger rolls.

Rolls of paper very considerably in their moisture content. In a totally

enclosed space therefore (e.g. a closed box container), sweat may be
formed. Ventilation must be carried out in holds.

Fire : In case of fire in a hold containing paper, never use water.

Close all openings .and flood the hold with CO 2 • Paper absorbs water
causing the rolls to swell and rupture the sides and top of the hold.

PULP

Wood and paper pulp is shipped in compressed bales as "dry" and

"wet" pulp. It is made from various kinds of timbers, and is shipped in large
quantities from the timber areas of the world, e.g. Scandinavia, Canada,
British Columbia, U.S.A., etc.

Wood pulp is very liable to damage and contamination by dirt

(particularly fibres) or the remnants of previous commodities in a ship
hold. During handling it must be kept clear of any contact with ropes, etc.,
and should be loaded and discharged with wire or chain slings. Remnants

109
of the previous cargo (and particular grain) should be carefully removed
and the space cleaned before the commencement of loading pulp.

Bales of pulp may be unitised with wire bands securing the bales.
It is very often permissible an<1 acceptahle to lift by these bands, and some
equipment is designed to do so. However, it is advisable, that certificates
of strength be provided for the banding.

IRON AND STEEL CARGOES

Refer to MS Notice No. M 831 and the Stowage and Securing Code.

Iron and steel cargoes include p,g iron, steel billets, round bars.
pipes. steel plates. coils of sheet metal and wire coils. steel scrap and
swart. The danger with steel cargoes is that if they shift, they can damage
other cargoes because of their weight or even rupture the ship's side.
Hence securing these cargoes properly becomes very important. The
best way is to level them and over stow them with other suitable cargo.
Since· these cargoes are heavy they must not be carried in the t'ween
decks as the GM reduces and there is :1. greater risk of cargo shifting. The
height to which these cargoes can be stowed is restricted by the load
density of the deck and tank top.

Pig Iron : Only a minimum necessary t_ o prevent the ship becoming

too stiff should be stowed in the t'ween decks. The cargo should be
spread over the entire tank top and trimmed level as far as possible. It
should be over stowed with other suitable cargo to prevent it shifting. If
this is not possible then shifting boards or bins. of robust construction
rising to a height above the level of pig iron, will have to be fitted.

Steel Billet s : Steel billets should be stowed from bulkhead to

bulkhead tightly. Any empty spa~e should be filled with dunnage to
prevent the cargo from shifting. Dunnage should also be used to make
a level platform for loading the billets especially when they are irregularly
shaped. The cargo should be overstowed and additional precautions such
as tomming and lashing may be taken.

Round Bars and Pipes : These should be stowed fore and aft.
level, from bulkhead to bulkhead and carefully tommed or lashed to
prevent shifting. Overstowing may also be necessary. Spaces between
large diameter pipes should be locked as shown in fig. : 10.2.

110 ·

- · -
 wedges on each coil

timber for shoring and chocking

I ~--- ·'"
hot tom dunnoge wedges

Fig. 10.2 : Stowage of coiled sheet metal

111
 Steel Plates : These cargoes must be stowed on firm bases. They
are prone to slip over decks, other cargoes or their own surfaces, so
friction must be increased by ins~rting dry dunnage between the plates.
When they move, restowage at sea is impossible so they should be
secured by chain or wire lashings as well as by ton:iming.

Coils of Sheet Metal or Wire : They should be stowed in regular

tiers from side to side making maximum use of pillars, bulkheads etc.
Each coil is stowed hard agai_nst its neighbour and. wedges of dunnage
driven under the rounds, to prevent the coil from rolling (see Fig.10.2).
Locking coils should be lashed to the two coils supporting it. The stow
should be secured by using wire lashings to secure the coils together and
to lash each row to the bulkhead. Ounnage is to be used to fill in the gaps.
Wire coils may be stowed flat and tight against one another.

Steel Scrap and Swarf : This is lo~ded in bulk and must be levelled.
The tank top must be protected by lowering a few slings gently at first till
a cushion is formed to absorb the impact of cargo falling from the conveyor
belt. The cargo may consist of turnings which are oil stained as well as
rags and other impurities which make it spontaneously combustible.
Metal scrap may also include large pieces in various sizes shapes
and mass, loaded by slings. Such cargo is to be securely lashed to
prevent shifting.

112
 CHAPTER ELEVEN

CARGO PLANS

The principle of stowing cargo is to :

1. Ensure the safety of ship and crew from danger arising from the
manner in which the cargo is stowed or the type of cargo.
2. Protect the cargo from damage, loss or deterioration and to ensure
a good out turn. ·
3. Ensure optimum use of the vessel's cargo space ~nd hence maxi-
mize the freight earnings of the vessel.
4. Obtain the highest possible port speed.

Safety of Ship and Crew

The ship should be in a stable condition at all times or ballast must
be taken to obtain such a condition. Heavy weights should be stowed at
the bottom but care must be taken that ship is not too stiff nor too tender.
Slack tanks should be kept to a minimum, to have minimum loss of stability
due to Free Surface Effect. Deck and engine room must closely liaise and
co-operate with each other to ensure that tanks are not filled or emptied
without knowledge of both departments. Stability can change by con-
sumption of fuel from lower tanks during voyage, or by absorption of
moisture by certain cargoes like timber, sa)t, etc. Damage to vessel's
structure should be avoided during loading and discharging. Weights
should be distributed evenly transversely as well as longitudinally to avoid
a list, trim by the head or excessive trim by the stern. The maximum draft
should be within port limits. Load density of decks should not be
exceeded. Derricks and cranes should be of adequate SWL to handle the
weight of lifts, .

Safety of crew is most important. A clear understanding of the risks

. involved while handling hazardous goods is required of the ship's officer.
Hazardous goods can be divided into three categories.
1. Cargoes which governments and the international community con-
sider so dangerous that they have legislated acts to govern their carriage.
e.g. grain.
2. Cargoes which because of their hazardous nature has prompted the
IMO (International Maritime Organisation) or the ICS (International
113
Chamber Of Shipping) to produce.safety codes or codes of safe practice
for·e.g. bulk cargoes, concentrates, i:,etrolettm, chemical ·and gas car-
goes.
3. Cargoes which are ·considered d~ngerous enough to require the
attention of owners and-masters to,.be brought to them in the .form of M
or MS notice. For e.g. iroA aRd steel cargoes, ooal cargoes,

Safety of Cargo
Cargoes must be stowed in such a way so as to prevent damage due.
to any reason 'such as · ·

1. Chafing or crushing.
2. Moisture and S\\'.eat, ·oargpes 'like salt, oil 'Ca~es -and dry skin'§
absorb moisture.
3. Leakage or drainage: Wet.qr rnbislcargoes--st(ould not be stowed
on top of dry goods.
4. Fire. Any substance·· W!th •vegetable oil or anito&I oil y.,111:hear up
spontaneously and hence··should no{ be· stowed near ·hot bulk~a:ds.
Proper ventilation is to be carti~.d out for such. cargoes.
5. Tainting, contamination- or -irtcon1patibil!ly.
6. Pilferage or theft. · · ·

Economy of operation and .port spe~d

Cargo should be distributed so that the maximum n!:)mber of hatches
can be worked .simultaneously so as to ensure_a quiq~ t1;1marauno .of the.
ship. Rotation of discharge ports is-to be kept In rtlind: when loading.
Overcarried cargo is to be avoided by careful cheG~ing_. Cargo plans
should accurately reflect the actual sto~age to prevent ~ver carriage.
Optional cargo and flexibility is to be maintained. Hold capacity must not
be exceeded when.planning the stowage. The.-ayail:ablfity of space and
deadweight should be regularly for.warded toctbe shipowner or his agents
so that cargo can be• booked for shipment: ·

POINTS WHEN MAKlNG A CARGO p ~·

The plan is made upas-~ar~o is_loai;t~d -~~"Mouid accurately show

the distribution of every singlep&cita§~·ttcroughb1:1l the·v.essel. The cargo
plan need not be made to scale.#·. [}jffeJerit ·co!oors· may be. used to
differentiate between different ports of-discharge. The deck arid·t:ween
deck are shown as a plan or bird's eye view, whereas the lower t1_0ld rs

114
shown-qS a elevation or side view. lnf6rm&tion·like loading port, discharge
poo, ..yeight, number of uni~s;·d:escription etG:~11st be shown;for every
parcel of cargo. · ·

Re~arks.like i,reslung or palletised car-go·, type:; of.separ~tion used

etc. ma}4 be aqded: The _stoVfage plan must oe ·ready before departure
and handed \o· the owrier or ag~nt so that it is presented to stevedores
and agent at the d.i§c"hatge port before the arrival of the vessel.

PROPERTJES QF S9ME CA~GOES

Asbestos·:is. a dangerous· cargo and' p.eopJe··ha.pdLing itrT1us(b~ suit~~ly.'

protected against-qust. It must ~e kept dry. .. . .· .

~eer, -Wjn~t arrd spirijs· are susceptible to pilferage -~nd niu~t ·be stowe·ct
in lockers preferably,. They are ·fragile a_ nd care must be•tak$1 during
hand~ng .an_d ~owage. They i:nusi be kept in ·a cool pJqce. · ·

Bones, Bone. meat dried blood and similar animal produ¢ts ·

give off a of.ferieive odour and must b-e kept dry ·arid a\'iaY. from. oth(lr
cargoes liable -to taint. .

Cloves. cinnamon, tumerjc and 9lh.er spices give .off. a strong,· pu,:igent-
odour whic.ti persists even after the- c_argo is discharged. ·

Cotton. Jute. Coir. Sisal, Esoarto or-ass, Straw and other such con:imodi-
ties are shipped in tightly- pressed bales. Car.e-m·ust be taken. tl)at .the
bales are not wer. loosely packed, oil stained or subject to chafing, when
stowed as this promotes spontaneous ~ombust_ii:m.

Electronic Parts. Computer Hardware;, Printed 'CirE;i.Jit Boards etc are

valuable cargo .and must 'be protected from· damage or theft. Shipment
in containers or stowage in lockers is advised. ·

fishmeal has an offensive odour and is spontaneous·1y combustible. .

Foodstuffs are p~rish"able and liable to taint. They should be refrigerated

or kept in a cool ..dry, place away from hot bulkheads. ·

Glass, China, Earthenware Sanitaryware Ceramic Tiles etc, are v·ery

fragile and must be handled carefully. Top stowage is to be given. Glass
sheets and tiles must be stowed standing on edge and ·nev.er flat.

115
.G!a.in includes wheat, maize (com), rye, oats, barley, rice, pulses, seeds
and other processed forms. The hold must be thoroughly cleaned before
loading and precautions against shifting during the voyage must be taken.

Hjdes and Leather give off a pungent odour and can taint other cargoes.
Hides may be shipped dry or wet. Wet hides are pickled by adding salt
and so give off a large amount of brine during the voyage. No cargo can
be stowed below or on top of wet hides.

Machinery mostly comes packed in wooden crates in a variety of shapes

and sizes. All machinery must be handled with care as damage to the
crate may cause damage to the machinery or loss of parts which are
packed inside the crate. Heavy machinery must be given bottom stowage.
Hand tools, ball-bearings, etc. are susceptible to theft.

Mail bags are likely to be pilfered and should preferably be given locker
stowage. They should be correctly tallied and free from any damage.

Oilseeds, Oilcakes, Soyabean Meal and such products which contain oil
including oily rags are spontaneously combustible.

Onions and Potatoes must be kept dry as they germinate and rot in moist
conditions. Onions, garlic and ginger also give off strong smells and are
likely to taint other cargoes.

Ores and Concentrates are mainly loaded in bulk and are high density
cargoes. They should not be stowed near wet or moist cargoes and care
should be taken against a flow state developing. They may also give off
toxic vapours or cause oxygen depletion in a space.

Silk, Cotton or Synthetic Textiles are clean cargoes which must be

protected from staining by dirty cargoes, dripping liquids, etc. They are
also likely to be pilfered.

Worked example: M.V.Hindship is to load at Bombay the following cargo

in the spaces mentioned below for discharge at Houston (HSTN) and New
Orleans (NOLA) in that order.

116
 Space Volume(cu.m.) Dimension m.(LxBxD)

No 4 Port (cold chamber) 317.1

No 4 Stbd. ( --- " --- ) 313.1
Special cargo locker 106.6
No. 4 Tween deck 467.1 22 X 7 X 3
No. 4 Lower hold 3240.3 22x18x8

Cargo S.F.(m /t) Weight (t) Broken Disch. Stowage Port

Boneless beef 1.74 175 4% NOLA

Tea cases 1.90 220 10% HSTN
Species(coins) 0.30 350 - NOLA
Machinery 1.50 750 Optional
Frozen shrimp 1.95 160 NOLA
Bones in bulk 2.25 500 NOLA
Trucks ·1 4x2.Sx2.5 HSTN
. .

Prepare a stowage plan taking into ~ccount the nature of cargo t~

minimize damage and contamination and maximize the number of trucks
you can carry. Trucks can only be loaded in a single tier. Show your
answer with a plan view of the .t rucks.

Ans... Before any rash or rapid decisions are taken a good look at the
cargoes and the available spaces are recommended. The·properties of
the cargoes should be thought about and soon it will become apparent that
some of the cargoes choose their own stowage location.
Thus species or coins must definitely go into the special cargo locker
while the boneless beef and frozen shrimp cannot be put anywhere but
into the cold chambers.
A prudent officer would check that the cargo can indeed fit into these
spaces. Thus species occupy a volume of 350 x 0.3 = 105m3 and can fit
into the special cargo locker.
Boneless beef occupies a volume - 175 x (1.74 + 4 %) = 316.7m3
and so can only fit into the 'P' cold chamber, while frozen shrimp occupies
a volume = 1.95 x 160 .. 312m3 and will go into the 'S' cold chamber.
We are now left with the bones, tea, machinery and trucks. From
past studies it should be apparent that tea and bones cannot be stowed
together as the tea will get tainted. So obviously they wifl have to go in
separate compartments. The question is which one where? An inspection
of the cargo figures will reveal that bones will not fit into the t 'ween deck
while tea will. Also tea is to Qe discharged at Houston which is the first
port, so it must be stowed in the t 'ween deck.
117
 Bones and machinery.are therefore to be stowed -in"th-e·tower-hold
in such a wayi'that the maximum number of trucks·can be carried: Note
that trucks are for Houston, machinery is optional and bones are for.New
Or1e·ans.-, Try to work this out w~hout lookingi:)lthe solution: How'rllany
trucks can you carry? Do not just divide the rel')1aining volume in ttle~hold
after loading bones and machinery, by the voion,i3,of a tnick... The length
and.breadth of the hold can only.take a whole number of trucks: Also
confirm-that height for the truck is av~ilab!e~ -·

•!
lo It • l •S 1,.11 , ,s·,.s

s
•l
,j

......,.
It
c:::=-

f;SO -l: BoNtS UN S11ud 75b I: MAL.UI ,..

. ~
~
· NoLA t.x l3omaA'f On1ot-1AL h
&M6A't ·

Fig. 11 .1

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

1. The following cargo is. to be loaded in No.4 t'ween deck lower hold
and on deck of M.V.Hindship to be discharged at Boulogne, Antwerp and
Hamburg in that order. (use the dimensions given in the worked example.

Cargo I .
s :F.(m It) Weight (t) Broken Disch. Stowage Por1

Containers; . 8 nos. · 15t each· - Antwerp

Beer case·s 1.90 55 - Hamburg
Tobacco 3.05 · ·150 - Boulogne
Steel pipes 1.50 750 - Al}twerp
Bananas 2.85 200 10% Optional
Onions 2.25 200 - Boulog~e
Chemical dru·ms 1.40 Maximum 8% Optional

118
 Plan your sto~age to minimiz~ damage by any means, keeping in
mind the optional port and st~te how ~ch chemical dru!ll~ you can carry.

2. A vessel is to load in No. 2 t'ween deck (1 OOOm3) .and lower hold

(1700m 3), the following carg~ from Calcutta first and then Colombo for
discharge at Boston first and.then· Philadelphia.

Cargo S.F.(m /t) Weight (t) Broken_Stowage Disch. Port

Ore 0.52 400 Calcutta Philadelphia

Gunnies 1.70 450 Calcutta Philadelphia
Gunnies 1.70 350 Calcutta Boston
Rubber 2.00 100 Colombo Philadelphia
Machinery 2.00 65 Colombo .. Boston
Tea 3.10 80 Colombo Boston

Prepare a stowage plan antt.fill any remaining space with._

rubber for
Boston, stating how many tonnes you have loaded.

119
 CHAPTER 12

THE DOCK LABOURERS ACT, 1934

An Act concerning the protection against accidents of workers
employed in loading and unloading ship. The Indian Dock Labourers Act
is explained here which is based on the Factories Act, UK. Australia,
Canada and USA have similar Acts.

INSPECTORS :

The Central Government may appoint such persons as it thinks fit

to be Inspectors for the purposes of this Act within such local limits as it
may assign to them respectively.

Dock Safety Inspectors have been appointed tor the docks anCB
lact?ry inspectors, municipal inspectqrs; etc. for other industries. ~

POWERS OF INSPECTORS :

1. An Inspector may enter any dock or vessel where dock workers are
employed.with such assistance as he thinks fit, and
i. inspect, examine, any building, plant, machinery, appliance or
equipment used in connection with the loading, unloading, movement or
storage of cargoes.
ii. examine any register or other document relating to the employ-
ment of dock workers.
iii. take on the spot or otherwise the. statements of any persons or
hold enquiries which he may consider necessary, provided that no person
shall be compelled to answer any question or give any evidence tending
to incriminate himself.

2. ' the employers of dock workers and owners of

The Port Authorities,
machinery or plant shall afford all reasonable facilities to the Inspector for
entry, inspection, examination or enquiry under this Scheme.

NOTICE OF ACCIDENTS AND DANGEROUS OCCURRENCES :

1. Notice of any accident in a dock which disables a dock worker from

work on which he was employed shall be sent by any reliable means within
four hours of the occurrence, to the Inspector notified for the purpose.

120
 ,

When the.accident is likely to disable the dock worker from work for more
than ten days. the relatives of tlie dock worker in addition to the Inspector
have to be informed. In the case of fatal accidents, the Officer in charge
of the nearest police station, and the District Magistrate in addition to the
abovementioned two parties have to be informed. ·

2. In all cases of accidents the injured person shall be given first-aid ,

and there after immediately conveyed to a hospital or other place of
treatment. ·

3. Where any accident causing disablement results in the subseque'nt

death of the dock worker disabled, notice in writing of the death shall be
sent to the authorities mentioned above.

The following classes of dangerous occurrences shall be reported

to the Inspector in the manner described, whether death or disablement
is caused or not :-

1. Collapse or failure of a lifting machinery used in raising or lowering

of persons or goods, and breakage or failure of ropes, chains or other
appliances forming part of lifting machinery or the overturning or displace-
ment of a crane. · ·

2. Collapse or subsidence .of any wall, floor, gallery, ;oof, platform,

staging and means of access.

3. Bursting of a vessel containing steam under pressure greater than

atmospheric pressure other than a plant which comes within the scope of
the Boilers Act, 1923._

4. Explosion of a receiver or vessel used fQr the storage; at a pressure

greater than atmospheric p_ressure, of any gas or gases (including air) or
any liquid or solid resulting from the compression of gas.

5. Explosion or fire causing damage to any room or place, in ~hich dock

workers are employed;

OBLIGATIONS OF DOCK WORKERS:

It shall be the duty of every dock worker if he discovers any defect

in the dock, staging, machinery or plant, to report such defect without
unreasonable delay to his employer; his foreman or other person in
authority. ·

· 121
 No dock worker shall wilfully interfere with or misuse any means,
appliance, convenience or other equipment provided.
No dock worker shall wilfully and.without reasonable cause anything
likely to endanger himself or others.

No dock worker shall, unless duly authorised or in case of any

emergency, remove or intetfere with any fencing·, plant or machinery,
ladder, lifesaving means or applfances, lights; staging or other things
whatsoever required to be provided under this Scheme. If removed, such
things shall be restored at the end of the period during which their removal
was authorised or at the end of the emerQency, _as the-case may be, by
the persons last e~gaged in the work that necessitated ·such removal.

Under this act certain facilities· .have to be provided to the dock

worke(s in the fields of health, safety a"nd welfare. The ship's officer may
take note, that of the following, certain basic facilities whi;;h are under-
lined, may also have to be provided on ships.

HEALTH : Cleanliness, drinking water, latrines and ur1nals. spittoons,

lighting, ventilation and temperature.

WELFARE : Washing facilities, first-aid appliances. ambulance room,

ambulance carriage, notices, canteens, lunch- roor:ns shelters or rest-
sheds, welfare officers.

SAFETY : Walking surface, fencing of dangerous places. clearance of

passages, aates. construction, floor loading, stairs openings, means of
escape in case Q.fJire..

On the ship, a clear walking space on deck, free of obstructions and

hazards like ropes, dunnage, nails, lashings of deck cargo, etc. must be
provided for dock workers in order to access the holds. Any permanent
obstructions like manhole cover guards, eyes, rigged cargo gear etc, must
be painted white or marked, to warn the dock workers. Openings in the
decks to tanks, holds or lower holds must be fenced.

LIFTING MACHINERY AND GEAR

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE : In any dock, all parts,

whether fixed or moveable of every lifting machinery and every chain, ring,
hook, shackle, swivel or pulley block used in hoisting or lowering shall be:

122
 i. of good construction, sound material, adequate strength and free ·
. from defects;
ii. properly maintained; and ·.
iii. thoroughly examined once at least every 12 months and particu-
lars of such examination entered io the register approved by the Inspector.
(Chain Register) ·

Thorough examination mean·s a visual examination supplemented,

if necessary, t;>y other means such as a hammer test, carried out as
carefully as the conditions permit, in order to arrive at a reliable conclusion
as to the ~afety of the parts examined; and if necessary for the purpose,
parts of the lifting machinery and gear shall be dis.mantled.

No lifting machinery and no chain or other appliance shall, except for

the purpose of test, be loaded beyond the safe working load which shall
be plainly marked thereon.

TESTING : No lifting machinery and no chain, ring, hook, shackle,

swivel or pulley block shall be used in hoisting or lowering unless it has
been tested and examined by a competent person in the manner set out
in Schedule IV and a certificate of such test and examination in the form
approved by the Inspector obtained. Whenever a lifting machinery or any
component has been lengthened, altered or repaired by welding or
otherwise, it shall, before being again taken into use for hoisting or
lowering, be adequately re-tested and re-examined by a competent
person and a fresh certificate obtained.

ANNEALING : All chains, rings, hoo_ks, shackles and swivels used

in hoisting or lowering shall be annealed under the supervision of a
competent person and at the following intervals :

i. If 12.5 mm (1/2 inch) or less, every six months;

ii. all others, every twelve months : ·

Provided that for such gear used solely on cranes and other hoisting
appliances worked by hand, the period is doubled.

Provided also that where an Inspector is of opinion that owing to the

size, design, material or infrequency of use of any su·ch gear or class of
such gear, the requirement of this paragraph as to annealing is not
necessary for the protection of dock workers, he may, by a certificate in
writing and subject to confirmation by the Central Government, exempt

123
such gear or class of gear from such requirement subj&et to such
conditions as may be specified in such certificate..

Particulars of such annealing shall be entered in·the Chain Register.

Following gear is exempted from annealing:

1. Chains made of malleable cast-iron;

2. Plate link chains;
3. Chains, rings, hooks, shackles and swivels made of steel;
4. Pitched chains;
5. Rings, hooks, shackles and swivels permanently attached to pitched
chains, pulley blocks or weighing machines;
6. Hooks and swivels having screw-threaded parts or ball-bearings or
other case-harqened parts; and
7. Borc;jeaux connections.

Chains and gear aforementioned shall be thoroughly examined by

a competent person once at least in every 12 months and particulars of
examination entered in the Chain Register.

ROPES AND WIRES : No rope or wire shall be used in hoisting or

lowering unless it is of suitable quality, free from patent defects and it has
been tested and examined by a competent person in the manner set out
in Schedule IV and a certificate of test and examination in the form
approved by the Inspector obtained.

A rope must be condemned if it shows signs of excessive wear and

tear or deterioration, which can be made out from the broken strands or
hairy surface or the presence of powdering p~tween the strands or at the
heart of the rope. ·

A wire rope is to be condemned if in any length of 8 diameters the

total number of visible broken wires exceeds 10% of the number of wires
in the wire rope.

DRIVERS OF CRANES : No person under 18 years of age and no

person who is not sufficiently competent and reliable shall be employed
as driver of the lifting machinery, whether driven by mechanical power or
otherwise or for giving signals to a driver.

124
HANDLING OF CARG:0 :

STACKING AND UNSTACKING:

1. Where stacking, unstacking, stowing or unstowing of cargo or

handling in connection therewith c.annot be safely carried out unaided,
reasonable measures to guard against accident shall be taken by shoring
or otherwise.

2. Stacking of cargo shall be made on firm foundation not liable to settle

and the weight of the cargo shall be such as not to overload the floors.

3. Cargo shall not be stacked against partition or wall of warehouses

or store-places unless it is known that the partition or the wall is of
sufficient strength to withstand the pressure.

4. Cargo shall not be stacked to such a height and in such a manner

as would render the pile unstable.

5. Where dock workers are working on stacks exceeding 1.5 m (5 ft)

in height, safe means of access to the stack shall be provided.

HANDLING OBJECTS HAVING SHARP AND PROJECTING

PARTS: Dock workers handling objects with sharp edges, fins, slivers,
splinters or similar dangerous projecting parts, shall be provided with
suitable protective equipment.

STAGING
1. All staging shall be
a) securely ~onstructed of sound and substantial material and
shall be maintained in such condition as to ensure the safety of all dock
workers,
b) inspected at regular and frequent intervals by a competent
person.

2. All planks intended to be used for staging shall :

a) be carefully examined before being taken into use; and
b) be re-examined before they are used again after the stages
have been dismantled, by a person qualified to detect faults in timber.

3. All planks forming stages shall be fastened to prevent slipping,

unless they extend 45 ems. (18 inches) or more beyond the inside edge
of the thwart or support on which they rest.
125
4. All stages shall be of sufficient width to secure lhe safety of the dock
workers thereon. No stage at a height of 2 metres or more above the
ground, dock bottom, deck or tank top, shall be less than 30 cm. wide.

5. Planks supported on the rungs of ladders shall ·not be used to

support stages.

6. Stages suspended by ropes or chain shall be secured as far as

possible so as to prevent their swinging.

7. Synthetic fibre ropes shall not be used for suspending stages except
where such stages are suspended from ropes reeved through blocks.

d. Safe means of access shall be provided for the use of workers to and
from stages. Ropes used for suspending stages shall not be used as
means of access.

RESTRICTION ON EMPLOYMENT : No person under 18 years of

age shall be required to work on a ship on a stage above the level of the
ground.

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST FALLING MATERIAL: In the case of

double banking, where dock workers are required to work on a stage and
other dock workers are at work directly beneath such stage, adequate
measures shall be taken to prevent the fall of articles or materials.

LIGHTING : All parts of the ship where dock workers are working on
stages shall be efficiently lighted.

DANGEROUS SUBSTANCES AND ENVIRONMENTS

The regulations deal with corrosive and caustic substances, other

dangerous substances, dust fumes etc., deficiency of oxygen and fumi-
gated spaces.

General Precautions :

1. Dangerous substances shall only be loaded, discharged or handled

under the supervision of a competent person who is familiar with the risks
and precautions to be taken.

126
2. Special precaution such as provision of mats, slings nets, boxes,
and high-side trays or pallets shall be taken to prevent breakage of, or
damage to containers of dangerous substances during loading, unloading
or handling.

3. If containers of dangerous substances are broken or damaged to a

dangerous extent, work shall be stopped and the dock workers moved to
a safe place.

4. Dock workers handling dangerous substances shall be provided with

suitable protective equipment.

MACHINERY:

In every dock, every fly-wheel and every moving part of any prime-
mover shall be securely fenced. All motors, cog- whee.ls, chain and friction
gearing, shafting and steam pipes shall be securely fenced so far as is
practicable.

The fencing of dangerous parts of machinery shall not be removed

while the machinery is in use, but if removed shall be replaced as soon
as practicable and in any case before the machinery is taken into normal
use again.

No part of any machinery which is in motion and which is not securely

fenced shall be examined, lubricated, adjusted or repaired except by
persons duly authorised.

Machine parts shall be cleaned only when the machine is stopped.

When machinery is stopped for servicing or repairs, adequate

measures shall be taken l,!i> ensure that it cannot be inadvertently re-
started. ·

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT :

Only duly authorized person to install, adjust, examine, repair,

displace or remove electrical equipment or circuits.

All portable electric equipment shall be inspected by a competent

person at least once in every day of use.

127
 Electrical equipment exposed to the weather. shall be adequately
protected. against wet or corrosion.

All non-current carrying metal parts of electrical equipment shall be

earthed.

LADDERS :

1. All metal, wooden, rope or other ladders that have to be used by dock
workers .shall be of sound material, good construction and adequate
strength, and shall be properly maintained.

2. Wooden ladders shall not be painted but oiled or covered with clear
varnish.

3. Ladders shall rise, or be provided with an adequate handhold, to

height of 1 mt. (3 ft. 3 inches) above the top landing place.

4. Portable ladders shall not stand on a loose base.

5. . Portable ladders shall be properly placed and secured in place.

6. No ladder shall be used which has -

a. a missing or defective rung; or
b. any rung which depends for its support on nails, spikes or other
similar fixing.

7. All ladders shall be inspected at suitable intervals by a competent

person, and if dangerous defects are found in any ladder, the ladder shall
be immediately taken out of service.

ACCESS TO & FROM SH IP AND PARTS OF TH E SHIP:

ALONGSIDE QUAY : Access to be by means of accommodation

ladder or similar access, properly secured, at least 22 inches wide and
fenced on each side to a height of 2 ft 9 inches with upper and lower rails.

ALONGSIDE OTHER SHIP : Safe means of access to be provided

by ship with higher freeboard.

ACCESS TO HOLDS: Where depth of hold exceeds 5 ft., access

to be by ladder and ladder cleats, or cups in coaming.

128
 Upper and lower ladders to be· in line.
'
_Ladders to provide a foothold to a depth of at least 41/ 2 inches f~>r a
width of 10 inches and a firm handhold.
Handholds and footholds on each side of shaft tunnel.

HATCH COVERS :

All beams used for hatch.covering to have suitable gea.r for lifting on
and off without persons having to go upon them to adj~st: · ··

Hatch beams to be secured.

All hatch covers and beams to be marked indicating deck, hatch and
position unless all are interchangeable.

Adequate handgrips to be provided on ha~~h·covers ·ari.d ·bea~s.

If working cargo in t'ween deck at least one section of hatch covers

to be in place.

If working in t'ween deck and all t'ween deck hatch covers are not
in place, then opening to lower hold must be fenced to a height of 3 feet.

FIRE PROTECTION:

1. Places where dock workers are employed shall be provided with -

a. sufficient and suitable fire-extinguishing equipment
b. an adequate water-supply at _ample pressure.

2. Persons trained to use the fire-extinguishing equipment shall be

readily available during all working hours.

3. Fire-extinguishing equipment shall be properly maintained and in-

spected at suitable intervals.

RESCUE:
Provision for rescue from drowning of dock workers shall be made and
maintained.

129
 THE DOCK LABOUR BOARD

The Government may establish a Dock Labour Boar~ for- a port or

a group of ports. The Board shall be responsible for administering the
provisions of this Act and 'shall exercise such powers and perform such
functions as may be conferred on it by the Act.
. .
The board shall consist of a Chairman and such number of m~!'Tlbers
to equally represent :
i. The Government
ii. The dock workers
iii. The employers of dock·work-ers & shipping companies.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

1. State whether you would condemn the wire in the following cases :
i. A 6 x 24 wire 22mm in diameter has 1 5 broken wires in a length
of 176mm.
ii. A 6 x 37 wire 18mm in diameter has 30 broken wires in a length
of 2.16m.

130
 ANSWERS
to
EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE

Chapter 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS OF CARGO WORK.

1. i] Without B.S.(tonnes} iil With BrQken ~tow?ge (tonnes}

a) 1219.4 1129.0
b} 367.0 324.8
c} 234.8 ·221.5
d) 194.8 183.0
e) 230.5 207.3
I) 132.2 132.2
g} 1111.8 1034.2
h} 497.4 438.2
i} 91 .7 79.8
j) 158.8 142.7

2. G = Grain Capacity B = Bale Capacity,

a) ~:837 .1t b) B-490.Gt .c} G-49-1.Gt
d) 8-587.51 e) G-1629.7t

3. 2348 bags of maize.

117.4 tonnes

4. 2 tiers• 74 rolls total

5. Height of Steel • 2.58m i - - - - - + - - - - - + - - - - - 10~

Steel Pipes 116.6 t i-----+-----+--....;.....--1\ffi
Paint drums 37.0 t
k.J,

6. i) 1050 bales cotton

ii) 280 bales jute,
840 bales cotton
iii) 1400 bales jute
Chapter 3 : ·LIFTING GEAR
iv) 175 slings in each case.
1. Effort• 224 t Efficiency c: 71.4%
Chapter 2 : CARE OF CARGOES 2. i. 2.56 t ii. 62.5% iii. 48mm dia.
Dew Point 3. 20mm 4. 30mm
1. 9.7°C Yes 5. i. 1.48 t ii. 67.6% iii.30mm dia.
2. 15.5°C No 6. Effort= 1.46 t Efficiency = 77.05%
3. 7.6°C Yes 7. Gyntackle 30mm Luff tackle 20mm
Chapter 4 : BUU< CARGOES.
1. Hold 1 Coal Iron Ore Hold 2 Coal Iron Ore
i. 1451.5 1451.$ i. 2116.8 2116.8
ii. . .1741.8 1741.8 .i . 2540.2 2540.2
iii. 1596.7 15196-.7 ii. 2328.5 2328.5
iv. 1887.0 1887.0 . iv. 2751.8 2751.8

Chapter 9 : TANKER OPERATIONS

1. Ullage 0.196m Mass oC oil 2515.3 t
2. UUage@ loadport • 1.744m. ullage at 41°C • 1.454m.
3. Ullage - 0.8m.
4 . i. 2.951 m ii. 0.940m iii. 4480.SOt
5. · Centre Tanks Wing Tanks No. 5 Centre
Ullage 1 .078m 1.078m 4.144m
Mass . 3103.• t 2402'9 2160.9 t

Chapter 11 : CARGO PLANS

1. 2.

DODD 350 t
I ·1
80 t Tea
G~~ Bost!°
Deck
l I
□□ DD
Ex Ca tta I

I
E x Col

6s t Machinery -
I Boston Ex Colombo
Bananas 200 t
Beer 363.5 t Rubt;,er
Tween Ca ses . Philadelphia Ex Colombo
Tobax::o 150 t
Deck 60 t
Ham•
burg
Boulogne
----------
Bananas (Optiooal) 450 I GuMies
Philadelphia Ex Calcutta
I

S teel
I
I
200 t 0nions
Boulogne - - - ---- ---
400t0re
Phbdelphia Ex Calcutta
Lower Pipes r-----
Hold 750 t
Antwerp I 1053.6 t
I Chemical drums
l Optional

I
Chapter 12 : THE DOCK LABOURERS ACT
1. i. Yes ii. No.