Plant Nutrition

Photosynthesis

 It is the process by which green plants manufacture their own food

 They trap sunlight using chlorophyll and convert it to glucose using water & oxygen
 Oxygen is released as a by product

Equation

Chlorophyll
Carbon dioxide + water Carbohydrates + Oxygen
Sunlight

Raw materials of Photosynthesis

1. Carbon dioxide
2. Water

Products of Photosynthesis
1. Carbohydrates
2. Oxygen
Conditions necessary
1. Chlorophyll
2. Sunlight
Sources of raw materials for photosynthesis

Water – it is sucked from the soil by the roots (osmosis) & transported up the stem to the leaf where
it is used

Carbon dioxide– it moves into the leaf from the air by the process of diffusion through the stomata
(tinny holes under the leaf)

The Process :- How photosynthesis occurs

 Carbon dioxide and water enter into leaf cells

 Chloroplasts in the chlorophyll traps sunlight energy.
 The light energy is s used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.
 The oxygen escapes from the leaf to the atmosphere as a by-product.

The hydrogen reacts with carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates. Structure of the leaf
 1. Cuticle - It is a thin waxy layer at the top of leaf which results in evaporation
2. Upper epidermis - It is a layer of cells which protects the leaf
3. Palisade mesophyll layer - These cells contain most of the chloroplasts & carries out the most
of the photosynthesis
4. Spongy mesophyll layer - It is a layer of cells with spaces in between them which allows
diffusion of carbon dioxide & water. The layer carries out photosynthesis &stores nutrients
5. Vascular bundle - It contains xylem vessels which carry water and phloem vessels which
carry nutrients to plant cells for respiration and to seeds and other storage organs.
6. Lower epidermis - It is similar to upper epidermis but it contains small holes called stomata.
These holes control the movement of carbon dioxide into the leaf and oxygen out of leaf.
Special cells called guards cells controls the opening and closing of the stoma allowing the
gaseous exchange.

Factors needed for photosynthesis

1. Carbon dioxide
2. Water
3. Sunlight
4. Chlorophyll

Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis

There are 4 factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis,

1. Amount of carbon dioxide – increased carbon dioxide increases rate of glucose production
which speeds up photosynthesis
2. Light intensity- light energy is trapped by chlorophyll to split water molecules & therefore
increasing light energy will speed up the rate of photosynthesis
3. Temperature – temperature affect rates of chemical reactions. Low temp makes enzymes
inactive & slows down photosynthesis while very high temp will kill the enzymes stopping
photosynthesis
4. Amount of water available – adequate amounts of water are needed & any shortage will slow
down photosynthesis

Adaptations of leaves to photosynthesis

1. Most leaves are broad to maximise the area which absorbs sunlight.
2. The leaves are thin to allow the penetration of sunlight and easy diffusion of carbon dioxide.
3. The palisade cells contain many chloroplasts closely packed at the upper surface of the leaf
so that they absorb sunlight more efficiently
 4. Spongy cells have spaces between them & the lower epidermis has holes which allow easy
gaseous exchange. (gaseous exchange refers to the entry of carbon dioxide from the leaf and
the exit of oxygen from the leaf)
5. The leaves have an extensive network of veins to supply water to the leaf

Importance of photosynthesis

1. It produces carbohydrates which are food for animals. The plants themselves also
manufacture their own food. This is why plants are called Producers when looking at food
chains and food webs.
2. Photosynthesis produces oxygen which is used y plants and animals during respiration.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis which helps to reduce global warming.
4. Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy. This chemical energy can be used
for many processes in our everyday life e.g. we burn firewood to get heat

What happens to the products of photosynthesis.

What happens to oxygen produced

1. Most of the oxygen diffuses into the air were it is used by animals in respiration.
2. Some of the oxygen is used by plants during respiration.

What happens to the carbohydrates.

1. Some of the carbohydrates produced are used by the plant during respiration
2. The balance is stored by the plant in seeds, fruits, bulbs or tubers.

Experiments

Experiment 1: Testing a leaf for starch

Materials.

A green leaf from a potted plant which was kept in the dark 3 days, a green leaf of a potted plant
which was in the sunlight, a test tube, a beaker, a burner, a stand, water, methylated spirit, iodine
solution, a dropper, & a white tile.

Process diagram

N.B: the ethylated spirit is heated in a water bath because it is highly inflammable (can easily catch
fire easily)
Method

1. Boil the leaf in water to destroy the enzymes in the leaf, so as to prevent any chemical
reactions
2. Boil the leaf in alcohol to remove chlorophyll so that results are easy to see
3. Dip the leaf in hot water to soften it as boiling it in alcohol makes brittle
4. Place the leaf on a white tile & use a dropper to put the iodine solution on the leaf, iodine
solution is used to test for starch & changes colour from brown to blue-black if starch is
present

Observation

1. For the leaf that was kept in the dark for 3 days the iodine solution did not change colour, this
means there was no starch. Putting a plant in the dark is called de-starching because
darkness stops all photosynthesis & all the starch that had been manufactured is used up
2. For the plant that was in the sunlight the iodine changed colour from brown to blue black
meaning starch was present in the leaf. In science we say the test was positive

Experiment 2: to test if carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis

Materials

1. 2 similar potted plants

2. 10cm3 of soda lime
3. 10cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution
4. 2 bell jars
5. Starch testing kit

Method

1. 2 similar potted plants are kept in the dark for 3-4 days in order to de-starch them. The starch
from their leaves is used up when plant respires in the dark & is not replaced as no
photosynthesis can take place without light
2. Before the experiment ensure that the plants are completely de-starched by testing for starch
3. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below. Place soda lime and sodium hydroxide
as shown by the diagram as these remove co2 from the air
4. Expose both plants to sunlight for 6 hrs & then test a leaf for starch from each plant

Diagram
Observations & Conclusions

1. When tested for starch the leaf from jar B turned blue – black to show the presence of starch
this is because photosynthesis was taking place as all necessary conditions were present, jar
B is the control of the experiment
2. When tested for starch, the leaf from jar A remained brown to prove absence of starch. No
photosynthesis was taking place as the soda lime prevented carbon dioxide from the air
entering & sodium hydroxide absorbed any carbon dioxide inside the jar. Without carbon
dioxide photosynthesis cannot take place

N.B. The stopper on the bell jar is sealed with Vaseline to prevent entrance of carbon dioxide

Experiment 2: testing if light is necessary for photosynthesis

Materials

1. Potted plant
2. Aluminium foil
3. Cello tape
4. Scissors
5. Starch testing kit

Method

1. De- starch the potted plant before the experiment

2. Take a small piece of foil and cut a simple shade in the middle & cover the leaf with the foil
ensuring that the cut shade is on top of the leaf
3. Leave the potted plant for 6 hrs
4. Make a sketch of the leaf, taking note of the areas which are completely covered
5. Remove a leaf from the plant& test it for starch ( use the covered leaf)

Diagram
Observations & Conclusions

1. The areas which were exposed to sunlight turned blue-black during the starch test to prove
that photosynthesis was taking place
2. The portion which was covered did not have any starch & iodine remained brown this proved
that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

Experiment 4: testing if chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

Materials

1. A variegated leaf and a starch testing kit

Method

1. Make a sketch of the leaf taking note of those areas without chlorophyll
2. Test the leaf for starch

Diagram

Results & Conclusions

 1. The portions which had chlorophyll had a positive result when tested for starch (iodine turn
blue- black)
2. Those portions which were not green had a negative result when tested for starch. This
proves that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis to take place

N.B. If you do not make a sketch first it will not be possible to remember which parts were green
& which parts were white since the whole leaf will be white when boiled in alcohol during the
starch test

Experiment 5: To prove that oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

Materials

1. A water weed
2. Beaker
3. Funnel
4. Test hole
5. Glowing splint

Method

1. Pour water into a glass beaker

2. Place the water weed in the water & invert a short stemmed funnel over it making sure that
the stem of the funnel is completely submerged into the water
3. Fill the test tube with water & and invert it over the stem of the funnel in the water
4. Place the apparatus in the sunlight for 3 hrs observing what happens

Diagram

Observations

1. Gas bubbles were seen coming from the weed and collecting in the test tube
2. The collected gas increased with time pushing the water in the test tube
3. When the test tube was removed without turning it, a glowing splint was put inside, the splint
re-ignited

Conclusions

 Because the splint ignited, it proves that the gas that was collected was oxygen

N.B: This experiment can be adapted & used to observe the effect of different light intensity levels on
photosynthesis.
The apparatus as set up will be put closer or further away from a light source & count the number of
gas bubbles produced in each case. More bubbles will be produced if it is put closer to a light source
while less bubbles are produced the further the light source will be.

Another variation will be to use bulbs of different power.

In this case the greater the power (the light intensity) the more the number of bubbles produced per
minute

Mineral Nutrition in plants

 Apart from the products of photosynthesis plants also need mineral elements from the soil
 These elements are found dissolved in water in the soil
 In natural ecosystems they are usually adequately available but agricultural soils sometimes
have a deficiency and will need to be added
 Nitrogen, phosphorous & potassium are the 3 major elements required by plants for healthy
growth
 Some elements like iron, calcium, magnesium & zinc are required but in very small amounts
and are called trace elements

Nitrogen (N)

 Nitrogen is essential for plant growth & reproduction

 It is needed by plants for building up proteins
 A plant with adequate nitrogen has good leaf growth & looks healthy and green

Nitrogen deficiency symptoms

1. Stunted or poor growth

2. The yellowing of leaves
3. Poor quality seeds

How to correct nitrogen deficiency

Shortage of nitrogen in the soil can be corrected by:

 Addition of manure or compost

 Addition of fertilisers in the form of nitrates and compounds
 Crop rotation

Phosphorous (P)

 It is important for root development & seed germination

 It is also used in all plant activities that require energy

Symptoms of deficiency

 The leaves become purple

 Poor root development
 Tall thin plants

Correction of deficiency in the soil

 Phosphorous is supplied in the form of soluble phosphate in the fertilisers e.g. ammonium
phosphate
Potassium (K)

 It is important for flowering and fruit formation

 It is also necessary for the neutralisation of organic acids in plants & helps during the uptake
of mineral salts from the soil (active uptake)

Deficiency symptoms

1. Yellowish or brown leaf margins

2. Poor flowering & fruiting
3. Premature death of plant

Correction of deficiency

 Addition of fertilisers e.g. compound D

Experiment 1: to test the effects of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium on plants

Materials

1. Bean seedlings
2. 5 test tubes
3. Mineral solutions
4. Aluminium foil or black paint cotton wool

Method

1. Take 5 test tubes or small bottles & label them A to E and fill them all with water cultures as
follows:
 Test tube A- put the complete culture solution containing nitrogen, phosphorous, & potassium
 Test tube B – put distilled water
 Test tube C- put culture solution with phosphorous & potassium
 Test tube D- put culture solution with nitrogen & phosphorous
 Test tube E-put culture solution with nitrogen & potassium
2. All the test tubes should be covered with aluminium foil or painted black. This is done to
prevent sunlight from entering the solution and so avoid the growth of algae which may affect
mineral content
3. In each test tube place 5 bean seedlings which are more or less identical which are
surrounded by cotton wool to support them

Diagram
Observations and conclusion

1. Plant A is the control, it has the necessary elements for plant growth
2. Plant B has a poor plant growth as there are no nutrients in the water
3. C has got a yellow margined leaves
4. D has brown leaf margins & premature death of plant
5. Plant E there is no root development and seed germination therefore the leaves become
purple and also the plant become thin and tall

Plant pests and diseases

 A pest is an insect or any organism that damages plants or grains

 Common agricultural pests include mammals (rodents, mammals) birds & insects
 The most serious of pests are the insects which damage both crops & livestock

Examples of plant pests and the damage they cause

1. Tissue eating pests- these have biting jaws & use these to eat plant parts, symptoms include
chewed leaves and holes in the plant for example cutworms, locusts, grasshoppers, cricket,
caterpillars e.t.c.Their mouths parts are called mandibles
2. Sap sucking pests – mouth parts stuck into the leaves to suck out sap. The leaves become
distorted, shrunken and discoloured. They destroy the plant by removing essential sap from
the plant, examples aphids and red spider mite. They mouth parts are called stylets

Examples of plant diseases

1. Bacteria wilt – this is a disease caused by bacteria, plants will start wilting even though water
is abundantly available. This is caused by the accumulation of bacteria in xylem vessels
breaking the movement of water. They may appear as nodules on plant roots.
2. Fungal rust- this is caused by microscopic fungi leaving in the stems and leaves of plants.
Rust red spots appear on leaves hence the name fungal rust
3. Powdery mildew – also caused by microscopic fungi and leaves are coated with a light
powder
Why control pests and diseases

1. Plants pests and diseases reduce the yields of crops, this is because they reduce the surface
area available for photosynthesis or slow down plant growth.
2. In extreme cases plant pests can completely destroy crops threatening food security and
causing losses to farmers.
3.

Methods of pest control

There are 3 main methods which are used to control pests:

1. Cultural control
2. Biological control
3. Chemical control

Cultural control

 Involves the use of good farming practises which make more difficult for a pest to establish
itself, example include
1. Early planting-plants grow strong before the numbers of pests have multiplied
2. Weed control-removes hiding places for pests and reduces their population
3. Crop rotation- same crops are easily attached by certain pests which may remain dormant
in the soil after the harvest. If the next crop is of the same family the dormant pest will be
able to attach it, however if the different family is planted the dormant will not be able to
attack the new plant
4. Clean planting environment-cuttings and seeds used for planting should be used free of
pests before being used. The fields should be fumigated and last season crop remains
should be removed since there may be keeping pests
5. Healthy farming- organic manure and fertilisers make crops grow strong so that they can
resist the attack of pests and diseases
6. Burning or burying- farmers may burn or bury maize stocks after harvest. This kills of
maize stock bores which would otherwise lie dormant during the dry season. The
disadvantage of this method is that it also destroys insects that are not pests & therefore
disturbs the balance of nature

Examples of cultural control in cotton

One of the main types of pests to attack cotton is the bore worm, which is able to survive from one
season to the next as the pupa stage leaving in the soil. Rotating the cotton crop with maize which is
not a food source for bore worm is recommended as the pupa will die from lack of food when a
maize crop is planted.

The pest will either find a new cotton field or it will die. Another cultural control method for cotton is
the closed season after harvesting. Nothing is sawn on the cotton field for at least 2 months. This
makes the soil insects suffer from lack of food and die leaving the soil pest free for the next crop.

It is important to remove all remaining green plants after harvest to make sure that the pest larvae do
not survive. Most farmers burn the stocks. In Zimbabwe it is illegal to have unclear field after the
close of the cotton and tobacco season.

Biological control

This involves the introduction of parasites & predators which are the natural enemies of the pests
that need to be destroyed e.g. a particular plant called the African marigold has been known to
reduce nematodes population in the soil. Another biological method can be to pick off the large
insects from plants and then kill them; the major disadvantage of bio control is that the new
organisms may start to attack crops that have been previously resistant to attack.

Chemical control

It can be used to prevent pests. A pesticide is applied to the pest to stop the pest from attacking
them, if a pest attack has just began pesticides can be applied to kill the pest at various stages of
their life cycle. Pesticides can be supplied as solution or dust sprays to the plant part or organ
affected by the pest or disease

Precautions for the use of chemicals

1. Keep chemicals in secure cardboards away from children & away from food & medicines
2. Read & follow instructions on labels when using a chemical
3. Wear protective clothing such as gloves, face, musk e.t.c
4. Avoid smoking or eating while using chemicals
5. Chemicals should be stored only in their original containers & all empty containers & all empty
containers should be disposed off quickly & safely

Effects of pesticides on pests

1. Stomach poisoning pesticide- these kill pests that eat sprayed crops
2. Systematic pesticides- these are absorbed by the crops & if any pest eat or suck sap juices
from the plant, it is killed.
3. Contact poison pesticides- kills any pest which comes into contact with the chemical

Advantages & Disadvantages of pest control methods

Cultural control

Advantages

1. It is not expensive
2. It is poison free to the user & the environment

Disadvantages

1. Some of the methods involve hard work e.g. uprooting individual cotton plants
2. Burning – destroys even harmless insects
Biological control

Advantage

1. It is cheap

Disadvantage

1. A new pest maybe attracted by the predator introduced

Chemical control

Advantage

1. It is a chemical which is effective because it kills all pest on the plant

Disadvantage

1. It is an expensive method
2. Introduces poisonous to the environment & is dangerous to the user
3. Kills harmless insects

Animal nutrition
Digestion
Digestion is the breakdown of large molecules of food which cannot be used by the body into small
ones, so that they can be absorbed through the wall of the alimentary canal.

Types of Digestion
There are two types of digestion;
1. Physical digestion and,
2. Chemical digestion

Physical digestion
Also called mechanical digestion, it breaks down large pieces of food to small ones mechanically. It
is done by the teeth, the muscles in the wall of the alimentary canal and bile salts.

Chemical Digestion
Involves the use of enzymes which chemically change food from one form to another.

The Alimentary Canal/The digestive system of a human

Functions of Parts
Mouth – food is taken into the digestive system through the mouth. This is called ingestion. In the
mouth the food is broken down into smaller pieces by the teeth. This is a form of physical digestion.
The process of chewing also mixes the food with Saliva which has the following functions;

Functions of saliva
1. It lubricates the food which makes the movement of food in the gullet easy.
2. Saliva contains an enzyme called Salivary Amylase which converts starch to maltose.
3. It also provides and alkaline environment which is required for the operation of the enzyme
amylase.
The Oesophagus/Gullet
It is a tube which links the mouth to the stomach. Food is moved down this tube by the process
called peristalsis. During the process of peristalsis, muscles above the food contract and those
below the food relax, pushing the food down the gullet.

The stomach
Food in the stomach is mixed with Gastric juices produced from the walls of the stomach by a
process called churning. The juices have the following purposes;
1. Lubricates the food to make movement easy down the digestive system.
2. Contains hydrochloric acid which kills bacteria ingested with food and creates the optimum pH
for the operation of enzymes.
3. Contains two enzymes, rennin and pepsin. Rennin coagulates milk while pepsin changes
protein to peptides and peptones.
The Duodenum

This is the first section of the small intestines. Pancreatic juice from the pancreas and bile from the
gall bladder are added to the food.

Functions of bile
1. Bile emulsifies (breaks down into smaller particles) fats making their digestion easy.
2. It also creates the proper pH for the operation of enzymes

Functions of Pancreatic Juice

1. Contains the following enzymes
a. Lipase – this breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol
b. Pancreatic Amylase – it breaks down starch to maltose.
c. Trypsin – it breaks down proteins to peptides and peptones.
The Ileum
This is the second section of the small intestines. The ileum has two major functions, digestion and
absorption.
1. Digestion – juices are added to the food which contain the following enzymes;
a. Lipase – to digest fats to fatty acids and glycerol
b. Maltase – maltose to glucose
 c. Peptidases – peptones and peptides to amino acids
d. Sucrase – sucrose to glucose
e. Lactase – Lactose to glucose
2. Absorption – the ileum is very long and contains small finger like structures called villi which
are rich in blood vessels. Both the length and the villi are designed to increase the surface
area available for the absorption of food substances like glucose and amino acids into the
blood stream.
The Colon
Absorption of water, mineral salts and vitamins into the blood stream takes place in the colon. It is
also called the large intestines.

The Rectum
Holds undigested remains(faeces) of food before egestion.
The Anus – The purpose of the anus is egestion. This is the passing out of waste food substances
from the body.

Other Organs supporting the digestive system.

The liver
The liver is important for the following reasons;
1. The liver produces bile and it is stored in the gall bladder.
2. It regulates levels of sugar in the blood by converting excess glucose to glycogen and later
converting the glycogen back to glucose when sugar level fall.
3. The liver also breaks down excess proteins into urea and uric acid to excreted out of the body
as urine.
The Pancreas
Pancreatic juice flows into the duodenum. It contains enzymes that digest starch, proteins and lipids,
and also contains sodium hydrogen-carbonate to partly neutralise the acidity of food coming from the
stomach.

Absorption is the movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the intestine into the
blood by the process of diffusion.
Significance of Villii
Villi are finger like projections that increase the surface area for absorption. If a section of small
intestine was turned inside out, its surface would be kike a carpet. Inside each villus are:
- Blood capillaries: absorb amino acids and glucose.
- Lacteals: absorb fatty acids and glycerol.

Food molecules are absorbed: - mainly by diffusion or by active transport. Active uptake makes
use of energy.

Role of the hepatic portal vein

The hepatic portal vein transports absorbed food from the small intestine to the liver. After a meal,
the blood in this vein contains very high concentrations of glucose and amino acids, as well as
vitamins and minerals. The liver reduces levels backs to normal levels required by the body.
The absorbed nutrients are carried to the liver in the hepatic portal vein. Some are used in the liver,
some are stored, and some are sent on in the blood to be delivered to cells all over the body.

Assimilation
This is the use of the absorbed food substances in the body by body cells. Glucose is used during
the process of respiration; Protein is used for growth and repair of wounds and mineral salts for
protection against diseases.

The use of the end products of Digestion

Glucose
1. Excess glucose is converted by the liver and is stored.
2. Excess also converted into fats and are stored around organs and under the skin.
3. Glucose is used to release energy during the process of respiration.

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

 Insulin
Glucose Glycogen

Adrenalin
Amino Acids
1. Used for the formation (synthesis) of protein e.g. making new cells, enzymes, hormones and
repair of worn out tissues.
2. Excess amino acids are broken down into urea and uric acid by the liver and excreted out of
the body as urine.

Fatty acids and glycerol

1. Are burnt to provide energy to the body especially when glucose is in short supply.
2. Some are made into cell membranes
3. Excess are converted to fats which insulates the body providing warmth, and protect organs
such as the heart and the intestines.

The Digestive System of a Ruminant

Ruminants eat food that consists mostly of a carbohydrate called cellulose which can not be
digested in the digestive system of non ruminants.
To be able to digest cellulose, ruminants have four stomach chambers as compared to just one in
non ruminants. The four chambers are;
1. Rumen
2. Reticulum
3. Omasum
4. Abomasum

Diagram

The Rumen (the first chamber)

Temporarily stores food as it is being fermented into sugars by a process called fermrntation. The
stomach has bacteria which ferment cellulose changing it to sugars. Fermented food is then passed
to the next stomach.

The reticulum (the second chamber)

The reticulum has holes which roll the food into balls of cud while the animal is resting. These balls
are brought back to the mouth (regurgitated) where the food is chewed again and swallowed for the
second time. Swallowed food moves to the third stomach.

Abomasum (the fourth stomach)

This is the true stomach and gastric juice is added to the food. All other processes are the same as
with non ruminants.
The digestive system of a rabbit
A rabbit is a non ruminant which eats cellulose as part of its diet. The digestive system looks almost
the same as that of a human except that a rabbit has a caecum between the small intestines and the
large intestines. The caecum contains bacteria which ferments cellulose to sugars as occurs in the
rumen of ruminants.

Diagram

Growth and Development in Animals

Growth
A permanent increase in size (height, mass etc) acquired by an organsm during the course of its
development

Development
A change in the complexity of the structure and efficiency of an organism during its life. e.g
development of breasts, growing of a beard e.t.c.

Special dietary needs

 Animals need balanced diet for growth and production and therefore should be given the right
kind of food in the right quantities.

Young Animals
 Need extra proteins for growth
 Need extra iron for the formation of red blood cells.
 Calcium and phosphorous are required for the formation of bones and teeth.
 Vitamins required to fight against diseases.
Pregnant Animals
 A lot of proteins for the building of new tissues of the growing embryo
 Calcium and phosphorous for bone and teeth development.
  Vitamins for healthy living.

Animals for meat productions

 A lot of proteins when the animal is young and growing and a low level of protein at maturity.
 Increasing level of carbohydrates and fats for energy.

The food conversion efficiency/ rate

 A ratio of the mass gained by an animal in one month to the mass of the food fed to that
animal in the one month. i.e mass gained over mass eaten.
 An animal with a high food conversion efficiency is more profitable to the farmer because it
requires lesser food to produce 1kg of body mass.

Growth curves
 The graph shows how mass changes through time i.e. it shows the rate of growth of an
animal.
 It also shows the best time for slaughter.
 The graph is S shaped.

Diagram

A – B : slow growth rate

B – C : rapid growth rate
C – D : growth rate slowing down but economical
D – E : slow growth rate and uneconomical
Beyond E : no growth at all. At times mass may start coming down with age.

Appropriate time of slaughter.

Week P, which is in line with point D is most appropriate time of slaughter. Beyond this point mass
gain is no longer economical as weight gain is very slow though the animal is now eating a lot of
food.
Summary
The Digestion Process (through the alimentary canal)

1. Mouth

 Chewing and action of salivary amylase (both chemical and mechanical digestion)

2. Oesophagus

 Food passes down by peristalsis

3. Stomach
  Curdling of milk proteins

 Digestion of proteins by pepsin

4. Small intestine

a. Digestion

 action of bile

 action of pancreatic enzymes

 action of intestinal enzymes

b. Absorption of digested products

5. Colon

 absorption of water and mineral salts

6. Rectum

 storage of faeces

7. Anus

 ejection or defecation

Peristalsis

 It is the rhythmic wave-like contractions of the walls of the gut.

 It is caused by the alternate contractions of the circular and longitudinal muscles (smooth
muscles) in the walls.

 It helps to push food along the gut.

Digestive juices

Digestive
Source Contents
juice

saliva salivary glands salivary amylase and mucin

gastric glands in rennin, pepsin, hydrochloric

gastric juice
stomach acid

pancreatic amylase, trypsin,

pancreatic juice pancreas
lipase

enterokinase, maltase,
intestinal glands in
intestinal juice lactase, sucrase, erepsin,
small intestine
lipase
Digestion of starch, proteins and fats

Starch -------------------------------------------> Maltose --------------------------------------> Glucose

(amylase in saliva & pancreatic juice) (maltase in intestinal juice)

Proteins -------------------------------------> Peptond -------------------------------------> amino acids

(pepsin in gastric juice) (erepsin in intestinal juice)
(trypsin in pancreatic juice)

Fats ------------------------------------------------------> fatty acids and glycerol

(lipase in pancreatic and intestinal juice)

Adaptations of the small intestine for absorption of food substances

 large surface area

 richly supplied with blood capillaries and lymphatic capillaries to carry away absorbed food
substances - this continual removal maintains diffusion gradient for absorption

 vili have thin walls (epithelium only one-cell thick)

 long to provide sufficient time for absorption

Animals, parasites & diseases

 A parasite is an organism which lives on another organism getting its food from this organism.
Examples

 Ticks
 Liver flukes
 Tapeworms
Diseases

 An unhealthy condition where the body will not be functioning very well because of the
existence of some micro or macro organisms in the body of the animal.
Examples

 foot and mouth

 anthrax
 rabies
 nagana
 Newcastle
 Cocsidiosisses
Foot and mouth

 Is caused by a virus which attacks the mucus membrane of the mouth, and it usually affects
cattle, sheep, goats, pigs
Symptoms

 Blisters on hooves and in mouth

 Profuse and continuous salivation in the mouth
 The animal limp
 High temperature
 Dullness
 Loss in milk
  Loss of appetite
Control

 No treatment since it is a viral disease

 Is a notifiable disease
 Animals must be killed to prevent the spreading of the disease
 Dead animals should be burnt and buried deeply
 Quarantine the affected animal (isolate)
 Regular vaccination every 6 months
Anthrax

 Caused by bacteria (bacillus anthracis)

 It affects cattle, sheep, goats, man
Symptoms

 Blood stained faeces

 Dead animal shows dark watery blood from mouth, anus, nose (any opening)
 Sudden death within 24 hrs
 Loss of appetite
 Dullness
 High temperature
Control

 Use of antibiotics (drugs)

 Vaccination of animals yearly
 Is a notifiable disease
 Guarantee isolation of affected animals
 Dead animals should be burnt and buried deeply 3m
Ticks

 They are external parasites that attach themselves to skin and suck blood
 They spread diseases as they move from one animal to the next.
Control

 Regular dipping once a week in summer and once in two weeks in winter
Tapeworms

 Internal parasites found in the gut

Symptoms

 Segments of tapeworms in faeces

 Slow growth
Control

 Use of drugs
 Good sanitation to prevent infection
 Inspection of carcasses to stop consumption
Liver fluke

 Are small flat worms which infect the liver

Symptoms

 Animals is irritable
Control

 Dosing with a chemical which kills the worms

 Rotational grazing reduces infection by flukes
 Keeping infected animals separate from infected beasts
 Good management

GASEOUS EXCHANGE

 is the physical process to get oxygen into the lungs and waste gases as carbon dioxide out of
the blood

THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 It starts from the mouth and nose down through the trachea/windpipe to the bronchus and is
further passed to the bronchioles to air sacs/ alveoli.

Diagram

The Alveoli
 The role of the alveoli

 these are the air sacs through which gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs.
 They are numerous and their large surface area is good for intake of oxygenated air and
expulsion of deoxygenated air.
 The lining of the alveoli is semi permeable(allowing air only to pass through).
 Capillaries surrounding the alveolus contain less oxygen than present in the air sac, thus
oxygen diffuse through into the capillaries.
 Carbon dioxide is more in the capillaries than in the air sacs, thus diffuse through into the air
sacs.

Functions of parts of the respiratory system.

1. VOICE BOX
-Is held open by the trachea to allow passage of air
2. TRACHEA
- Is a cartilage structure
- Lining has cilia which are in constant motion and traps dust and dirt
- It also helps in moisturising air

3. BRONCHUS AND BRONCHIOLES

- Channels air to and from the alveoli
- Containing mucus and cilia to trap dust an micro organisms

4. ALVEOLI
- These are small thin walled semi permeable air sacs
- They are numerous and provide a large surface area for gaseous exchange; this ensures that
sufficient oxygen is obtained.

5. Ribs
- Protect lungs
- Are raised during inhalation and lowered to reduce volume and expel waste gases during
exhalation

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INHALED AND EXHALED AIR

SUBSTANCE INHALED AIR EXHALED AIR

OXYGEN 20% 16%
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.03% 4%
WATER Usually dry Usually moist(high)
TEMPERATURE Lower than exhaled air Higher than inhaled
NITROGEN 79% 79%
GERMS Has Usually does not have
DUST PARTICLES Has Does not have
1 EXPERIMENT

COMPARING INHALED AND EXHALED AIR

MATERIAL

-Beakers, small pipes, limewater

METHOD

-BLOW IN AND OUT THROUGH THE PIPE

RESULTS

-The limewater in ‘A’ turn milky white and in ‘B’ remains the same.

CONCLUISION

-carbon dioxide is present in ‘A’, thus inhaled air has carbon dioxide

RESPIRATION

-The process whereby glucose is broken down to release energy in the presence of oxygen.

-Occurs inside the cells of living organisms, during the process, carbon dioxide and water are
released.

WORD EQUETION

GLUCOSE+OXYGEN CARBONDIOXIDE+WATER+HEAT ENERGY

-the process is known as aerobic respiration

-the energy produced is used for moving and other activities

-oxygen is used up and carbon dioxide released.

2. EXPERIMENT

-WHICH GAS IS RELEASED DURING RESPIRATION

MATERIALS

-small animal e.g. rat, frog; limewater; three test tubes; potassium hydroxide; glass/rubber tubing

METHOD

-Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram

-the apparatus compare the amount of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air

DIAGRAM

RESULTS

-limewater in ‘B’ turned milky white and that in ‘A’ remained clear

CONCLUISION

-limewater in ‘B’ turned milky white because the carbon dioxide concentration is high.

COMPARING RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

RESPIRATION PHOTOSYTHESIS
Catabolic-carbohydrates are broken Anabolic- carbohydrates are
down. manufactured
Oxygen is taken in Oxygen is taken in
Carbon dioxide is given off Carbon dioxide is taken in
Energy is released Energy is absorbed and stored
3 EXPERIMENT

TO SHOW THAT HEAT IS PRODUCED DURING RESPIRATION

MATERIAL

-two thermo flasks; germinating seeds; cotton wool; thermometers

METHOD

1. Divide the germinating seeds into two equal sets

2. Boil one set and disinfect it
3. Place the two sets of seeds and thermometers into the thermo flasks
4. Record temperature at the beginning and after 30 minutes
 RESULTS
- The temperature in ‘A’ will be higher than ‘B’ because dead seeds do not germinate

CONCLUISION

- Germinating seeds produce heat through respiration.

-

Transport in plants
Introduction

Plants have a circulatory system just like animals, but they do have a sophisticated transport system
for carrying water and mineral salts to different parts of the plant, Plants require water and mineral
salts from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air to make food. The food is made in the leaves of
green plants. Other parts of the plant like the stem and the roots require food and oxygen to release
energy required for carrying out life processes.

Structure of the root and stem to prove that plants take in water

Root Structure

Epidermis-an outer layer of cells often with long extensions called root hairs. It provides protection

Cortex-it is region between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder. It stores food for the plant in the
form of cellulose and it supports the plant.

Endodermis-it is a layer of tightly packed cells containing a waterproof just outside vascular
cylinder. This prevents the movement of water between the cells.

Pericycle-it is a cylindrical layer of cells inside endodermis. Origin of cork and secondary (side) roots
Vascular tissue- it is the arrangement of vascular tissue as a central cylinder in roots. This is shown
as the large circular area in the middle of the root structure. This contains xylem and phloem cells,
which are continuous with the stem vascular bundles

Xylem cells- these are living (outer) vascular system carrying water and minerals throughout the
plant

Phloem cells- these are living (inner) vascular system carrying dissolved sugars and organic
compounds throughout the plant

Stem Structure

The plant stem performs the following essential functions:

 Supports the plant and leaves

 Carries water and food in vascular bundles
 Photosynthesis occurs in new green stems

The structure of the stem allows it to perform these functions efficiently. The diagram below show the
internal stem structure of a typical dicotyledonous plant

Pith- it is the large central area for storage of food and support. It may be absent in older plants
(they’re hollow)

Cambium-it is found as a circle around inner stem and outer surface. Forms woody secondary
tissue for support

Cortex- it is composed of various packed cells to give young plants strength and flexibility. It is a
storage area between the cambium and epidermis

Epidermis-thin layer of skin cells. It provides protection and it may be absent replaced by bark

Xylem-water conduction up

Phloem-sap (organic molecules) conduction usually down to the roots

Diffusion and Osmosis

Diffusion

It is correctly defined as the movement of particles from a region of higher concentration (many
particles in a small area) to a region of lower concentration (few particles in a small area) through a
diffusion gradient.

When the particles are released in the surroundings, they move randomly until there is an even
distribution of particles throughout. It is mostly seen in liquids and gases, this is because solid
particles are held together very closely and cannot move very far. Diffusion not only occurs in
everyday life within the environment, it also occurs within the bodies of living organisms’ e.g.

 The oxygen and nutrients from a mother is transported across the placenta via diffusion to the
foetus during pregnancy
 Carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis is diffused from the atmosphere into the plants
through pores called the stomata

The rate at which diffusion occurs depends on the concentration gradient. The concentration
gradient is the gradual difference in concentration between two regions. The greater the difference in
the concentration, the steeper the concentration gradient and the faster diffusion will occur.

Diagram showing diffusion

Osmosis

It is correctly defined as the movement of particles from a region of higher concentration (abundant)
to a region of lower concentration (less abundant) through a partially permeable membrane. It is
often regarded as a form of diffusion in which only water molecules move. Osmosis occurs until both
areas have the same concentration of particles (equilibrium is met)
Turgidity

Plasmolysis Transpiration
It is the loss of water from parts of the plant above the ground due to evaporation. It helps to cool
down plants. Transpiration takes place primarily through the stomata (pore on the underside of the
leaf). The rate of transpiration is affected by many factors such as:

 Light intensity
 Temperature humidity
 Wind
 Water supply

The rate of photosynthesis is measured using an instrument called a potometer

A Potometer

Importance of transpiration

Transpiration is not simply a hazard to plant life; it is the engine that pulls the water up from the roots
to:

1. Supply photosynthesis (1%-2% of the total)

2. Bring minerals from the roots to the leaf
3. Cool the leaf

Factors affecting transpiration

Light intensity

Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is largely because light stimulates the
opening of the stomata. An increase in light intensity results in the increase of rate of transpiration
due to an increase in stomata opening. This is a problem for some plants as they may lose water
during the day and wilt
Temperature

Plants transpire faster at higher temperatures; this is because the rate of evaporation increases with
temperature. At 30 degrees a leaf may transpire three times as fast as it does at 20 degrees.
Temperature also reduces air humidity, so transpiration incerases

Humidity

Humidity means a higher water potential (concentration) in the air, so the lower a water
concentration gradient between the leaf and the air, so less evaporation.

Humidity can be defined as the relative amount of water in the atmosphere. If the air is dry then the
diffusion gradient would be greater from the plant to the atmosphere. There would be an increase in
the diffusion of water vapour out of the stomata and into the atmosphere. If the air is humid
(containing a lot of water) then the opposite would be true, and very little water would diffuse out of
the atmosphere

Wind

Very little wind means water vapour on the leaf is not swept away and this result in an increase in
humidity; there by resulting in lower rate of transpiration. When there is a breeze humid air is carried
away and an increase in transpiration is experienced
Water supply

If the plant has very little water available, it will close its stomata. This will of course cause a
decrease in the rate of transpiration. If absorption of water by the roots fails to keep up with the rate
of transpiration, loss of turgor occurs and the stomata close; this reduces transpiration and as well as
photosynthesis. If the loss of turgor extends to the rest of the leaf and stem, the plant will wilt

The circulatory system

Functions of the circulatory System
Transport systems are required to transport goods and people from where they are produced and
live to where they are required. Animals also have a transport system to transport substances from
where they are produced to where they are wanted or excreted. The following are some of the
functions of a human transport system.

 To transport food nutrients from the digestive system to all cells

 To transport oxygen from the lungs to the cells.
 To remove wastes such as urea and uric acid from the liver to the kidneys
 To remove carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs.
 To carry hormones around the body
 Distribution of heat around the body for temperature control

Components of the circulatory system.

The Circulatory system is made up of three major components;
1. The blood
2. Blood vessels, and
3. The heart.

The Blood
The blood is made up of two major components
1. Blood Plasma, and
2. Blood Cells (red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets)

Activity: Allowing blood to stand

If blood is allowed to stand without clotting, it separates out into 4 components: plasma, red blood
cells, white blood cells and platelets.

The plasma and red blood cells play an important role in the transportation of substances, around
the body. White blood cells and platelets are part of the body's immune system.
Blood Plasma
Is the liquid part of blood which carries all the other components of the blood around the body.
55% of the blood is plasma. This straw-coloured liquid contains water with many
important dissolved substances which must be carried around the body. Most
materials are carried by the blood plasma either in solution or suspension, except for oxygen which
is carried by the red blood cells.

Plasma transports:

 blood cells (red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets)
 soluble nutrients e.g. glucose and amino acids (products of digestion) from the small
intestine to the organs
 amino acids (plasma acts as a pool for amino acids for these cannot be stored in the body)
 Plasma proteins that are important in blood clotting (e.g. fibrinogen).
 Carbon dioxide (waste gas produced by respiration in cells) from the organs to lungs
 Other wastes of digestion (e.g. urea) from the liver to the kidneys.
 Antibodies and antitoxins produced by white blood cells
 Hormones
 Heat from the liver and muscles to all parts of the body.

1. Red blood cells

 They are made in the bone marrow of some bones, including ribs, vertebrae and some limb
bones.
 Transport Oxygen from lungs to all respiring tissues.
 Contain haemoglobin, a red iron-containing pigment which can carry Oxygen. In the lungs,
Haemoglobin combines with Oxygen to form oxy-haemoglobin. In other organs, oxy-
haemoglobin splits up into Haemoglobin and Oxygen.
 Red blood cells have no nucleus.
 Have a special biconcave disc shape which increases the surface area and makes the
diffusion of oxygen into & out of the cell easier.
  Old red blood cells are broken down in the liver, spleen and bone marrow. Some of
the iron from the Haemoglobin is stored, and used for making new Haemoglobin, some of it
is turned into bile which is used during digestion.

2. White blood cells

 These are made in the bone marrow and in the lymph nodes.
 They have a nucleus, and shape of nucleus depends on type as shown in the diagram
above.
 Can move around and squeeze out through the walls of blood capillaries into all parts of the
body to fight off infection.
 There are two main different kinds of white blood cells and all have the function of fighting
pathogens (disease-causing bacteria and viruses) and to clear up any dead body cells in
your body:

a. Phagocytes
 Have a lobed nuclei and granular cytoplasm.
 Can move out of capillaries to the site of an infection.
 Remove any microorganisms that invade the body and might cause infection, engulf (ingest)
and kill them by digesting them.

b. Lymphocytes
 produce antibodies to fight bacteria and foreign materials.
 Have large nuclei
 Responsible for immunity

3. Platelets.

Platelets are responsible for blood clotting. When an injury occurs, fibrinogen in the blood interacts
with platelets to form insoluble fibrin. This forms a net over the wound and the net traps blood cells
plugging the wound and stopping the bleeding.
Necessity for blood clotting

 Prevent excessive blood loss from the body when there is a damage of the blood vessel.
 Maintain the blood pressure.
 Prevent the entry of microorganism and foreign particles into the body.
 Promote wound healing.

Summary of the Composition of the blood.

Blood Vessels.

These are the tubes through which blood flows around the body. There are 3 main kinds of blood
vessels – arteries, veins and capillaries. Blood leaves the heart through arteries. These break up into
smaller arterioles which divide again and again, and eventually form very tiny vessels called
capillaries. The capillaries gradually join up with one another to form large vessels called
veins. Veins carry blood towards the heart.
Plan of the main blood vessels in the human body

The comparison of blood vessels structure and functions

The transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid

As blood enters capillaries from arterioles (small arteries), it slows down. This allows substances in
the plasma, as well as Oxygen from red blood cells, to diffuse through the capillary wall into the
surrounding tissues (the capillary wall is thin and permeable).

Liquid in the plasma also passes out. This forms tissue fluid, bathing the cells. Waste
products from the cells, e.g. Carbon dioxide, diffuse back through the capillary walls into the
plasma. Some of the tissue fluid also passes back.

Diffusion is responsible for the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid.
Structure and function of the heart

The function of the heart is to pump blood around the body. It has two distinct sides, the right side
and the left side. The right side pumps blood to the lungs and the left side pumps blood to the rest
of the body.

The heart consists of four chambers, four on either side. The top two chambers are called atria
(Atrium for a single chamber) and the two bottom chambers are called ventricles. The atria and
ventricles are separated by valves as shown on the diagram below. These valves prevent the
backflow of blood to the atria as the heart contracts.

Blood circulation

1. Blood in the right ventricle (RV) is pumped to the lungs

2. Blood from the lungs flows back into the left atrium (LA)(through the pulmonary vein) and
then is pumped into the left ventricle (LV).
3. Blood in the LV is pumped to the rest of the body (except for the lungs) through the aorta.
4. Blood returns to the heart where it enters the right atrium (RA) through the Vena cava.
5. The right atrium pumps blood to the right ventricle.
Muscular contraction

The heart is made of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle which contracts and relaxes
regularly, throughout life. The heart’s muscle is constantly active, so it needs its own blood supply,
through the coronary artery, to provide it with oxygen and glucose.

Working of the valves

1. Valves in the heart prevent blood from being pushed backwards up into the atria when the
heart ‘beats’.
2. Semi lunar valves at the bottom of the aorta and pulmonary artery prevent the back flow of
blood into the ventricles when the muscles of the heart relax.
3. Valves found in the veins prevent the backflow of blood to the body as pressure in the veins is
now very low and blood is moved by the action of muscles.
The double circulation

Beginning at the lungs, blood flows into the left-hand side of the heart, and then out to the rest of the
body. It is brought back to the right-side of the heart, before going back to the lungs again. This is
called a double circulation system, because the blood travels through the heart twice in one
complete journey around the body:

 one circuit links the heart and lungs (low pressure circulation)

 the other circuit links the heart with the rest of the body (high pressure circulation).

The importance of a double circulation

Oxygenated blood is kept separate from deoxygenated blood. The septum in the heart ensures this
complete separation. Oxygenated blood flows through the left side of the heart while deoxygenated
blood flows through the right.

The blood pressure in the body circulation is kept higher than that in the pulmonary circulation.
The left ventricle, with a thicker wall, pumps blood under higher pressure to the body and delivers
oxygenated blood effectively to all parts of the body. The right ventricle has a thinner wall and pumps
blood to the lungs under lower pressure, thereby avoiding any lung damage.
The right side of the heart collects deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs.
The left side collects oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body.

Major Blood Vessels of the Circulatory System

Aorta - Carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body and the blood is oxygenated.
Pulmonary Artery - Carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.
Pulmonary vein - Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
Vena Cava - carries deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart.
Hepatic artery - Carries oxygenated blood to the liver.
Hepatic Vein - Carries deoxygenated blood from the liver to the vena cava.
Renal Artery - Carries oxygenated blood to the kidneys.
Renal Vein - Caries deoxygenated blood from the kidneys.

NB: All arteries carry oxygenated blood except the Pulmonary Artery which has de
oxygenated blood. All veins carry de oxygenated blood except the Pulmonary Vein which
carries Oxygenated Blood.

Reproduction in Plants
Reproduction is a characteristic of all living organisms. It is the process by which organisms make
more of their kind. There are two types of reproduction,
1. Asexual reproduction and
2. Sexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of male sex cells and female sex cells to
produce a new offspring.
The structure of a flower
1 Stigma  Receives pollen grains during the process of
pollination
 Produces a sticky substance to ensure pollen
grains get stuck
2 Style  Supports the stigma
 Provides pathway for pollen tube to the ovules
3 Ovary  Produces ovules
 Later develops into fruit after fertilisation
4 Ovule  Are the female sex cells
 Develops into a seed after the process of
fertilisation
5 Petals  Attract insects for pollination by their bright
colour and nice scent
 Their shape promotes pollination as they direct
insects towards the nectaries
6 Sepals  Protects the flower bud
7 Anther  Produces pollen grains

8 Pollen grains  These are the male sex cells

In a plant, the organs which are responsible for sexual reproduction are the flowers. The diagram
below shows a typical flower.

Structure of a flower - Diagram

Sex cells are called gametes. The male gametes are produced by the anthers and are inside the
pollen grains. The female gametes are produced by the ovary and are inside the ovules. Some
flowers can produce both male and female gametes. They are called hermaphrodite.

Pollination:

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of a flower to the stigma of a flower.
Methods of Pollination
There are two methods of pollination,

1. insect pollination and

2. wind pollination.

Some flowers pollinate by insects while others pollinate by wind and wind and insects can also be
called the agents of pollination.

Insect pollination
Insect pollinating flowers have special attractive features like brightly colored petals, attractive scents
and sugary nectar. These features’ aim is to attract insects like bees to come and collect their nectar.
While an insect is collecting the nectar, its body will touch the anthers. The pollen grains of insect
pollinating flowers have hooks and spikes all over them in order to stick to the bodies of the insect
that touch it. When this happens, the pollen grain sticks to the body of the insect. When the insect
moves on to another flower to collect its nectar, the pollen grain falls off the insect onto the stigma of
the flower, thus insect pollination took place.

Wind Pollination
Wind pollinating flowers however look very different from insect pollinating ones. This is because
they do not need attractive features such as bright colors and scents and nectar to attract insects.
Instead, their petals are green or brown with their anthers and stigmas hanging outside the flower to
be exposed to the wind. When wind is strong enough, it will blow the pollen grains off the anther and
carry it along. At some point the wind will get weaker and the pollen grain will land, if it lands on the
stigma of a flower of the same species then the pollination was successful. The surface of pollen
grains of wind pollinated plants is smooth because it does not need spikes to catch on insects.

Comparing wind pollinated and insect pollinated flowers

Insect pollinated Flowers Wind Pollinated Flowers

Petals Petals are bright and Dull coloured, usually green or

produce a nice scent to brown and produce no scent as
attract insects there is no need to attract insects

Size of pollen Produce large sticky pollen Produce small smooth pollen grains
grains grains which are light enough to be carried
by the wind
Quantity of Relatively small number of Produces a large quantity of pollen
pollen grains pollen grains as chances of grains to increase the chances of
produced pollination are high pollination
Position of Inside the flower Are hanging outside the flower
stigma and
anthers
Nectaries They have nectarines which No need for nectaries
produce nectar to attract
insects

Types of Pollination
There are two type of pollination
1. Self Pollination and
2. Cross Pollination:
Self pollination - The transfer of a pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or
the stigma of a flower of the same plant.

Advantages of self pollination

1. Good characteristics can be maintained in the offspring because there is no variation.

2. Chances of success for self pollination are much greater especially were plant population is
small.
Cross Pollination - The transfer of a pollen grain from the anthers of one plant to the stigma of a
flower on another plant of the same species.

Self pollination is considered sexual reproduction because it involves the fusion of two gametes
together even though they might come from the same flower or plant.

Why cross pollination is considered desirable

1. It causes variation in plants which allows plants to adapt to changing environments. This
prevents the extinction of plant species.
2. It allows the breeding of better varieties by combining plants with desired characteristics.

How are plants adapted to promote cross pollination

1. Unisex plants – some plants have female plants and male plants and no plant can pollinate
itself e.g. paw paw plant
2. Stigmas and anthers of plants in certain plants mature at different times. The stigma matures
earlier than the anthers and can only receive pollen from another plant.
3. Anthers which are lower than stigmas. This ensures that insects touch the stigma on their
way in with pollen from another plant. On their way out, they crawl out using the petals
carrying pollen from this flower to another plant.
4. Self sterilisation – some plants produce chemicals on the stigma which do not allow pollen
from the same plant to develop.

Disadvantages of Cross pollination

Refer to advantages of self pollination.

Fertilization
 This is the fusion of the male and female sex cells to produce a zygote. It occurs after a pollen
grain has landed on the stigma of a flower of the same species.
 The stigma produces chemicals that cause the pollen grain to develop a pollen tube.
 The pollen tube then grows down the style until it reaches the ovule in the ovary.
 The nucleus of a pollen grain moves down the tube until it gets inside the ovule where it fuses
with the nucleus the ovule.
 The fusion produces a zygote which develops first into an embryo and latter the whole ovule
develops into a seed.

Diagram
Results of fertilization
1. The fused nuclei develop into a zygote further develops into an embryo (made up of the
plumule and the radical). This develops into a new plant during germination.
2. The ovule becomes the seed.
3. The ovary develops into a fruit.

Seeds and Fruits:

During the early stages of fertilization, some parts of the flower become useless, they die and fall off.
These parts include the sepals, the petals and the stamens.

The fertilized ovule becomes a seed. Inside the seed is the zygote which develops into an embryo
plant. An embryo plant has a shoot called plumule and a root called a radicle. The plant makes food
for the seed and brings it to the seed where it is stored in a structure called cotyledon inside the
seed. The outside layer of the ovule becomes thicker and harder and is now called the testa. In the
seed there is a hole called the micropyle, this is the hole through which the male gamete entered the
ovule. When the seed is fully grown, it becomes dormant. That means it loses its water and
metabolic reactions inside it stop. These reactions are reactivated when the seed is planted in
favourable conditions including water and air; this is when the seed grows into a new plant. This
enables the seed to survive hostile conditions until it is put in somewhere where it can grow into a
plant.

The ovary of a flower contains many ovules. The ones that are fertilized turn into seeds and the
ovary its self turns into a fruit in which the seeds are. The function of the fruit is to protect the seeds
and to disperse them from the parent plant to colonize new area.
SEED DISPERSAL

 This is the scattering of seeds away from the parent plant and is important for two reasons,
o It helps the plant to spread to new areas.
o It prevents the overcrowding of plants around the parent plant where competition for
water, mineral salts and sunlight will prevent healthy growth.
Methods of seed dispersal

1. Wind dispersal occurs in plant with seeds which have wing like structures which allow the
wind to carry them to new areas.
2. Some plants have small horns or thorns which enable them to stick to animal skins and are
carried to new areas.
3. Some plants produce fruits which are sweet and edible. Animals eat them and drop the seeds
in their dung some distance away from the parent plant.
4. Some fruit split with great force throwing the seeds some distance away from the parent plant
Seed Germination

Germination is the process by which a seed develops into a new plant. A seed remains dormant until
it is put in suitable conditions to start growing. These conditions are:

 Water(moisture)
 Air (oxygen)
 Suitable temperature(Warmth)

If the seed is put in an area of these conditions it will start germinating. Germinating includes the
following steps:

1. The water activates enzymes stored in the seed,

2. Enzymes start to digest the starch stored in the seed into sugars,
3. Suitable temperature is required for the optimum operation of these enzymes and oxygen is
required for respiration.
4. The sugars produced are taken to the embryo and are used as an energy source for growth,
5. The radicle (root) grows first, fixing the seedling into the soil where it can absorb more water,
6. The seed is now called a seedling,
7. Then the shoot grows vertically,
8. Once the shoot grows the first green leaf the seedling becomes fully independent (before that
it was depending on food stored inside the seed)
9. The plant is now able to photosynthesise and make its own food.

Types of Seeds

There are two types of seeds;

1. Dicotyledonous seeds and

2. Monocotyledonous seeds
Structure of a dicotyledonous seed

Diagram
Structure of the monocotyledonous seeds

Diagram

Functions of Parts on a seed

1.Radicle - develops into the root system.

2.Plumule - develops to form the shoot, stem and leaves
3.Cotyledon - a store of food which is used during germination.
4.Endosperm -stores food which is used during germination.
5.Testa/Coat - protects the seed.
6.Micropyle - allows water and oxygen to enter the seed for germination to occur and also
allows carbon dioxide produced during respiration to leave the seed.
7. Hilum - shows the place where the seed was attached to the ovary.
Differences between a maize seed and a bean seed.

Bean Seed Maize Seed

1. Has two cotyledons Has one cotyledon
2. Does not have an endosperm Has an endosperm
3. Has a micropyle Does not have a micropyle

Experiment

Aim: To investigate the conditions necessary for germination.

Materials

Maize/bean seeds, 4 transparent containers, cotton wool, filter paper, pyrogallic acid and water.
Method

1. Take four batches of ten seeds per batch.

2. Set them up in four different conditions as shown in the diagram above;
A. Water + oxygen + low temperature (put in fridge or in ice blocks)
B. Oxygen + suitable temperature + no water
C. Water + suitable temperature + no oxygen
D. Water + suitable temperature + oxygen (this is the control)
3. Leave the apparatus for seven days and observe what happens.
4. Record the results and calculate percentage germination.
Observations

A. All seeds in A did not germinate because there was no suitable temperature.
B. All seeds in B did not germinate because dry seeds do not have enough moisture to
germinate.
C. All seeds in C did not germinate because the pyrogallic acid removed all the oxygen from the
air. Seeds cannot germinate without oxygen.
D. Some seeds in D germinated because this set up had all the conditions necessary for
germination to occur. (oxygen, moisture and suitable temperature)
NB: a seed has germinated when a young root or radicle appears through the tough testa. The shoot
will appear later.

Calculating percentage germination

% Germination = No of seeds which germinated X 100

No of seeds planted

In setup D above: ten seeds where planted and eight seeds germinated. The % germination is
calculated as follows;

% Germination = 8 X 100
10

= 80 %

Vegetative reproduction / Asexual reproduction

 Occurs when a piece of the parent plant is taken and used to grow a new plant.
 No sex cells are used during this type of reproduction.
 Plants which use this type develop modified parts such as roots, stems and leaves which can
develop into new plants.
Two types of vegetative reproduction

a) Natural vegetative reproduction:- new plants develop naturally from the parts of the parent
plant.
 b) Artificial vegetative reproduction:- new plants develop only with the intervention of humans
from parts of parent plant.
Natural reproduction

1. Stem Tubers e.g. potatoes

o These are swollen parts at the end of an underground stem and they store food during
photosynthesis.
o They have buds (eyes) which can develop into new plants

Diagram

2. Root tubers e.g. sweet potatoes

 These are swollen parts of roots which store food during photosynthesis. They also
have buds from which will develop new plants if the right conditions exist.
3. Rhizome e.g. strawberry plants, couch grass
 Is an underground stem that grows horizontally underground and have nodes from
which new stems will develop towards the surface to produce new plants.

Diagram
Artificial vegetative reproduction

i. Cuttings e.g. sweet potatoes, sugar cane, cassava

 Small parts of the plant are used to produce other plants. These portions of the
parent plant are put into the ground in wet soil and will eventually grow into a new
plant.
Diagram of a cutting

ii. Layering
 a branch or shoot is pegged underground while still attached to the parent plant.
 Roots will develop on the buried part and it is cut off from the parent plant.

Advantages of vegetative reproduction

1. New plants have the good features of the parent plant as there is no variation.
2. There is a higher chance of survival for the new plant as it has a larger store of food.
3. Plants mature much more quickly as there is no time wasted during germination.
4. No need to find a mating partner and therefore it is quicker. The methods do not need
pollination, fertilisation, and seed dispersal.
5. Asexual reproduction is beneficial in an unchanging environment where the parent organism
is well adapted to survive
Disadvantages of vegetative reproduction

1. No genetic variation and therefore no improvement to meet changes in the environment or

diseases. This can lead to extinction of species.
2. Overcrowding leads to competition for nutrients, water, and light. This affects the growth of
plants.
3. Pests and disease spread quickly because of overcrowding.
4. Not possible to obtain large number of plants in a short time compared with seeds

Inheritance
Inheritance is the process by which characteristics are passed on from one generation to another in
living organisms. Genes contain the information that is passed from a parent to an offspring.

Variation

These are differences between members of one kind of organisms. The way in which individual
organisms are similar or different to each other is determined by
  The genetic information they contain. (genotype)
 The effect of environment in which they live

The interaction between the genotype and the environment results in the phenotype. Phenotype
refers to the physical appearance of an organism i.e. a set of characteristics which make up the
organism

Factors affecting variation

i. Genetic makeup (heritable)

ii. Environment (non-heritable)

Types of variation

a. Discontinuous variation

Occurs where there are clear cut differences between organisms with no intermediates. Is not
usually affected by the environment and there is a limited number of alternatives. e.g. sex, blood
groups, ability to roll the tongue, eye colour, albinism, left or right handed, coat colour in animals etc

Diagram of discontinuous variation

b. Continuous variation
 Occurs where differences between organisms show a gradual change. It is due to interactions
between the environment and the genotype and is most likely to be influenced by the
environment. e.g. height in humans, weight, mass, seeds in a pod, shoe size

Selection

 to select is to pick up / out the most suitable

Types of selection

a. Natural selection
b. Artificial selection

Natural selection

 Is the mechanism for change

 Is a mechanism for which organisms which are better adapted to the environment tend to
have increase the chance of survival i.e. is a means of checking population of organisms
 It is the effect of the environment on the survival of organisms
 Organisms must change as the environment changes
 In such circumstances, any organism that becomes better adapted through a change in its
inherited characteristics has a selective advantage
 Nature as it were, selects the individuals which are sufficiently and allows them to survive,
rejects those that are poorly adapted (weeding out)
 E.g. change in body structure, resistance to diseases

Artificial selection

 Development of improved types of domesticated organisms useful to human by selective

breeding
 Main purpose is to provide useful varieties
 To produce improved stock
 Organisms showing variation which are desirable are selectively breed with each other
 E.g. milk and meat yields
  Resistance to diseases
 Drought tolerant
 Large size / early maturity
Selection methods
i. Cull
ii. Castration
iii. Choosing breed mate

Breeding

 Selection for desired characteristics

 (i.e.) production of offspring by sexual means

Types of breeding

a. Cross breeding / out breeding

b. Inbreeding / line breeding

Cross breeding

 Mating of unrelated animals

 Aim to introduce new genes into the herd and obtain the best from both sides

Pros of cross breeding

 Desirable characteristics are produced

 Offspring so produced are hybrids
 Hybrids vigour improves survival (less mortality)

Cons of cross breeding

 Some hybrids are not fertile

Application of cross breeding

 Milk production
 Meat production
 Early maturity
 Resistance to diseases
 Drought tolerance
 Increased productivity

Inbreeding

 Practised in between closely related animals each with desirable characteristics

 A pure breeding line is established

Pros of inbreeding

 Animals are more uniform in nature

Cons of inbreeding

 Less productive
 Increased mortality
 Undesirable characteristics or defects persist and become more prevalent
 Ecosystems

 It is a self contained system of interdependent organisms and their physical environment.

Components of an Ecosystem

a) Biotic (biological components)

 living organisms like plants and animals
b) Abiotic(physical factor)non living
 Air ,water ,soil ,rocks ,and mineral salts

Definition of Terms

1. Habitat
 A place where organisms live e.g. wood, land, forest, a pond, a plantation.
2. Niche
 The role in which an organism plays in the habitat.
3. Species diversity
 A variety of organism occupying different niches
 A high species diversity makes for a stable ecosystem in that there will always be
some organisms that are able to survive natural disasters.
4. Scat analysis
 Is getting information about organisms in an area by looking at their droppings.
 A closer look at droppings can give you information such as diet of the animals
that is whether it’s a carnivore, herbivore or an omnivore.
5. Biomass
 Is the total living mass of organisms in an area
6. Litter mass
 Is the dead organic matter found on the surface of the soil
7. Basal cover
 Is the portion of ground covered by plants basis on the soil surface

Soil as an ecosystem

What is soil

 A complex mixture of small particles of rock and humus

 The first layer of the earth’s surface on which plants can grow i.e. the loose
layers of materials which covers the earth’s crust supplying anchorage and
nutrients to plants

Physical components of soil

 Water
 Air
 Rock particles
 Mineral salts

Biological components of soil

 Humus
 Plant roots
 Micro- organisms e.g. bacteria& fungi
  Macro- organisms e.g. earthworms, ants, termites, insects, larvae, and
nematodes

Formation of soil

 The formation of soil is a dynamic process

 It is an outcome of –
 The disintegration ,through chemical action of the parent rock material
 The formation and incorporation of humus
 The movement of minerals dissolved in the water percolating through it

Weathering agents

1) Temperature
The expansion and contraction of a rock due to heating during the day and cooling
during the night causing exfoliation
2) Wind
Abrasive action of sand blown by the acts on exposing the rock surface and wears
them away
3) Water in river
It moves stones causing them to rub &knock against each other; finally they chip off or
break up
4) Rain water
Rain drops constantly heating down on rock weather them away slowly
Carbon dioxide dissolved into rain water forms a weak carbonic acid
5) Plants
Roots grow into cracks in the rock: as the roots grow the cracks get bigger eventually
the rock splits
6) Animals
Some animals by burrow help to break up rocks

Formation of the soil constituents

I. Inorganic particles
Formed from rocks which have weathered & broken down
II. Mineral salts
As dissolved out salts either from the surrounding rock or from humus in the soil
III. Water
Is spread around inorganic particles as a thin film which adhere by capillary action
IV. Air
Occurs in spaces between the soil particles
V. Humus
Originates mainly from decaying plant and animal remains
VI. Micro & macro-organisms
The most important to plant life are the bacteria which cause decay but also includes ants,
earthworms etc

Types of soil

 Sand
 Clay
 Loam
Sand soil
 a soil which is made up of large or coarse particles
  particles size range from 2 to 0,02 mm in diameter
 poor water retaining capacity
 has good drainage
 has good aeration

Clay soil
 soil is made up of very fine particles less than 0,002mm in diameter
 good water retaining capacity
 poor drainage
 poor aeration

Loam soil

 is a mixture of clay and sand

 good water retaining capacity
 good aeration
 good drainage
 not too difficult to work on

Experiments

Experiment 1

Aim: to find the air content of soils (sand, clay, and loam)

Tools: sand, clay, and loam soil, measuring cylinder

Method

1. Pour 50cm3 of water into 50cm3 of sand in a measuring cylinder

2. Stir& allow the mixture to settle

Diagram

Observation

 what is the new volume of the mixture of sand and water

  what is the percentage of air in the soil

Results

 When sand soil & water were mixed together the volume of the mixture was less than the
separate volume of the sand plus the volume of the water

N.B. Expected total volume = (50+50) cm3=100cm3of sand &water

Actual volume of mixture=72cm3

Explanation

 The water sinks into the soil and fill up the air spaces
 This reduces the volume of mixture
Volume of air displacement by water = (100-72) cm3
=28cm3
 Percentage air content that was in the soil
=volume of air ×100 / volume of soil
=28/50×100
=56%

Experiment 2

Aim: to find the water content of the soil

Tools: loam, sand, clay soils, evaporating dish, boiling tin, balance, burner, stand

Method

1. Measure 50g of moist loam soil. Weigh an evaporating dish and then place the 50g soil in it.
2. Heat the soil in the evaporating dish with steam as shown below. This ensures that water from
the soil evaporates, but the soil’s humus content is not burnt.
3. Heat the soil until the mass becomes constant. Turn off the burner &allow the soil to cool.

Results

 Mass of evaporating dish =20g

  Mass of moist loam soil =50g
 Mass of evaporating dish& moist loam soil =70g
 Mass of evaporating dish& dry loam soil =60g
 Mass of water that evaporated =10g

Percentage of water content of loam soil =10/50×100

=20%

Experiment 3

Aim: To find the humus content of loam soil

Tools: evaporating dish, loam soil, wire gauze, burner

Method

1. The dry soil from experiment 2 can now be directly heated on a tin lid until the soil reaches a
constant mass. To achieve this you will have to keep heating it and weighing it until it’s mass
remain constant. heat it for 30 min in the first instance and then for 10 min intervals,
measuring the mass each time until it’s constant. The humus will be burnt.
2. Extinguish the burner and leave the soil to cool then weigh it again.

Diagram

Results

 Mass of dish and moist loam soil (from ex2) =70g

 Mass of dish and dry soil before heating on a wire gauze =60g
 Mass of dish =20g
 Mass of dish & soil after heating on a wire gauze =56g
Mass of humus = mass of wet soil – mass of dry soil
=70g – 60g
=10g
Percentage of humus content = mass of humus/mass of moist soil ×100
=10/70×100
=14, 28%
Experiment 4

Aim: Drainage and holding capacity of soil

Tools: 2 measuring cylinders, 2 funnels, 2 filter papers, 100g sand soil, 100g loam soil, a stop watch,
water

Method

1. Put 100g of sand in a funnel lined with filter paper & place it over a measuring cylinder.
2. Put 50cm3 of water onto the soil.
3. Allow the water to drain into the measuring cylinder in that 1 min.
4. Remove the funnel and read the volume of water that has been collected in the cylinder in
that 1 min.
5. Carry out the same procedure of water as in sand soil.
6.

Observations

 Sand soil drains water faster than loam soil because it has large sized particles

The biological components experiments

Experiment 1

Aim: Are there micro-organisms in the soil

Tools: Garden soil, muslin cloth, string, 2 flasks, stoppers, lime water

Method

1. Collect 2 samples of moist garden soil.

2. Heat on strongly in a dish over a flame. Allow it to cool and wrap in a muslin cloth &tie it with a
string to suspend it in flask containing lime water as shown below.
3. Take the fresh moist garden soil & warp it in muslin cloth & suspend it in flask B containing
lime water as shown.
4. Leave the apparatus for a day. After this period gently shake the flasks.
Diagram

Observation

1. What colour changes occur in the flasks

2. Lime water changes in the presents of carbon dioxide. What do you think caused the results
in flask A and flask B
Experiment 2

Aim: Experimenting organisms from the soil

Tools: soil, funnel, beaker, light source & methylated spirit

Method

1. Place some soil in a funnel which contains wire gauze. Suspend the funnel over a beaker
containing methylated spirit as shown below. Place a light source above the funnel (you
should use an electric light bulb)
2. Leave apparatus for about 36 hrs

Diagram
Observation

1. Look at what has collected in the methylated spirit after the 36 hrs. (use hand lens )
2. What caused the organism to fall into the beaker

Results

1. The light caused the organisms to fall in the beaker & methylated spirit is a preservative (
avoids organisms to decay )

Biological components

Roles they play in the soil

1. Bacteria
 causes decaying of plants and animals and makes the soil fertile
2. Nematodes
 Digest plant sticks, stems, and grass externally
 Helps in the formation of humus (saprophytic )
3. Earthworms
 Aerate the soil by making tunnels in it and improve drainage
 Increase humus content by pulling leaves and grass into the soil
 Increases the depth of topsoil by mixing topsoil and sub-soil
 Help in recycling nutrients
4. Fungi
 Assist the decay of dead organisms hence the formation of humus
5. Termites
 Make moulds which are fertile than topsoil, by mixing subsoil with organic matter
 Break down dead plant materials
 Reduces soil aridity by secreting alkaline substances in the soil
6. Ants
 Help in the formation of humus by carrying leaves and dead insects into the soil

Natural ecosystems
E.g. Savannah woodland, Equatorial rainforests, pond, river, dam, lake

Food chain

 Trophic level / feeding levels

 Flow of energy into the ecosystem

Eg mahogany tree → caterpillar → song bird → hawk

A. Producers
 Are green plants
 They make their own food through photosynthesis
B. Consumers
i. Herbivores –animals which feed directly from plants e.g. giraffe, goat, cattle, sheep, hare
ii. Carnivores –animals that feed indirectly from plants / feeds on meat e.g. lion, hyena,
cheetah, leopard, snake, vulture
iii. Omnivore – feed on both meat and plants e.g. man, baboon

Example of a food chain

 1. Grass-grass hoper-bird-man
2. Maize-hen-man-lion

N.B

 The arrow points to the eater

 Every food chain includes producers
 All producers are green plants
 Energy is lost at each feeding level
 The energy is originated from the sun

Food web

 shows the interrelationship between

animals &plants in an ecosystem
 energy is transferred from one organisms to another
 energy is lost as heat in the form
i. respiration
ii. movement
iii. excretion
iv. wastes

Pyramid of numbers/biomas
Carbon cycle

 carbon dioxide is a source of carbon in the ecosystem

 most carbon is removed from air during photosynthesis and build food compounds
 animals gain carbon by eating plants
 carbon is also released into atmosphere by micro-organisms, plants, and animals during
respiration
 carbon dioxide acts as an insulator to keep the earth warm
 the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere must be reduced by burning fewer fossil
fuels e.g. coal, oil, gas
 should use alternative sources of energy e.g. solar, water, and even wind power
 avoid deforestation to enable enough carbon dioxide to be absorbed from the atmosphere
 carbon dioxide is used by trees in photosynthesis (making their own food ) and plays an
important role

Diagram
Nitrogen cycle

 nitrogen cannot be absorbed directly from atmosphere by plants and animals

 nitrogen is carried out mainly by groups of bacteria in soil mostly by leguminous plants e.g.
beans
 plants like leguminous can grow in soils that are low in nitrogen
 energy from lightning combines some gaseous nitrogen into nitrates
 adding of nitrogen fertilisers to soil is part of the cycle
 nitrates are absorbed by plant roots and used to build up plant proteins
 animals take nitrogen by eating plants protein or other animals that feed on plants

Diagram

Artificial ecosystems

 humans have cleared vast pieces of lands for agriculture and settlement thus creating artificial
ecosystems
 an artificial ecosystem is one that has not been left to control itself
 in artificial ecosystem humans control species which are present and remove and introduce
new species
 e.g. garden, a game ranch, a national park, orchards
 strict control measures are taken to prevent / control pests and diseases
 nutrients are often added to the soil in the form of artificial fertiliser like ammonium nitrates
and ammonium sulphates
 If the number of animals increases to a land that cannot support such huge numbers, the
numbers can be reduced by culling or selling. The number of animals on an area can support
its carrying capacity
 In an artificial ecosystem the numbers of species is limited
 However limiting the numbers of species in an area can cause problems. If diversity of plants
and animals help to keep a balance of nature
 An area where only limited varieties are kept is prone to pests. A whole crop can be wiped by
pest
 Use of chemicals for pest control affects the equilibrium in an ecosystem
  Another disadvantage of an artificial ecosystem is that production of food is often for humans
 There is little or no recycling of nutrients back into the soil

Management of an ecosystem

 Where people are using plants and animals they need to look after the ecosystem. This is
called management
 Only if an ecosystem is in a state of equilibrium will it be productive
 Humans can have good and bad effects on an ecosystem and a well planted management
programme is assorted
 The earth is our ecosystem and its management determines our survival

Effects on ground cover

 Surface runoff is reduced because more water penetrates the soil and is retained
 Erosion : ground cover reduces erosion resulting in top soil being preserved
 Evaporation : this is reduced by ground cover which provides mulching

Effects of human activities on ecosystems

 Human activities which disturb the ecosystem can be classified onto industrial, agricultural,
and social
 These activities result in soil erosion, desertification, reduced –bio-diversity and pollution.
Pollution can also result in acid rain and global warming or green house effect

Acid rain

 It is a result of release of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere from industrial and social
activities
 Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water(rain) to form a weak acid which kills plants on land and in
water
 Acid rain has resulted in destruction of large areas of forests in some countries

Eutrophication

 Sewage and fertiliser are deposited in water bodies

 This causes excessive growth of water plants
 The balance for nature is disturbed
 Water animals end up dying e.g. fish in lake chivero

Characteristics of Zimbabwean savannah soils

 High temperature –soils heat up easily

 Rapid de-nitrification –nitrates easily decompose releasing nitrogen back into the atmosphere
 Few earthworms –indicator of few micro organisms
 Low fertility –soils have low nutrient content

Problems of farming in marginal lands

 Low fertility
 Unreliable rainfall patterns –no clearly established rainfall patterns
 Low rainfall –rainfall per season is very low. There for there is need for good soil
managements

Carrying capacity
  It is the maximum number of organisms on an area can support without deterioration
 The limiting factor are oxygen, food, water, space, and shelter

Effects of exceeding the carrying capacity

 It results in overstocking which in turn causes overgrazing and deterioration of veld

Ways of controlling population within carrying capacity

 Culling –killing of animals to maintain carrying capacity

 Destocking –reducing numbers to sustainable
 Paddocking-keeping animals in paddocks and rotating them accordingly
Contents
Topic
Matter
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Metals & Non Metals
Reactivity of Metals
Chemical Reactions
Acids, Bases and Salts
The Production of Steel
The extraction of Copper
Coating Processes
Industrial Gases
Production of Sulphuric Acid
Production of Ammonia
Production of Nitric Acid
Matter

Definition of Matter

Matter is anything that occupies space and has a mass. They are all substances that have mass and
take up space because they have volume. All those things around you are made of matter, so are
you, as are the Earth and stars in the sky.

States of Matter

Matter exists in three physical states as all things in the universe exist as solid, liquid or gas. These
are the three states of matter. Temperature is very important in deciding whether a substance exists
as a solid, liquid or a gas. Think about the normal temperatures of where you live. The temperature
of the air may freeze water in winter but very rarely reaches 50 degrees Celsius in summer. This
range of temperature means that the solids, liquids and gases in the world will not normally change
from one state to another. When a solid, liquid or a gas is exposed to very high or very low
temperatures, it can change to another state. Raising the temperature of a solid to its melting point
will turn it into a liquid. Iron, for example, is normally a solid but deep in the Earth’s crust it is so hot
the iron is a molten liquid. Lowering the temperature of a gas to its liquefaction point will turn it into a
liquid. Oxygen, for example, is normally a gas, but scientists can lower its temperature to -183
degrees Celsius so that it can be turned into a liquid.

The Kinetic Theory of matter

This theory states that matter is made up of small particles which are in a constant state of motion.
The energy that causes the particles to move is kinetic energy.

 In solids, the particles are vibrating around their fixed positions and have a small amount of
kinetic energy.
 In liquids, the particles contain more kinetic energy and are therefore further apart. The
particles are free to move but are not independent of each other.
 In gases, the particles have maximum kinetic energy and move about more freely.

Change of state

 If temperature is increased or reduced, matter changes its state. This is because a

temperature change will affect the amount of kinetic energy.
 If a solid is heated, the energy will make the particles vibrate faster until the forces that hold
them together are weakened and the particles move apart. At this point, the solid has become
a liquid.
 If a gas cools, the particles lose energy and come closer together. Eventually strong forces
develop between them and the gas turns into a liquid.
 All changes in state involve an increase in kinetic energy or a decrease in kinetic energy
caused by changes in temperature.
Summary of changes in state

The changes in state are summarized in the diagram below;

Heating and cooling substances

Different substances behave differently when subjected to temperature changes. Most substances
move through the three states. If a solid is heated, it melts into a liquid which will eventually
evaporate into a gas if heating continues. However, some substances will change direct from solid to
gas if heated and from gas to solid if cooled. E.g. iodine crystals and camphor

Summery Properties of matter

Solid Liquid Gases
Arrangement of Very closely packed Closely packed Far apart
Particles
Force of attraction Strong force of Weak force of No attraction
between particles attraction attraction
Movement of Vibrate and rotate Relatively free to Free to move
particles about fixed move but not independently
positions independent
Rate of diffusion Very slow diffusion Slow diffusion Rapid diffusion
Amount of kinetic Very little kinetic More kinetic energy High kinetic energy
energy energy
compressibility Not compressible Not compressible Compressible
Shape Have definite No shape, take the No shape, take the
shape/rigid shape of the shape of the
container container and fill the
container
Volume Have definite Have definite No volume, fills up
volume volume any container

Experiment

Aim: - To investigate the behavior of temperature over time when heating and cooling
substances.
Materials: - 20g of ice blocks, 20g of naphthalene, 10g iodine crystals, thermometer, water bath, a
beaker, a burner, 3 test tubes, a stand, a watch.
Method

A : ICE BLOCKS

Heating

1. Place ice cubes in a test tube and record their temperature using a thermometer
2. Heat the ice blocks until they melt and finally boil recording the temperature every 30
seconds.

Cooling

1. Remove the burner and turn it off

2. Allow the water to cool to about 40⁰ C recording the temperature changes after every 30
seconds
3. Place the test tube of water at 40⁰ C into iced water, a cooler box with ice or in a refrigerator.
4. Cool it until it turns into ice recording temperature every 30 seconds.

Observations

Temperature Table
Time 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Seconds
Temp ⁰C 0 0 20 80 95 100 100
- Heating
Temp ⁰C 100 95 60 35 10 0 0
- Cooling

Heating and Cooling Curves

Heating Curve Cooling Curve

Explanations

 When ice was melting, the temperature remained constant at 0⁰C for sometime even though
the ice blocks were being heated. The heat supplied during melting was being used to give
the solid particles enough energy to overcome the forces holding them together, so the
temperature of the ice could not increase. This energy is called latent heat.
 During boiling, the temperature of the water remained constant at about 100⁰C. The heat
applied was being used to overcome forces holding the liquid particles together.
 During cooling, the temperature remained constant for some time as the liquid was turning
into ice.
NB: - on heating and cooling curves, those sections with constant temperature show a change of
state from one form to another. On the heating curve diagram above, A represents melting and C
represents evaporation. At B, the water is in the form of a liquid.

Elements Compounds and Mixtures

The Structure of Atoms

Definition

An atom is the smallest particle of an element which takes place in a chemical reaction.

Structure

An atom is made up of a very small dense nucleus which contains protons and neutrons. The
protons are positively charged while the neutrons have no charge. The masses of a proton and a
neutron are almost the same and these form the bulk of the mass of an atom.

Electrons circle around the nucleus and define the volume of an atom. Electrons have negative
charges. The number of protons and electrons in a neutral atom are the same, so an atom is
electrically neutral. The mass of an electron is very small. The number of protons in an atom is called
the atomic number or the proton number and is the same as the number of electrons. The sum of
protons and neutrons in an atom is called the mass number or nucleon number or atomic mass. It is
possible for an atom to have different numbers of protons and neutrons. In this case, the atomic
number is different from the atomic mass.
Physical and chemical changes

Physical changes: - these are changes in the physical properties (size, shape, density) or state of
matter without a change in composition. No new substances are formed during physical changes. As
water changes from liquid to ice, its appearance changes but its chemical composition remains the
same. If we heat platinum wire in a burner flame, the wire will become red hot. It returns to its
original; silvery metallic form after cooling. The platinum undergoes a physical change while under
the flame but its composition remains the same under both conditions.

Chemical changes: - these are changes to the chemical composition of a product and a new
substance is formed with entirely different composition from the original material. If a clean copper
wire is heated in a burner flame, a change in appearance is noted when it cools. The copper no
longer has its characteristic color, but now appears black. The black material is copper ii oxide.

Examples of physical processes and chemical processes

Physical Chemical
Processes Processes
1 evaporation 1 Burning
2 Filtration 2 electrolysis
3 Magnetism 3 Photosynthesis
4 Distillation 4 Respiration
5 Dissolving 5 rusting
6 Sieving,
winnowing
7 mixing

Elements
An elemnt is a substance made up of the same kind of atoms. Examples include magnesium,
sulphur, carbon, zinc, iron and copper. All known substances on earth are formed from a chemical
alphabet of 106 known elements.

Compounds
A compound is a substance formed from two or more elements which are chemically joined together.
Examples include water, carbon dioxide, sugar, magnesium oxide etc.

Molecule

A molecule is the smallest unit of a compound formed by the bonding of two or more atoms. It can
not be subdivided further without destroying the compound.
Mixtures
A mixture is a physical combination of two or more substances which do not loose their physical
properties. E.g. air, soil, sulphur and iron, etc

Differences between compounds and mixtures

Compound Mixture
1 A new substance is formed 1 No new substance is formed
2 Properties of compound different 2 Individual substances retain their
from properties of its constituents properties
3 Heat is either taken in or given out 3 No heat
4 Substance can only be separated by 4 Substance can be separated by
chemical means physical means

If we mix iron filings and sulphur powder, the iron in the mixture is uncombined with the sulphur and
will be attracted to a magnet. But if the mixture is heated, the iron and the sulphur chemically
combine to form iron sulphide which is not attracted by a magnet. Iron sulphide is a compound which
can only be separated by chemical means.

Heat
Iron + sulphur Iron sulphide

Metals and Non Metals

Properties of metals and non-Metals

Metals Non Metals

1 Solid at room temperature except for Can be solid, liquid or gas
mercury which is a liquid.
2 They have a lustre or gloss which
means they shine when polished
3 Metals are good conductors of They are insulators except carbon
electricity
4 They are also good conductors of heat They are poor conductors of heat i.e.
they are good insulators of heat
5 Most metals are malleable (can be Not malleable and not ductile
hammered into sheets) and they are
ductile (they can be drawn into wire)
6 Metals have high melting points and Have low melting points
high densities
7 Metals have a high tensile strength Have low tensile strength

Examples
Metals Non Metals
1 Potassium Carbon
2 Calcium Phosphorous
3 Sodium Oxygen
4 Iron Nitrogen
5 Zinc Water
6 Copper Sulphur
7 Gold Iodine
The reactivity of metals
Reactions of metals with oxygen

Most metals burn in air to form basic alkaline oxides i.e.

Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide

Examples;
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
Calcium + oxygen calcium oxide, and
Iron + oxygen iron oxide

When these oxides are dissolved in water they form bases, which are alkaline solutions which turn
red litmus paper to blue and have a pH above 7. Magnesium oxide becomes magnesium hydroxide
when dissolved in water. Calcium oxide becomes calcium hydroxide solution.

Magnesium oxide + water magnesium hydroxide

Reaction of metals with water

Metals react with water to form an oxide and the process releases hydrogen gas. i.e.

Metal + Water Metal oxide + Hydrogen

Examples;
Iron + Water Iron oxide + Hydrogen
Zinc + Water Zinc oxide + Hydrogen
Calcium + Water Calcium oxide + Hydrogen
Magnesium + Water Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen

Water is made up of Hydrogen and oxygen (H₂O). The oxygen in water will react with the metal to
form the metal oxide releasing the hydrogen as gas. Where the metal is more reactive as in the case
of potassium, sodium and magnesium, the oxide readily dissolves in the water to form a hydroxide
as below;

Potassium + Water Potassium hydroxide.

Important: - some metals do not react with water at all and this will be discussed below.

Reactions of metals with acids.

Metals react with acids to form a salt and release hydrogen gas.
Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen

The name of the salt formed depends on the type of acid used. Sulphuric acid produces sulphates
and hydrochloric acid produces chlorides. Examples are given below;

Iron + Sulphuric acid Iron sulphate + hydrogen

Iron + Hydrochloric acid Iron ii chloride + hydrogen
The Reactivity Series
It is the arrangement of metals in order of their reactivity from the most reactive to the least reactive.
For the purposes of our syllugbus, the metals are arranged according to their reactivity with
air(oxygen), water and acids.
 Metal Reaction with Reaction with Reaction with
Oxygen water or steam acid
Most Potassium Form oxides React with cold Violent
reactive Sodium even without water reaction
Calcium heating
Magnesium Burn to form React with React with
Aluminum oxide steam dilute acid
Zinc
Iron Reacts slowly Slow reaction Reacts with
with steam dilute acid

Lead Slow reaction at Slow reaction No reaction

the surface with steam at
the surface
Copper Slow reaction at No reaction No reaction
Least the surface
reactive

Aluminum is a more reactive metal than iron and zinc, yet in experiments it may be reluctant to react.
This is because it has a jacket of aluminum oxide which is impenetrable to water and air and so
protects the metal. The reactions of potassium and sodium with acids are very violent and extreme
care is needed when carrying out experiments preferably out doors.

Examples of chemical reactions

Displacement Reactions
This is a reaction in which an element replaces another during a chemical reaction. If iron filings are
put in copper ii sulphate solution which is blue in colour, the iron will replace copper in the copper
sulphate solution. i.e.

Iron + Copper ii sulphate solution Copper + Iron Sulphate solution.

The iron replaces copper in the copper sulphate solution and the blue copper sulphate turns green in
colour. Brown copper is formed. If an iron nail is used, the nail becomes coated with copper while
the blue copper sulphate turns green.
If zinc is added to magnesium sulphate, nothing happens as magnesium is more reactive and can
not be replaced by a less reactive metal.
Examples of displacement reactions

Zinc + copper (ii) sulphate Solution Copper + Zinc sulphate

Lead + copper (ii) sulphate Solution Copper + lead sulphate
Magnesium + copper (ii) oxide Copper + magnesium oxide

Oxidation
It is a chemical reaction in which a substance gains oxygen or looses hydrogen. When magnesium
react with oxygen in air or in water to form magnesium oxide, we say it has been oxidized. The
oxidizing agent is the source of the oxygen which is the air or the water. Most chemical reactions
between metals and air where oxides are formed are oxidation processes
Examples
1. Addition of oxygen to magnesium to form an oxide
Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide
2. Removal of hydrogen
Hydrogen sulphide + chlorine sulphur + hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen has been removed from hydrogen sulphide so we say it has been oxidized.

Reduction
It is a chemical reaction in which a substance looses oxygen or gains hydrogen. The reducing agent
is the substance which is being used to snatch away the oxygen or to provide the hydrogen.
Examples of reducing agents
1. A metal higher in the reactivity series
Iron oxide + Magnesium magnesium oxide + Iron.
In this case, magnesium is more reactive than iron because it is higher up in the reactivity
series. It will therefore snatch away oxygen from iron oxide as it readily reacts with oxygen
than does iron.

2. Carbon
Iron oxide + Carbon carbon dioxide + Iron.
In this case carbon has a greater affinity for oxygen than iron and will readily snatch away the
oxygen in iron oxide leaving iron.
3. Hydrogen
If hydrogen is added to a substance we also call that reduction
Hydrogen sulphide + chlorine sulphur + hydrogen chloride
The hydrogen has been added to chlorine so we say the chlorine has been reduced.

NB: reactions in which both reduction and oxidation occur at the same time are called Redox
reactions. Examples are in italics and bolded above.

Acids, Bases and Salts

Acids
Acids are solution of non metallic oxides. When oxides of non metals dislove in water, they form
acids. Other acids occur naturally in plants and animals. Examples include tartaric acid in grapes,
citric acid in lemons and acetic acid in vivegar.
Making acids
Simply dissolving oxides of non metals in water,
Examples;
1. Carbon dioxide a gas dissolves in water to form carbonic acid
2. Sulphur dioxide a gas dissolves in water to form sulphorous acid
3. Sulphur trioxide a white solid dissolves in water to form sulphuric acid
4. Nitrogen dioxide a brown gas, dissolves in water to form nitric acid
Bases
Bases can be made in one of two ways
1. by dissolving oxides of metals in water e.g. magnesium oxide dissolved in water to give
magnesium hydroxide which is a base, or
2. by adding water to reactive metals e.g. when you put sodium in water it reacts to form sodium
hydroxide. Another metal which can be used is potassium.
Properties of Acids and Bases
Acids Bases
1 Has a sour taste(never taste it) Has a bitter taste and slippery feel
between fingers
2 Turns blue litmus paper red Turns red litmus paper blue
3 They are corrosive Some bases are caustic
4 Reacts with base to form salt and Reacts with acid to form salt and water
water
5 Turn universal indicator yellow, orange They turn universal indicator green, blue,
or red purple
6 They react with metals to produce salt
and hydrogen
7

Neutralisation and the formation of salts

Neutralisation is a chemical reaction between an acid and a base. An acid and a base will neutralize
each other. In this chemical reaction the hydrogen in an acid is replaced with a metal to form a salt
and water.
Formation of Salts
Salts can be formed in one of the following ways;
1. Acid + Base Salt + Water
Examples;
Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water
Magnesium Hydroxide + Sulphuric Acid Magnesium sulphate + water
2. Acid + Carbonate Salt + water + carbon dioxide
Hydrochloric acid + calcium Carbonate calcium chloride + water + carbon Dioxide
Sulphuric acid + Magnesium carbonate magnesium sulphate + water +carbon dioxide

3. Acid + Metal salt + hydrogen

Iron + Sulphuric acid Iron sulphate + hydrogen
Iron + Hydrochloric acid Iron ii chloride +hydrogen

Speed of Chemical Reactions

Every chemical reaction has a rate or speed at which it occurs. There are various conditions which
affect the rate of chemical reactions.

Reversible reactions
A reversible reaction is a chemical reaction that goes in either direction. E.g.
Sulphur dioxide + Oxygen Sulphur trioxide

The above equation demonstrates that sulphur trioxide is formed when sulphur dioxide is reacted
with oxygen. However, the sulphur trioxide immediately breaks down back to sulphur dioxide and
oxygen especially in the absence of a catalyst and other optimum conditions like temperature and
pressure.
Factors affecting the rate of chemical reactions
Factor Effect
1 Temperature(liquids, An increase in temperature increases the rate of chemical
solids and gases) reaction since particles gain more kinetic energy thus increasing
the chance of bonding.
2 Surface area The smaller or finer the particles of the reactants, the greater the
(solids) surface area exposed to a chemical reaction. This speeds up the
rate of the reaction. 10kgs of small twigs burns faster than 10kgs
of big logs for this reason.
3 Concentration A greater concentration increases the number of particles
(liquids) available for a chemical reaction which increases the chances of
bonding. This increases the rate of a chemical reaction. 50%
dilute sulphuric acid will corrode things faster than 5% dilute acid
for this reason.
4 Pressure (gases) Increasing the pressure in a gas brings the particles close
together and therefore increases the chance of bonding. This
speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction.
5 Catalyst (Liquids, A catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction by providing a
solids and gases) conducive environment which promotes the bonding of the
reactants. The catalyst itself is not affected during the chemical
reaction.

The production of Iron and Steel

Occurrence of Iron
Iron occurs as iron oxide, a combination of iron and oxygen. The iron oxide is commonly known as
iron ore and is a common rock from the rusty brown soil is derived.
In Zimbabwe iron ore in mined at Redcliff in Kwekwe and extra ore is railed in from Buchwa mine in
Mberengwa. The area also has deposits of limestone which are used during the extraction process
of iron.
The Zimbabwe Iron and Steel Company (ZISCO) is located near these iron ore deposits and is well
served with a rail system which brings in coal from Hwange and an electrical grid system which
brings electricity from Kariba and Hwange.

Raw materials needed in the extraction of iron from ore

1. Iron ore – an oxide of iron and oxygen known as iron (iii) oxide to be broken or reduced to get
iron.
2. Coke – This will act as the reducing agent as well as being the fuel in the blast furnace.
3. Limestone – it acts as a flux which reacts with impurities making it possible to separate them
from the iron
4. Hot air containing oxygen is blasted into the furnace which initiates and supports the burning
process.

The blast furnace

Iron is extracted from its ore by smelting in a blast furnace. It is a tall structure which operates as an
oven. Hot air is blown through the furnace to produce very high temperatures. The furnace is then
filled with iron ore, coke and limestone. The coke is ignited and increases the temperatures in the
furnace which smelts the iron ore and limestone.
Diagram of blast furnace

Chemical reactions in the blast furnace

1. Coke is ignited by the hot air being blast into the furnace. This occurs near the bottom of the
furnace near the hot air tuyers.
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Heat
2. Carbon dioxide is reduced by coke
Carbon + carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide
3. Some iron ore is reduced by the carbon in coke. This is called direct reduction. This occurs in
the middle of the furnace.
Iron (iii) oxide + Carbon (coke) Iron + Carbon Monoxide
4. The bulk of iron ore is reduced by carbon monoxide produced in 2 and 3 above. This is called
indirect reduction. This occurs higher up in the furnace.
Iron (iii) oxide + Carbon monoxide Iron + Carbon dioxide
5. Limestone, also known as calcium carbonate is heated in the blast furnace and breaks down
into calcium oxide
Calcium carbonate Calcium Oxide + carbon Dioxide
6. Calcium oxide reacts with the impurities in the blast furnace which are known as silicone
dioxide to form slag.
Calcium oxide + silica/silicone Dioxide Calcium Silicate (slag)
NB: the molten iron produced flows down to the bottom of the furnace where it is
tapped out. The slag is lighter in weight and therefore it floats on top of the iron and is
tapped out through a separate outlet.

Products from the blast furnace

1. Pig iron: - this is the main product from the blast furnace. The iron is tough and brittle
because it has high carbon content, about 4% by mass. The metal also expands upon
solidification and is therefore used for cast iron objects such as drain pipes, septic tank lids,
engine blocks and coal and wood stoves. The iron is not malleable and ductile so can not be
used for many other purposes.
2. Slag: -this is a by product and is used for road surfacing and may also be used as a cheap
fertilizer.
NB: Production from the blast furnace is a continuous process. Coke limestone and iron ore
are being added all the time and molten iron is run off continuously. The furnace is only
stopped for maintenance work which may be once in five years.

The production of Steel

To make iron from the blast furnace usable for the bulk of commercial purposes, the amount of
carbon has to be reduced. This is achieved by taking molten pig iron to another furnace known as
the Oxygen Lance Furnace. In this furnace, oxygen is blown into the molten iron and impurities such
as carbon, phosphorous and sulphur burn into gaseous oxides which easily escape. A purer iron
called Mild steel or wrought iron is produced which contains only 1% carbon. Mild steel is strong,
malleable ductile and can be welded and is therefore used for many commercial purposes. Mild steel
is also mixed with other metals to form alloys.
 No fuel is added to the oxygen lance furnace because the process the chemical reaction
caused by blowing oxygen into molten steel is exothermic. This means the reaction produces
its own heat and there is no need for a fuel.
 The oxygen lance process is a batch process. This means a batch of products are
manufactured at a time before adding more raw materials.

Diagram of Oxygen lance furnace

Summary of Iron products

Metal Properties Uses

Pig Iron  Cheaper than steel  Steel manufacture
 Easy to mould  Kitchen stoves, drain
 Expands on solidification pipes, engine blocks, etc
 Hard but brittle
Mild Steel  Malleable  Railway lines
 Ductile  Beams and girders of all
 Can be welded kinds and sizes
 Strong under both  Blots and tool
tension and
compression
Stainless  Resist heat and acids  Cutlery
Steel  Resists rusting  Sink units
 The Extraction of Copper
In Zimbabwe, copper is mined in the Chinhoyi area at Mhangura, Sheckleton and Alaska
Mines. It is also mined at Nyati mine near the midlands. The ore exist as a compound of
copper and sulphur known as copper sulphide or chalcopyrite. A good ore may contain only
5% copper but it is worth mining because of the usefulness of copper.

The extraction of copper from its ore

The process has the following six steps;
1. Crushing – the ore is crushed to a fine powder.
2. Concentration by floatation – the powdered ore is added to a large tank of oily water and then
air is blown into the mixture. This results in the formation of froth to which ore sticks while
impurities sink to the bottom.
3. Roasting – the ore is dried and heated strongly in air. The impurities such as sulphur, arsenic and
antimony are oxidized and escape as gases.
4. Smelting – the product of roasting is smelted with limestone in a reverbatory furnace. Limestone
decomposes to calcium oxide, which react with impurities to form slag. The slag layer of impurities
is tapped off. The product of smelting is known as Matte Copper, a compound of copper and
sulphur.
Smelting Furnace ( reverbatory furnace)

5. Converting – the matte copper is transferred in molten state to a converter. Hot air is blown into
the molten copper oxidizing the impurities which will escape as gases. Other impurities like iron
react with silica in the walls of the furnace and are oxidized to a slag which is tapped out. The
result of Converting is called blister copper because many blisters form on its surface as gases
escape.

Converting Furnace
6. Electrolytic refining of copper – the blister copper is molded into bars which are taken to the
electrolytic cell. The blister copper is the anode (+ve) while the cathode (-ve) is a thin sheet of
pure copper. The electrolyte is aqueous copper (ii) sulphate which is acidified to improve electrical
conductivity and to dissolve impurities. When the current is switched on, the blister anode will
loose electrons to the circuit. Positively charged Copper ions will be released into the electrolyte
and the blister anode slowly dissolves. Dissolution continues and this means the blister copper
sheet will decrease in weight. Impurities in blister copper fall to the bottom of the tank. The
positively charged copper ions which have entered the electrolyte are attracted to the negative
cathode. They gain back their electrons through the electrical circuit and become copper atoms.
The copper is deposited on the cathode which gradually increases in mass. The copper collecting
at the cathode is pure as the impurities have fallen to the bottom of the tank

Diagram electrolytic cell

The properties and uses of Copper

1. Copper is a good conductor of electricity so it is used to make wirings and contacts for the
electrical industry.
2. It is a good conductor of heat so it is used in the manufacture of hot water pipes, solar water
heaters, car radiators etc
3. Copper shines when polished and is used in the manufacture of ornaments and jewellery
4. Copper does not rust and it is used in the construction industry and to make coins.
5. It alloys well with other metals and it is used to make bronze and brass.
Alloys of Copper
Alloy Properties Uses
Brass (Copper + Zinc)  Resists corrosion  Water taps, screws
 Is shiny  Ornaments
 Resonant  Musical instruments
 soft  Bullet catridges

Bronze (Copper + Tin)  Hard and Durable  Machinery bearings

 Resists corrosion  Bronzing of statues
 resonant  Making springs,
bells, coins and
medals
Coating processes
Coating means covering a metal with another substance.

Reasons for coating

1. To protect metals from corrssion/rusting because most metals rust when they come into
contact with air and water.
2. Metals are also coated to give them a decorative finish.
Coating methods
1. Painting – involves applying a thin coat of paint which will not allow both air and water from
coming onto contact with the metal. Painting also gives a decorative finish.
2. Oiling – used on movable parts where painting would not last. Oiling keeps water and air
away from the metal as well as acting as a lubricant. E.g. bicycle chains, engine pistons etc
3. Galvanizing – the coating of iron and steel with zinc. The iron is dipped into molten zinc and
the dried. The zinc layer provides a sacrificial layer because zinc is more reactive than the
iron. Oxygen will react with the zinc instead of reacting with the iron. The zinc oxide produced
forms a protective layer on the iron protecting it from rusting.
4. Alloying – involves mixing iron with corrosive resistant metals producing an alloy which does
not rust. Iron is mixed with chrome and nickel to produce stainless steel which is corrosive
resistant even if it is scratched or broken
5. Electroplating – is a method of coating iron or steel by another metal which is corrosion
resistant using electricity.
Examples of metals used in electroplating
Metal Uses
Chrome  Decorative finish in motor vehicles
Copper  Protecting parts of steel before hardening
 As a base for other coating processes
 Cheap jewellery
Gold  Decorative finish for jewellery
 High quality electrical contacts
Nickel  Decorative finish for jewellery
 High quality electrical contacts
Silver  Decorative finish
 A tough base for chrome plating
Tin 1. Used in tin cans for food storage
Zinc 2. Cheap coating to prevent corrosion on steel products

The procedure copper plating

1. The metal to be coated is cleaned by placing it in a bath of concentrated hydrochloric acid.
This removes any corroded metal which may continue to corrode while under the new
coating.
2. An electrolytic cell is constructed as below
o Electrolyte -------- copper sulphate solution /copper chloride/copper cyanide. The
electrolyte is acidified and contains copper ions which are positively charge.
o Electrodes
 Anode ----- pure copper
 Cathode ----- the item to be coated
3. When the circuit is switched on, the copper anode looses electron to the circuit releasing
positively charged copper ions to the electrolyte. In this process, the anode dissolves.
 4. The copper ions are attracted to the negative cathode where they gain back their electrons
from the circuit. They form copper atoms and form a thin layer of copper metal firmly attached
to the item to be plated.
Diagram electrolytic cell

Procedure for nickel plating

The procedure and explanation is the same as for copper plating except that the anode is nickel and
the electrolyte is acidified nickel sulphate solution. The temperature must be maintained around
70⁰C and pH around 4 for best results.

The procedure for Chrome plating.

Chrome plating gives a hard surface to steel and can not easily corrode. It is used for the bright trims
of cars and household appliances. It follows the following stages;
1. The metal to be coated is cleaned by placing it in a bath of concentrated hydrochloric acid.
2. The piece is either copper plated or silver plated to provide a base for the chrome plating.
Copper chloride provides a strong coating and levels off any small scratches that may be on
the surface.
3. A coating of chromium is applied as follows. The electrolyte used is chromic acid and it has
positively charged chrome ions. The anode used is lead because lead does not dissolve in
the acid. The cathode is the item to be coated. More chromic acid must be added during the
process as the anode does not provide chrome ions as with copper plating. The ions are
provided by the acid.
During coating, the positively charged chrome ions in chromic acid are attracted to the negative
cathode where they gain electrons and become chrome atoms. They firmly attach themselves on the
cathode producing a thin strong shiny finish.
Industrial Gases
Obtaining oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide from the air
Air is a mixture of gases and these gases can be separated by fractional distillation of air. It is
possible to separate the gases because when liquefied, they have different boiling points.

Stages involved
1. The air is cleaned to remove dust and smoke by passing it through filters.
2. The air is cooled to -78⁰C. At 0⁰C water vapour solidified and at -56⁰C, carbon dioxide
solidified. These two are removed as they freeze as they would later block the equipment if
not removed.
3. The remaining gases are compressed to about 150 atmospheres and cooled. The pressure is
released rapidly causing temperatures to drop further. This process is continued until the
temperature reaches -200⁰C. At this temperature, oxygen and nitrogen are liquid except the
rare gases (neon and helium)
4. The liquefied air is piped to the fractionating tower where temperatures are allowed to
increase. At -196⁰C, nitrogen evaporates and is collected from the top of the tower. Oxygen
has a booing point of -183⁰C and remains as liquid in the tower and is piped from below.

Products from fractional distillation of air

1. Carbon dioxide
2. Oxygen and
3. Nitrogen
Obtaining oxygen and hydrogen from the electrolysis of water
When a current is passed through a solution (electrolyte), chemical reactions occur at the electrodes
which break down the electrolyte. The electrolyte contains ions (charged atoms) which carry current
through the electrolyte.
Stages involved
1. An electrolytic cell is constructed as in the diagram below. The electrolyte is acidified water.
The acid is added to improve the electrical conductivity of the water. This creates ions two
kinds of ions in the water, hydroxyl ions (OH⁻) which are negatively charged and hydrogen
ions (H⁺) which are positively charged. The electrodes are made of carbon or platinum
because these do not react with the acid.
2. When the current is switched on, negatively charged hydroxyl ions are attracted to the
positive anode where they loose electrons. They produce oxygen atoms which bubble out as
oxygen gas. Oxygen gas is therefore collected at the anode.
3. Positively charged hydrogen ions are attracted to the negative cathode where they gain
electrons. They become hydrogen molecules and bubble out as hydrogen gas. Hydrogen is
therefore collected at the cathode.

Diagram electrolysis of water

Uses of industrial gases
Oxygen
1. Used in steel making in the oxygen lance process
2. Used for medical purposes
3. Used for cutting and welding purposes
Nitrogen
1. Used in the manufacture of ammonia
2. Used as a refrigerant e.g. to freeze vegetables
3. Used for medical purposes e.g. burning of growths on the skin
4. Used to preserve sperm for artificial insemination.
Carbon dioxide
1. Used for refrigeration as dry ice
2. Used in fire extinguishers
3. Used in fizzy drinks
Hydrogen
1. Bubbled through fat in the manufacture of margarine
2. Used in the manufacture of ammonia
The production of Sulphuric acid
Sulphuric acid is an oily colorless liquid and when it is added to water it forms a very strong acid. It is
made using what is called the contact process at Zimphos near Harare.

Sources of raw materials

1. Oxygen from the air and
2. Iron sulphide alternatively known as iron pyrites, an ore of iron mined in Zimbabwe.

Optimum conditions in the production of Sulphuric acid

1. High temperatures of around 450⁰C
2. Passing the gasses through several beds of vanadium (v) oxide, a catalyst.
Stages in the productions of sulphuric acid: the Contact Process
Stage 1: production of sulphur dioxide
Sulphur dioxide can be produced by burning sulphur in air. In Zimbabwe it is more convenient and
cheaper to produce it by burning an ore of iron known as iron pyrites. It is a compound of iron and
sulphur. (Iron sulphide)
Iron Pyrites + Oxygen sulphur dioxide + iron oxide
Stage 2: Production of sulphur trioxide
Sulphur dioxide is mixed with oxygen and pumped into a reaction chamber. In this chamber
temperatures are controlled around 450⁰C and vanadium (v) oxide is added as a catalyst. Under
these conditions sulphur dioxide is oxidized to sulphur trioxide in a reversible reaction. This is the
contact process.
450⁰C
Sulphur dioxide + oxygen Sulphur trioxide
Vanadium (v) oxide
Stage 3: Absorption process:- Production of Oleum
The sulphur trioxide is cooled and then absorbed into concentrated sulphuric acid in an absorption
tower to produce Oleum (fuming sulphuric acid).
Sulphur Trioxide + Sulphuric Acid Oleum

Sulphur trioxide could be dissolved in water to produce sulphuric acid but the heat of the chemical
reaction would produce a mist of sulphuric acid which would be difficult to condense and dangerous
to health.
Stage 4: Dilution process:- production of sulphuric Acid
When sulphuric acid is needed, oleum is added to water. The strength of the acid depends on the
amount of oleum added.

Oleum + Water Sulphuric acid

Diagram: process of producing sulphuric acid

Industrial uses of sulphuric acid

1. Used in the manufacture of fertilizers, mainly super phosphate
2. Used in the manufacture of aluminum sulphate, a flocculent used in the purification of water.
3. It is used in the extraction of metals
4. For cleaning metals before electroplating
5. In the manufacture of textiles
6. As an electrolyte in car batteries
7. In paper making
8. In the manufacture of detergents
9. It is also used as a drying agent
10. It is used in the manufacture of plastics
11. It is used in the manufacture of dyes, soaps, explosives and in refining oil.

The Production of Ammonia

Ammonia is a colorless gas which can be recognized by its choking smell. It dissolves easily in water
to give an alkaline solution. Ammonia is the only alkaline gas (base) and reacts with acids to salts
which are useful in industry. In Zimbabwe Ammonia is produced by Sable Chemical Industries in
Kwekwe.

Sources of inputs
Ammonia is produced by reacting hydrogen and nitrogen
 Hydrogen is produced from the electrolysis of water from the Sebakwe River in Kwekwe.
 Nitrogen is produced from the fractional distillation of air.
Stages in the production of Ammonia: The Haber Process
Stage 1: The Mixing chamber: - hydrogen and Nitrogen are mixed in the ration 1:3 in the mixing
chamber.
Stage 2: The Reaction Chamber: - the gases are passed to the reaction chamber where they are
compressed to a pressure of about 200 atmospheres. The temperature in the reaction chamber is
about 450⁰C and there are iron filings acting as a catalyst. Under these conditions the nitrogen and
hydrogen combine in a reversible reaction to form ammonia. Only about 20% of the mixture of gases
is converted into ammonia.
450⁰C & 200 atms
Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia + Heat
Iron Catalyst
Stage 3: The Cooler: - the ammonia produced is removed from the mixture by condensation in the
cooler. The unconverted gases are mixed with more hydrogen and nitrogen and recirculated through
the reaction chamber.
Diagram: production of ammonia

Optimum conditions for the production of Ammonia

1. High pressure of between 200 to 300 atmospheres
2. Temperatures ranging from 450 to 500⁰C as ammonia will start breaking down back to
hydrogen and nitrogen at very high temperatures.
3. A catalyst of iron
Uses of ammonia
1. Fertilizers e.g. Ammonium Nitrate
2. In the production of Nitric acid
3. Used for water purification
4. Used in the manufacture of drugs, explosives, man made fibers and dyes
5. Used as a refrigerant

Production of Nitric Acid

When pure, Nitric Acid is a colorless oily liquid but when allowed to stand, some of the nitric acid
decomposes giving the acid a yellow brown color. It is a very strong acid, a powerful oxidizing agent
and reacts with nearly all metals and with other organic compounds such as skin and wood.

Sources of raw materials

1. Ammonia from the Haber process
2. Oxygen from the fractional distillation of air or from the electrolysis of water
Stages in the production of Nitric acid: The Oxidation Process

Stage 1: Production of Nitrogen dioxide

Ammonia is oxidized into nitrogen dioxide in the presence of a platinum/rhodium catalyst at 900⁰C.

Platinum/rhodium
Ammonia + Oxygen Nitrogen dioxide + Water + Heat
900⁰C

This reaction is exorthemic, so the nitrogen dioxide is cooled to about 150⁰C before being passed to
the next stage.

Stage 2: Production of Nitric Acid

The nitrogen dioxide is further oxidized into Nitric acid.

Nitrogen dioxide + oxygen + water Nitric Acid (dilute)

Stage 3: Concentration of the acid

The concentration of the acid produced in stage two is about 10% because it contains a lot of water.
Concentrated Nitric acid is obtained by fractional distillation of the dilute solution.
Diagram: production of Nitric acid

The Manufacture of Fertilizer

Ammonium nitrate is manufactured by sable chemical industries where both raw materials are
produced. In this process, ammonia gas is bubbled through 65% Nitric acid. The ammonium nitrate
in produced in solution and it is crystallized into granules.

Industrial interdependence
ZESA, ZISCO, Sable Chemicals, NRZ, Hwange e.t.c are companies which rely on each other for
their operations. For Oxygen and hydrogen to be separated electrolytically, electrical energy is
required from ZESA’s power generation at Kariba and Hwange power station. ZISCO steel in turn
requires oxygen for the lance process from Sable chemicals as well as power from ZESA. Rail and
road transport networks have a role in the interdependence between these various companies.
Contents
Topic
Fuels
Coal
Biogas
Ethanol
Fuel engines
Electrostatics
Current Electricity
Cells
Generators
Motors
Electrical Safety
Other energy sources
SCIENCE IN ENERGY USES
Fuels

Definition

A fuel is any substance which is burnt to provide heat or light energy. Fuels store energy as chemical
energy and it is converted to heat during burning.

Chemical energy Heat energy

Types of fuels

There are three types of fuels;

1. Solid fuels such as coal coke, wood, charcoal, cow dung e.t.c
2. Liquid fuels as paraffin, petrol, diesel, methylated spirit and ethanol
3. Gas fuels such as methane, butane, ethane and hydrogen
Thermal efficiency of fuels

 It is the heat content of a fuel.

 Carbon in fuels burns to produce heat energy and so the thermal efficiency of fuels also refers
to the heat content of fuels.
 The efficiency of a fuel can be measured by the rate at which the fuel heats up a substance to
a certain temperature.
Experiment

Aim:-To compare the fuel efficiency of paraffin and methylated spirit.

Materials
Paraffin burner, methylated spirit burner, 2 beakers, water, two thermometers, a wire gauze, and a
stand.
Method
1. Arrange apparatus as shown in the diagram below
2. Adjust the wicks of the two burners so that both have the same size of flames. To do this you
will notice that the wick for the paraffin burner will need to be smaller than that of the
methylated spirit burner.
3. Record the temperature of the water in the two beakers before placing the burners below the
beakers as shown.
4. Heat the two tins for five minutes and record the temperature of the water in the two beakers.
Read the thermometers at exactly the same time and this requires a partner.
Diagram

Results
Fuel type Initial temperature Temp after 5 Temp rise
minutes
Paraffin 21⁰C 49⁰C 28⁰C
Methylated Spirit 21⁰C 32⁰C 11⁰C

Fuel Efficiency for each fuel

Paraffin 28/5 = 5.6⁰C/min

Methylated Spirit 11/5 = 2.2⁰C/min

Observations
 The paraffin burner burnt with a yellow flame while the methylated spirit burnt with a blue
flame.
 After five minutes, water heated over aparafin burner was hotter than water heated over a
methylated spirit.

Explanation of Results
 Paraffin has a higher thermal efficiency than methylated spirit. This is because paraffin has a
higher carbon content which is evident because the flame has more soot. The soot only
means that the oxygen in the air is not adequate to burn all the carbon in the fuel so some of
the carbon escapes as unburnt carbon (soot).
NB: as a general rule, heavier liquid fuels have higher carbon content than lighter ones and therefore
have higher energy values. When burnt they are more efficient. If fuel A has 2 carbon molecules
and fuel B has ten carbon molecules and both these fuels are burnt in air, all two molecules in Fuel A
will burn but only Four in B will burn. Six molecules in fuel B will escape as soot but the fuel will
produce more heat because four molecules were burnt as opposed to just two.

Alternative experiment to compare the efficiency of fuel

Materials required

A paraffin burner, a methylated spirit burner, water, a scale, a thermometer, beaker, wire gauze,
stand.

Method

1. Weigh both burners before use and record the results

 2. Use both burners to heat 50ml of water until the temperature of each beaker has risen by
15⁰C.
3. Weigh the burners again to determine how much fuel has been used up.
4. Record the results
Results

Paraffin Mass Temperature

Final 125g 39⁰C
Initial 130g 24⁰C
Difference 5g 15⁰C

Methylated Spirit Mass Temperature

Final 120g 39⁰C
Initial 130g 24⁰C
Difference 10g 15⁰C

Calculation of Fuel efficiency

Paraffin 15/5 = 3⁰C/g

Methylated spirit 15/10 = 1.5⁰C/g

Explanation

Paraffin is more efficient than methylated spirit because it contains a higher carbon content. A gram
of paraffin raises the temperature of the liquid by a greater temperature than a gram of methylated
spirit.

Comparing the efficiency of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.

 If comparing fuel of the same state, that fuel with a higher carbon content will be more
efficient.
 Coke (99%) is therefore more efficient than coal (85%) because coke is almost pure carbon.
In the same vein, charcoal is more efficient than wood because non carbon impurities have
been removed during the process of converting wood to charcoal.
 When comparing liquids, solids and gases, other factors come into play. These include the
surface area exposed to burning as well as the amount of carbon in the fuel.
 As a general rule, gaseous fuels are the most efficient because they burn more thoroughly,
followed by liquids and lastly solids.
Combustion

Combustion simply means the burning of a fuel to give energy.

Complete combustion

Complete combustion occurs when a fuel combines with a lot of oxygen and all the carbon is burnt.
No soot is produced since the fuel has been completely burnt and carbon dioxide is given out.

Carbon + Oxygen carbon dioxide + heat

Methane + Oxygen carbon dioxide + water + heat

Water is produced in hydrocarbon fuels which are made of hydrogen and carbon. During burning the
hydrogen will combine with oxygen to produce water while the carbon burns to produce carbon
dioxide and heat.
Incomplete combustion

This occurs when the amount of carbon in a fuel exceeds the amount of oxygen available. Under
these circumstances, not all carbon is burnt and it is given off as soot. The partial combination of
carbon and oxygen produces carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas which can kill
if excessively inhaled. Incomplete combustion causes a lot of air pollution because of the soot and
carbon monoxide.

Paraffin + (little) Oxygen carbon monoxide + carbon (soot) + water (vapour) + heat

When hydrocarbons are burnt, there should be plenty of oxygen to prevent incomplete combustion.

Examples of Fuels

Coal

Coal is a black solid fossil fuel and in Zimbabwe it is mined in Hwange. It was formed from decayed
remains of pre historic forests which were exerted under pressure from layers of rock and earth.
Coal contains about 85% carbon.

Uses of Coal

1. Used as a fuel for industrial, agricultural and domestic purposes.

2. Used for thermal power generation.
3. Coal is used to make Coke, a fuel used in the blast furnace.
4. During the production of Coke, other by products are produced which have industrial uses
and include,
a. Ammonia – used as a base in the manufacture of fertilizers and is also oxidized to
make nitric acid.
b. Benzol – this is a solvent for tar products, grease, paint and vanish. Benzol is also
used as an ingredient in the manufacture of special plastics.
c. Tar – used as a fuel in coke ovens, used for road tarring and to make creosote, a
chemical which preserves wood.
d. Coal gas – coal gas is used as a fuel in coke ovens. It is also used as a source of
hydrogen for the manufacture of ammonia and margarine.

The dry/destructive distillation of coal

Is the process used to break down coal into its major constituents by heating it coal in the absence of
oxygen. The products derived from this destructive distillation of coal are coke, ammonia, tar, Benzol
and coal gas.

Experiment

Aim

The dry/destructive distillation of Coal

Materials

Powdered coal, hard glass test tubes, red litmus paper, beaker, sodium hydroxide solution, filter
paper, retort stand.
Diagram

Method

1.Set up the apparatus as shown on the diagram above. Ensure that the apparatus is air tight.
2.Heat the coal powder in the hard test tube.
3.After strong heating what do you observe in the other two test tubes.
4.Test the contents of the second test tube as follows;
a. Dip red litmus paper into the liquid in the second test tube. What do you observe.
b. Take what remains in the first test tube and burn it on a piece of porcelain using a
Bunsen flame. Burn a similar piece of coal and compare the results.
Observations and conclusions

1. Two distinct liquids collected in the second test tube, one was clear and the other one was
dark. The clear liquid is ammonia liquor while the dark liquid is tar. When the coal powder was
heated, impurities escaped as gases and they where condensed in the second test tube
2. A gas was collected in the third test tube. This method of gas collection is called the
displacement method as water is displaced when gas in collected.
3. When the clear liquid was tested using red litmus paper, the litmus paper turned blue showing
that it was alkaline. The clear liquid was ammonium liquor.
4. What remained in the first test tube is coke and it burned with a cleaner flame than the flame
from coal. It leaves less smoke on the porcelain.
The dry distillation equation can be summed up as;

heat
Coal Coke + Tar + Coal gas + ammonia + benzol
No air
The industrial distillation of Coal

 Coal is heated in a vertical oven to about 1000⁰C in the absence of oxygen.

 Gaseous substances escape through a tube at the top of the oven and are passed to an air
cooled condenser where tar is condensed and collected.
 The remaining gases a passed into a tower into which water is sprayed. The water dissolves
ammonia gas to form an alkaline solution called ammonia liquor.
 The remaining gas is passed into another tower and is bubbled through oil. The oil absorbs
the benzene by dissolving it forming benzol.
 The remaining gas is coal gas and is stored for use.
This process removes the 15% impurities from coal leaving coke which is almost 100% carbon.

Production of Biogas

Biogas consists of about 65% methane but also has hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. The three
gases in biogas all burn to produce heat and light energy. It is produced from the fermentation of
organic matter i.e. the decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen.

The biogas digester

A biogas digester consists of a cylindrical tank built underground which contains fresh dung and
water. The tank is closed tightly to ensure that no oxygen enters. The presence of water is one of the
important factors as chemical reactions are more efficient in liquid or semi liquid state. The digester
is built underground because the heat generated during the decomposition of organic matter is
retained and this further speeds up the rate of chemical reactions. The bacteria that digest the cow
dung are anaerobic as they respire without using oxygen. The end product of this fermentation is
called biogas. When the manure is completely decomposed, the remaining sludge is taken out and
used as manure.

Optimum conditions in the digester

1. Absence of oxygen so that the respiration is anaerobic

2. Warm temperatures between 32⁰C and 54⁰C. If temps are too low, chemical reactions will be
slowed down but if temps are too high, the bacteria will die.
3. Water is added to ensure that the cow dung is in semi solid state as this also speeds up
chemical reactions
4. The bacteria works effectively at a pH of around 6 or 7. Addition of water also helps to keep
pH around these levels.
5. The mixture is periodically churned to allow continued decomposition.
 6. Use of appropriate manure as different kinds of organic matter will produce different quantities
of biogas. In Zimbabwe the most used manure is cow dung.
7. Copper must be kept away from the digester as it stops the operation of the bacteria.

Diagram

Advantages of Biogas

1. Once the digester has been set up, the fuel is free
2. The fuel is clean and pollution free
3. The waste can be used as manure
The production of Ethanol

Ethanol in Zimbabwe is produced from the fermentation of maize and sugarcane. This was
previously done at the Triangle Ethanol Plant in Chiredzi but is now being done in Chisumbanje. The
fermentation process occurs in 4 stages as follows;

Stage 1

Sugar cane is crushed and juice is filtered out. The juice is evaporated and sugar crystals are
separated from the remaining liquid called molasses in a process called centrifuging. It is this
molasses which is fermented to produce ethanol.

Stage 2

Molasses is mixed with water to form a mash which is pasteurized by heating it to 70⁰C. This kills
any bacteria that may be in the mash.

Stage 3

The mash is then taken to a pre-fermentation tank where it is mixed with yeast. Sulphuric acid is also
added to lower the pH of the mash. Bacteria die at this pH but the yeast survives. The temperature is
maintained at 20⁰C and air is bubbled into the tank. Under these conditions, the yeast will multiply.
When the yeast population reaches the required level the mash is taken to the main fermentation
tank.

Stage 4

The mash is allowed to ferment/brew for 40hrs. There is no air in the fermentation tank. Yeast will
not multiply but it will start to respire anaerobically.
Conversion of Sugar to Ethanol

Yeast produces two enzymes, invertase and zymase. Invertase speeds up the conversion of simple
sugars to glucose. i.e. large sugar molecules are broken down into simple glucose molecules. The
zymase speeds up the conversion of glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

Invertase Zymase
Sucrose Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxide

The ethanol produced in this way is 10% ethanol and 90% water. It is concentrated by fractional
distillation to produce pure ethanol which burns with a very hot clean flame.

Products of the fermentation process

1. Ethanol
2. Carbon dioxide
Uses of ethanol

1. It is a fuel and is used in petrol blend. (85% petrol and 15% ethanol)
2. It is an excellent solvent for organic compounds
3. It is used in alcoholic drinks
4. It is mixed with methanol to make industrial spirit or methylated spirit.
5. It is used to produce drugs for medical purposes, cosmetics, detergents plastics and
lubricants.
Experiment

Aim

Investigating fermentation

Materials

2 test tubes, delivery tubes, bicarbonate indicator solution, litmus paper, yeast solution, starch
solution

Diagram
Method

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram with yeast and glucose mixture in tube A and
bicarbonate indicator in tube B.
2. After 30 minutes, note the colour changes which occur in test tube B.
3. Dip red litmus paper in the solution in test tube A.
Results and conclusions

1. Brick red bicarbonate indicator turned yellow indicating that the gas produced is carbon
dioxide. Limewater can be used in the place of bicarbonate indicator and it changes colour
from clear to milky white to indicate the presence of carbon dioxide.
2. The red litmus paper turned blue indicating the presence of an alkaline solution in this case,
ethanol.
Experiment

Aim

To separate alcohol and water

Materials

Conical flask, fractionating column, thermometer, condenser, beaker, water pipes and source

Diagram

Method

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram above

2. Heat the mixture of two liquids in the conical flask while maintaining temperature at the top of
the fractionating column at 78⁰C.
3. Ensure that water is running through the condenser as shown in the diagram.
Results and conclusions

1. Condensed liquid was seen trickling down the fractionating column back into the flask. This is
because any liquid with a boiling point greater than 78⁰C will condense and run back into the
flask. In this way only ethanol reaches the top of the fractionating column as a vapour and
distils over into the condenser.
2. A liquid was seen dripping out of the condenser into the beaker. This liquid is ethanol.
Fuel Engines

An engine is a device that converts chemical energy in fuel to kinetic energy in order to do work. E.g.
moving a car

Chemical energy(in fuel) Kinetic/Mechanical energy

How the fuel engine operates

 Petrol engines have two main sections, the cylinder section and the carburetor.
 The action of the pistons in the cylinders converts chemical energy into kinetic energy and
 The carburetor supplies the cylinders with a petrol- air mixture to each cylinder.
 Most vehicles have at least four cylinders in their engines.
 The advantage of multiple cylinders is that the engine will run more smoothly and will be more
powerful.
There are four strokes in a petrol engine for each cylinder.

1. The intake/inlet stroke

 The pistons move down
 The intake/ inlet valve is opened
 The petrol air mixture enters the cylinder from the carburetor
 The exhaust valve is closed
2. The compression stroke
 Both valves are closed
 The piston moves upwards to compress the petrol air mixture
3. The power stroke
 Both valve are closed
 A spark is produced by the spark plug and sets fire to the petrol air mixture (ignition)
 The mixture explodes and forces the pistons down
 It is during this stroke when chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy causing the
car to move. The piston will rotate the crankshaft, which in turn will rotate the wheels
through the gear box.
4. The exhaust stroke
 The exhaust valve is opened
 The inlet valve is closed
 The pistons move upwards forcing the exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
Diagram
NB: Note that each of the cylinders has to go through these four strokes but the strokes are timed
differently for each cylinder so that they smoothly rotate the crankshaft.

The inlet, compression and exhaust strokes are driven by the momentum of the engine’s flywheel.
The flywheel itself is initially energized by the starter motor and afterwards it is driven by the power
stroke.

The carburetor

The carburetor is a connection to the engine used to filter petrol and mix it with air in the desired
proportions. The petrol air mixture is then drawn into each cylinder during the intake/inlet stroke of
each cylinder.

The petrol is cleaned by passing through a fine gauze filter. This is to ensure that the carburetor jet
does not get blocked by dirt. The air filter removes any dirt from the air that in drawn in.

The choke controls the air supply, if it is partially closed, the petrol air mixture is rich in petrol and this
makes it easy to start the vehicle.

The throttle/ accelerator controls the amount of petrol air mixture that gets to the engine. Opening
the throttle allows more mixture to the engine speeding it up.

Diagram

The diesel engine

The diesel engine operates along the same principles as a petrol engine but there is no spark plug.
The engine has four strokes as follows;

1. The intake/inlet stroke

 The piston moves down to allow only air to be drawn into the cylinder.
 The inlet valve is opened and air is drawn in.
 The exhaust valve is closed
2. The compression stroke
 Both valves are closed
 The piston moves upwards to compress the air. The compression is three times that in
a petrol engine and it makes the air hot.
3. The power stroke
 Both valve are closed
  Diesel is injected into the hot air.
 An explosion occurs which forces the pistons down
 It is during this stroke when chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy causing the
car to move. The piston will rotate the crankshaft, which in turn will rotate the wheels
through the gear box.
4. The exhaust stroke
 The exhaust valve is opened
 The inlet valve is closed
 The pistons move upwards forcing the exhaust gases out of the cylinder.
Diagram

The diesel engine uses a fuel injector instead of a carburetor and has no spark plugs. Diesel engines
are therefore called compression ignition engines as the ignition results from the heat generated by
compression. Because of the higher compression required, diesel engines are bigger and heavier
than petrol engines.

Comparing Diesel engine to petrol engine

Petrol Diesel
Has a carburetor Has a fuel injector
Uses a spark plug for ignition No spark plug, uses compression ignition
Is less heavier Heavier to withstand increased
compression
Is 40% less efficient than diesel i.e. travels Is about 40% more efficient, travels more
less kilometers per liter kilometers per liter of fuel
Uses petrol fuel Uses diesel fuel
Petrol is more expensive per litre Diesel is less expensive per liter
Causes more pollution Causes less pollution

Social and economic considerations of using fuels

The use of fuel provides useful energy but it also creates some problems. These problems include;

1. Air pollution – motor vehicles and the burning of fuels in industry discharges carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides and soot into the atmosphere
 a. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas which causes suffocation if inhaled in large
enough quantities.
b. Oxides of gases form acid rain when they dissolve in rain water. This rain can destroy
forests and corrode metals and buildings.
c. Soot causes smog
d. Large quantities of carbon dioxide are causing global warming which has led to harmful
climatic changes.
2. Deforestation – the continuous cutting down of tree for fuel has led to the disappearance of
forests. This has led to soil erosion and an increase in global warming as trees take carbon
dioxide out of the atmosphere.
3. If not safely handled, some fuels are highly inflammable and can cause loss of life and
extensive damage to property when fires break out. Fuels should be stored in appropriate
containers and proper behavior observed when handling fuels.
Fuel conservation

Fuels should be conserved, especially fossil fuels like coal and petroleum because they can not be
replaced once used up. Renewable sources like wind, water and solar power should be used to
replace our use of non renewable sources because they are cleaner and will not be used up.

Electrical Energy

Electrostatics

Electrostatics means static or non flowing electricity. For electricity to be static the material which
produces it has to be an insulator, otherwise if it is a conductor, the electricity will flow away.

How static electricity is generated

Static electricity is generated when a substance either gains or looses electrons. Remember atoms
are neutral because they have the same number of proton (+ve) and Electrons (-ve). These charges
therefore cancel each other out to give a neutral atom. When substances are rubbed against each
other, one of the substances will either gain or lose electrons. If a substance gains electrons it
becomes negatively charged and therefore has static electricity if the charge is not conducted away.
If a substance looses electrons, then it becomes positively charged and has static electricity if the
charge does not flow way. (if material is not a conductor). Please note that protons are locked inside
the nuclei of atoms and so do not move. It is the electrons which are either lost or gained by
substances.

Detecting Charges

One of the instruments used to detect charges is a gold leaf electroscope. It consists of a brass cap
and a brass plate at the bottom. A thin leaf of gold or aluminum foil is attached to the brass plate.
The brass rod is mounted in a glass case and supported by a plug of insulating material

Charging an electroscope

Materials – perspex, polythene, fur and cotton

Method

1. Take a piece of perspex and rub it with fur

2. Bring the rubbed perspex closer to the metal cap of an electroscope and observe what
happens
3. Touch the brass cap of the electroscope with the charged perspex. Observe what happens.
4. Rub the perspex again with fur and bring it closer to the charged electroscope. What
happens?
5. Touch the brass cap again and note what happens.
Observations and explanations

Material charge material Charge

Perspex - Fur +
Perspex + Cotton -
Polythene - Fur +
Polythene + Cotton -

1. If you bring a piece of perspex or polythene which has not been rubbed closer to the cap of
the electroscope or even touch the cap, nothing happens because the perspex/polythene has
no charge. An electroscope responds only if there is a charge.
2. If you rub a piece of perspex with fur, it becomes negatively charged by gaining electrons. If
you bring the charged perspex closer to the cap of the gold leaf electroscope, the leaf will rise
away from the brass plate. When you move it away, the leaf falls back into position.
3. When you touch the brass cap with the charged perspex, the charge will be transferred from
the perspex to the electroscope. The gold leaf will rise away from the brass plate and remain
hanging away from the plate even when the perspex has been removed. This is because both
the brass plate and the gold leaf are negatively charged and like charges repel.
4. When you rub the perspex again with fur it becomes negatively charged as before. When you
bring this negatively charged perspex closer to a negatively charged electroscope, the gold
 leaf will rise further. This is because the strength of the charge is being increased which
increases repulsion between the leaf and the brass plate. When you take it away the leaf falls
back to its original position where it was hanging.
5. When you rub a piece of perspex with cotton, it becomes positively charged.
NB: Always remember that like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

Conductors and insulators

 A conductor is any substance which allows a charge to travel along it. Electrons in a
conductor can move fairly easily.
 Any insulator does not allow a charge to travel through it. Electrons do not move easily in
insulators.

Examples

Insulators Conductors
Most non metals All metals
Plastic Carbon
Rubber Water
Air (dry)

Lightning

 Lightning is a flash of brilliant light in the sky caused by the movement of an electrical charge
from a charged cloud to the earth.
 Clouds become charged by friction due to heavy convection currents especially if it is hot and
humid.
 The friction causes the lower end of the cloud to become negatively charged. This negative
charge repels electrons on the earth’s surface producing a positive charge on the earth.
 Excess electron will be attracted from the cloud to the earth and their flow produces a
lightning flash.
 The flash is attracted to a prominent conductor on the earth’s surface.
 The thunder that is heard is the sound of air which rapidly expands because it has been
heated by the flash and comes seconds after the flash because light travels faster than
sound.
 The voltage in a single flash can be as high as 3 million volts
 Destruction from lightning is caused by both the heat generated on contact as well as
electrocution.
Lightning Conductors

These are metal spikes erected on the top of buildings and connected to the earth using a thick wire.
If lightning strikes, the charge is attracted by the spikes because they are good conductors and is
directed to the earth via the thick wire. The lightning will therefore not damage buildings or cause
loss of life.
Safety precautions against lightning

1. Avoid standing under isolated tall tress when it is raining

2. Avoid standing anywhere where you are prominent
3. Avoid touching conducting materials
4. Disconnect roof top aerials and disconnect all appliances.
Current Electricity

 An electric current is a flow of charges or electrons in a conducting circuit.

 Current is represented by the letter (I) and is measured in Amps (A).
 Current flows from the negative to the positive as electrons move freely and protons do not
move.
Voltage

 Also called potential difference, is the electrical pressure or force which pushes the charges
around the circuit.
 Voltage is measured in volts (V)

Resistance

 As electrons move around the circuit, they experience a lot of friction in the conducting
material. The frictional force is called resistance. This resistance causes a lot of energy to be
lost as heat in the circuit.
 Good conductors such as copper have very little resistance hence negligible heat is
produced.
 It is this concept of resistance which makes it possible to make various appliances which use
heat energy. E.g resistance in the filament of a light bulb causes the wire to become white hot
and therefore produce light energy. The filament is made from a material called tungsten. This
is the same principle used in electric heaters, stoves, irons e.t.c
 Resistance is measured in ohms.
Formula for resistance

According to Ohm’s law, resistance (R) = Voltage ‚ Current i.e

R = V
I

 Given any two of resistance, current or voltage, the above formula can be used to calculate
the missing one by making it subject of the formula.

E.g V = RI or I = V÷R.
Resistance can also be calculated from the gradient of the voltage/current graph.

Connecting resistors in a circuit

Resistors can be connected in one of two ways

1. In series or,
2. In parallel
Resistors connected in series

Resistors are said to be connected in series when they are connected one after the other and the
same current flows through all of them.
For resistors connected in series, the total resistance of the circuit is calculated by adding the
resistance of the individual resistors i.e.

Circuit resistance (R) = R1 + R2 + R3 + …..

Example.

What is the total resistance of the circuit above.

Answer

3 + 2 + 1 = 6ohms

For resistors connected in series, current is the same throughout the circuit because there is only
one path but the potential difference or voltage varies across each resistor.

Example

Question
Find the voltage at V1, V2 and V3

Answer

Step 1:- find the total resistance of the circuit for resistors in series (RC = R1 + R2 + R3 + … i.e.
3+2+1 = 6 ohms

Step 2:-use the resistance of the circuit (total resistance) and the voltage of the source to find the
current of the circuit using the formula R = V÷I and making I the subject of the formula i.e. I = v ÷ R

Current of circuit (same throughout) = 12 ÷ 6 = 2 Amps

Step 3:- use the current calculated in step 2 above to find the voltage across each resistor this time
using the resistance of each resistor. The formula used is R=V÷I, this time making V the subject of
the formula.

V =RxI

Therefore, V1 = 3x2
= 6 volts

V2 = 2x2
= 4volts
 V3 = 1x2
= 2volts

NB: the sum of the voltages across all the resistors must equal the voltage of the source i.e. 6+4+2 =
12V

Resistors in parallel

Resistors are connected in parallel when the circuit provides an alternative path for current to flow
around the circuit. For resistors in parallel, the total resistance of the circuit is calculated by the
formula:-

Resistance of ccircuit = R1 x R2
R1 + R2
Example

Question
What is the total resistance of the circuit above.

Answer

Rc = 3x2
3+2
= 6÷5
= 1.2 ohms

For resistors connected in parallel, the voltage is the same through out the circuit but current varies
across resistors as more current will go through the path of least resistance.

Question
1. What is the current at A1, A2 and A3 on the circuit above.
2. What voltage is at V and V1

Solution

Step 1:- calculate the resistance of the circuit

Rc = R1xR2
R1+R2
= 3x2
3+2
= 6÷5
= 1.2 ohms
Step 2:- calculate the current of the circuit. On the circuit this is measured by an ammeter which is
on a common path of the circuit. In our example this is given by A1

I = V÷R
= 12÷1.2
= 10Amps

Therefore current at A1 which is the common path of the current on the circuit is 10amps.

Step 3:-calculate the current foe each path using the resistance of each resistor and the voltage of
the circuit which is the same throughout the circuit.

I = V÷R

Therefore A2 = 12÷3
= 4amps

A3 =12÷2
=6amps

NB: sum of current in different paths must equal the current of the circuit i.e. 6 + 4 = 10apms. The
voltage at V and V1 = 12volts. It is the same as the resistors are connected in parallel and therefore
the voltage is the same throughout the circuit.

Note: resistors in series offer more resistance to current than resistors in parallel. This means with
the same source of power, bulbs in parallel will be brighter than bulbs in series as less energy is lost
as heat in parallel than in series.

Electrical power

This is the rate of using energy of the rate of doing work.

Electrical energy
Electrical energy is calculated as follows;

Energy = volts x amps x seconds.

Electrical power on the other hand is energy per second

Power = volts x amps

Power is measured in watts

Power can also be calculated if we are given current and resistance.

Power(P) = VI where V = IR

Therefore replacing V with IR in the above equation gives

P =IxIxR
= I²R

Examples on power
Question: - what is the power of an electric light operating on a 240V supply and using a current of
0.4amps
Answer
P =VI
=240x0.4
=96watts

Question: - a light bulb draws 0.5amps from a 240V supply.

a) What is the power of the light bulb
b) How much heat does it produce in 2hrs
c) What is the resistance of the light bulb
Answers
a) P =VI
=240x0.5
=120watts

b) Energy = Volts x amps x seconds

= 240 x 0.5 x 7200
=64000 joules
=64kj

c) Resistance = V÷I
= 240÷0.5
=480 0hms

Cells
 A cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy. It consists of two electrodes immersed
in an electrolyte (a liquid which conducts electricity)
 Chemical reactions will start happening at the electrodes as one electrode will start losing
electrons while the other one gains electrons.
 A positive and negative terminal are therefore established and if a circuit of conducting wires
is connected, electrons will move from electrode with excess(negative) to electrode with
shortage (positive)
 The electrodes must be different for current to flow and this difference is what gives the
voltage or potential difference. (the force which pushes electrons round the circuit)

Choosing electrodes
Different combinations of metals used as electrodes will produce different voltages. This is evident
because if a light bulb is connected to the circuit, different combinations will produce different levels
of brightness in the light bulb.

The electrochemical series

 This is an arrangement of metals in order of their reactivity when used to generate electricity
in cells.

1. Potassium 6. Zinc
2. Sodium 7. Iron
3. Calcium 8. lead
4. Magnesium 9. copper
5. Aluminum 10. Gold

 The further apart two metals are in the electrochemical series, the greater the voltage they will
produce. In the given series, the potassium and gold combination will produce the greatest
voltage.
 The lower metal in the reactivity series is used as the positive electrode.

Electrolytes used
 Dilute sulphuric acid is the electrolyte used in lab experiments to produce simple cells.
 Other electrolytes used include;
o Sodium chloride
o Potassium chloride
 o Sodium hydroxide
o Potassium hydroxide
o Calcium hydroxide
o Zinc sulphate
o Citric juice
o Ammonium chloride

A simple cell
Also called a wet cell it is made from dilute sulphuric acid and electrodes such as copper and
aluminum. It can also be made by sticking two electrodes of magnesium and copper into a lemon
and completing the circuit as in diagrams below.

Polarisation and depolarisation

Polarisation – it is the collection of hydrogen gas around the positive anode which prevents current
from flowing because hydrogen is an insulator. In experiments this is evident because the light bulb
goes off quickly.
Depolarisation – this is the removal of hydrogen formed in a cell by adding an oxidizing agent to
remove the hydrogen produced during polarisation. Hydrogen is oxidized to water and the cell
continues to operate.
Potassium permanganate is added to the electrolyte in simple cells to act as a depolarizing agent.

The Dry Cell

  Works on the same principle as the simple cell. The difference is that the electrolyte is in
paste form hence the term ‘dry’.
 The simple cell and the dry cell are primary cells because they stop working when the
chemicals get used up and they cannot be recharged.
 Dry cells are convenient because they are portable i.e. they can be fixed and carried around
as required.
 Manganese (iv) oxide is included to correct polarisation.
 When the chemicals have finished reacting, they will not produce electrons and the cell goes
flat.

Photovoltaic Cells
 These are cells which convert light energy from light energy from the sum into electrical
energy.
 They are made from silicon which is a semi conducting material. The electrons in the silicon
gain energy from the sun and create a voltage which produces a current if a circuit is
provided.
 A single cell produces about 0.5V and cells are connected in series on a solar panel to
produce a higher voltage. If a higher current is required the cell are connected in parallel.

Connecting cells
Cells can be connected in series or in parallel

Series connection
Used when the negative of one cell is connected to the positive of another. This connection is used
to produce a higher voltage. When two or more cells are connected, it called a battery
diagram of series connection

Relationship between number of cells, voltage and current for cells in series

total voltage =algebraic sum of voltage of cells

total voltage =2V+2V+2V=6V

more voltage, more resistance and less current

Parallel connection
 used when all positives are connected together and all negatives are connected together.
 It is preffered when a higher current is required
Diagram of parallel connection

Relationship between number of cells, voltage and current in a parallel connection

Total voltage = voltage of one cell

Total voltage=2V

Less voltage, less resistance and more current

Secondary Cells
 These are cell which can be recharged again and again by passing current through them in a
direction opposite to that in which they supply current.
 Secondary cells are storage cells and store electrical charges chemically
The Lead Acid Accumulator

 It is a secondary cell which can be recharged. The positive electrode is lead oxide/lead
dioxide (which is brown in colour) and the negative electrode is lead( which is grey in colour).
 The electrolyte used is dilute sulphuric acid

Discharging
 When the cell is supplying current, the process is called discharging.
 During discharging, the lead and lead oxide electrodes turn to lead sulphate which is white in
colour.
 The acid becomes dilute and loses density from 1.25g/cm³ to 1.11g/cm³.
 When fully discharged, the cell is flat and should not be left uncharged for long otherwise the
lead sulphate hardens and cannot be changed back to lead and lead oxide.
Recharging
 When recharging, electricity is passed into the cell in the reverse direction. The lead sulphate
changes as follows;
o At the anode: white lead sulphate changes to brown lead oxide
o At the cathode: white lead sulphate changes to grey lead
 The density of the acid increases from 1.1g/cm³ to 1.25g/cm³.

Care and maintenance of the lead acid accumulator

1. When recharging, ensure that the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive
terminal of the charger and negative terminal to negative.
2. Do not overcharge the accumulator as this reduces its life span. The plates will swell and
buckle.
3. Do not short circuit the two terminals with a wire
4. During charging, ensure that the vents are open because hydrogen is produced from the
negative terminal and oxygen from the positive. A mixture of these two gases is very
explosive.
5. Do not keep the battery uncharged for too long as the plates will become sulphated or
hardened. It will no longer be possible to recharge the battery when the plates are hardened.

The Ampire hour (Ah)

 It is the unit of charge and measures the capacity of an accumulator.
 A barttery rated 80Ah will supply a current of either 8 Amps for 10 hours, 4 Amps for 20Hours
and 1 Amp for 80 Hours.
Direct Current (DC)
Current which flows steadily without reversing its direction. This type of current is produced from
cells and batteries and a lot of energy is lost as heat during transmission.

Alternating current (AC)

 In this case current continuously changes direction. The positive and the negative wires are
replaced by the live and neutral wires.
 This current is produced by A.C generators
 AC current is easier to transmit than DC current for two reasons,
o Less energy is lost as heat during transmission
o AC transformers can be used to step up the current produced which can later be
stepped down using step down transformers.

Generator
This is a device that converts kinetic/Mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Kinetic energy Electrical energy

Structure of a Generator
It consists of;
1. Two permanent magnets
2. A commutator(DC generator) or Slip Rings (AC Generator)
3. A coil and
4. An electrical circuit

The Generator Effect

 When a coil s rotated in between two permanent magnets, the coil will cut or disturb the
magnetic field of the magnets.
 This will cause/induce the electrons in the coil to start moving and this movement of electrons
is what we call current.
 A voltage is produced when a magnetic field is cut by a coil.
 This is achieved by either moving the magnet or the coil
 The greater the rate of cutting, the greater the voltage and when a circuit is completed, the
voltage causes a current to flow in the coil and around the circuit.
 This effect was discovered by Michael Faraday
 The generation of electricity is based on the generator effect and all generators make use of a
coil and permanent magnets.

The AC generator
The diagram below shows a simple AC generator. As the coil rotates between the poles of a
permanent magnet, it cuts the magnetic field lines and a current is induced in the coil.
 At an industrial level, the coil is rotated by either and engine or by turbines.
  The carbon brushes just lightly touch the slip rings and allow current to pass thru them to the
electrical circuit.
 When the coil rotates, the sides AD and BC keep changing sides after every single rotation of
the coil. This reverses the flow of current in the circuit and therefore is called alternating
current.

The DC Generator
 A DC generator operates in a similar way as an AC generator except that in the place of slip
rings, there are split rings. The split rings are also called the commutator.
 The rings are split into two
 As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, a current is induced (produced). When the rotation
reaches a point when the current must be reversed, the brushes reach the gaps in the
commutator and the flow of current is stopped..
 As the coil continues to rotate, the commutator touches the brushes again and current is
induced in the same direction as before. Electrons therefore move in one direction
 The commutator ensures that current flows in one direction only and therefore a DC generator
produces direct current.
The DC Motor
A motor is a device which converts electrical energy to kinetic or mechanical energy. It operates
through what is called the motor effect.

Electrical energy Kinetic/Mechanical energy

The Motor Effect

 When a current is passed through a coil, the coil will develop a magnetic field.
 If this magnetized coil is put between two permanent magnets, the interaction of the two
magnetic fields will cause the coil to rotate. This is called the motor effect.
 The commutator ensures that the coil continues to rotate in one direction due to the gap in the
commutator.
 The gap cuts flow of current into the coil at the strategic moment when it is about to reverse
direction of rotation.

If a motor is connected to cells, the energy changes that occur are as follows;

Chemical energy Electrical energy Kinetic energy

Examples of devices which use a motor

Electrical motors drive fast devices such as CD players, loan mowers, electrical meal grinders, water
pumps etc.

Electrical safety
Safety precautions
1. Ensure that your hands are dry before touching an electrical switch, plug, socket or electrical
appliance. This is because water has salts which conduct electricity.
2. Use electrical wires which are insulated and if the wires are damaged change the wires.
3. Use the correct size of cables as the use of smaller cables generates heat in cables due to
increased resistance. This may damage the insulation and cause fires.
4. Ensure that all appliances are earthed. This will carry current only when there a leakage of
electricity due to a fault. If you touch a live appliance which is not earthed, you become the
earth and you will receive a nasty electric shock.
5. The circuit must have switches so as to break the circuit when current is not required.
6. The use of magnetic switches which trip when a more than necessary current is drawn or
when there is a short circuit.
7. Always make use of fused appliances as the fuse will break if excessive current is drawn. This
prevents overheating and damage of electrical wiring and appliances.

The three pin plug

 It is called a three pin plug because it has three pins to which the live, neutral and earth wires
are connected.
 The live wire carries a current so it must be considered as ‘alive’. The wire is connected to the
fuse and is insulated using brown.
 The earth wire only carries current when there is a fault. It is insulated using green and yellow.
 The neutral caries current away from the appliance and is insulated using blue
Proper connections are essential. The three pin plug is used to connect appliances which are made
of metals especially for the outer case. There is need to earth these appliances to avoid electrical
hazard as the case carries current.

The two pin Plug

 This plug consist of the live and neutral wires only and has no earth.
 The plug is used where earthing is not important especially where:
o outer cases of appliances are made of plastic or wood and there is therefore no need
to earth the appliance since it presents no danger. E.g radios, tvs etc
o appliances have metal casings but they have a step down transformer which reduces
current within the appliance to very small levels which are not dangerous e.g. DVD
players

Solar radiation
 The sun’s heat and light energy travels to the earth by radiation in the form of electromagnetic
waves.
 No medium is needed to transmit heat and light by radiation
 Other sources of radiant heat include electric iron, fire and an electric bulb.

What happens to energy received from the sun

 some energy is reflected(to reflect is to change the direction of the energy) while the rest is
absorbed by objects on the earth’s surface.

Reflection of Radiant energy

To reflect is to change the direction of heat and light. Some of the energy is reflected back into space
by objects on the earth’s surface and those in the atmosphere. Light is visible but heat is invisible,
you can only feel it and observe the effects of heat.

Absorption and emission of heat.

An object receiving energy from the sun will absorb some of the energy and reflect the rest. The heat
absorbed will raise the temperature of the object.
If the heat source is removed, the object begins to cool as it emits or loses the heat it had absorbed.

Experiment
Aim: To investigate the absorption and emission of heat from different surfaces
Material: two thermometers, two test tubes and water

Method
1. Take two test tubes, one painted black and another painted white. You can also use painted
tins.
2. Pour 25ml of water into each test tube.
3. Record the initial temperature of water in each test tube or tin.
4. Place the two test tubes in the hot sun.
5. Record the temperature of water in each test tube after every 5 minutes for 30 minutes.
6. Take the test tubes out of the sun and allow them to cool to room temperature, recording the
temp of the water after every 5 minutes.
7. Plot your findings on a graph
Table of results
Temperature changed with time during heating as below;
Time 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Tin A 21 22 24 27 29 30 32
Tin B 21 22 23 25 26 27 28

Observations
 The temperature of water in the painted tin increased faster during the experiment.
 The temperature of water in the painted tin was higher after 30 minutes.

Explanation
 The black test tube absorbed heat faster than the white test tube because black is a good
absorber of heat.

Table of results during cooling

The temperature changed with time during cooling as below;
Time 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Tin A 32 27 23 21 21 21 21
Tin B 28 27 26 24 23 21 21

Observations during cooling

 The temperature of water in the black test tube dropped faster than the temp of water in the
white test tube.
 At the end of 30 minutes the temp in both was the same.

Explanation
 dark surfaces are good emitters of heat so the black test tube lost heat much faster than the
white test tube.

Conclusions
 black surfaces are good absorbers of heat.
 Black surfaces are good emitters of heat
 Light surfaces are bad absorbers of heat.
 Light surfaces are bad emitters of heat.

Everyday applications of these concepts.

 Light coloured clothes should be worn in summer when it is hot as these will not absorb a lot
of heat. In winter, dark coloured clothes should be worn so that as much heat as possible is
absorbed.
 Storage tanks for water are painted silver, white or some other lighter colour so that the water
remains cool while black pots are used on solar cookers to increase absortion of heat.

Conclusion
1. The black painted test tube recorded a higher temperature than the white painted test tube
after 30minutes.this is because black surfaces are good absorbers of heat while white
surfaces reflect most of the heat.
2. During cooling, the black test tube also lost heat more quickly than the white test tube. Black
surfaces are good emitters of heat while white surfaces are poor emitters.
NB: in summer, white colored clothes are preferable to dark colored ones. Dull colors absorb more
heat and will be more uncomfortable in summer. Cooking pots are colored black to make sure that
they absorb as much heat as possible during cooking. Refrigerators are painted white to reflect heat
as much as possible.

Methods of heat transfer

Heat is transferred in one of the following ways;
1. Radiation – The movement of heat in the form of heat waves. Electromagnetic waves directly
transport energy through space. E.g heat from the sun reaches the earth through radiation. A
person sitting in front of a fire or a heater feels the heat by radiation.
 2. Convection – heated particles move carrying heat as they move.e.g air in a fridge is cooled
by convection and a hot cup of tea looses heat by convection.

3. Conduction – heat moves from one particle to the next in a substance. For example, a spoon
in a cup of hot soup becomes warmer because the heat from the soup is conducted along the
spoon. Conduction is most effective in solids-but it can happen in fluids.

 Fun fact: Have you ever noticed that metals tend to feel cold? Believe it or not, they are
not colder! They only feel colder because they conduct heat away from your hand. You
perceive the heat that is leaving your hand as cold.

 In solids, heat is transferred by conduction, in liquids and gases by convection and through
space by radiation.

Experiment

Aim: To observe how solids transfer heat by conduction

Material: Bunsen burner, candle wax, pins (or thermometers) and retort stand

Diagram

Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram using candle wax to attach 3 pins A, B, and C
to a metal rod.
2. Heat the end of the metal rod as shown.

Observations and conclusions

 The wax melted and the pins fell off starting with A then B and lastly C. (if thermometers are
used, temperature will be highest at A, followed by B and lowest at C)

Explanation
 the heat travelled from the hottest point at the burner to the cooler parts further away from the
burner by conduction. The heat is moving from one particle to the next in the metal with the
particles themselves not moving.

Experiment
Aim: to observe the tranfare of heat in liquids by convection.
Materials: beaker, water, potassium permanganate crystals or small, burner and stand.
Diagram

Method
1. Fill the beaker with water to almost ¾ full
2. Drop a small crystal of potassium permanganate to the bottom edge of the beaker.(a small
leaf can be used instead of potassium permanganate)
3. Heat the water around the crystal or leaf as shown in the diagram

Observations
 As heat is applied around the crystal, purple colored streaks are seen rising from point A to
point B, then horizontally to point C and the trickles sink back down to D from where they go
back to A.
 Eventually all the water turns purple.

Explanation
 As water around A is heated, it becomes less dense and rises to the surface. Cold water from
D moves in to replace the rising warm water and convection currents are formed as shown by
the arrows.

Purpose of the potassium permanganate

 The purple streaks make the convection currents visible.
Purpose of burner
 To heat up the water so as to start the convection currents

Experiment
Aim: To observe the tranfare of heat in the air by convection.

Materials: burner/candle, cardboard box, plastic paper, torch paper

Diagram

Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram and light up the candle.
2. Light the brown paper(torch paper) and bring it closer to the chimney A.
3. Observe what happens

Observations
 Before putting the smoldering paper over chimney A, smoke was moving vertically into the
air.(smoke rising into the air is evidence of heated particles moving upwards carrying heat by
convection)
 When the smoking paper was put over chimney A, the smoke moved into the box through A
and out of the box through B.

Explanation
 The candle under chimney B heats the air around it causing it to expand and become less
dense. The air rises and escapes through chimney B.
 Cooler, denser air moves in through chimney A to replace the warm air which has escaped.
This creates convection currents shown by the arrows in the diagram which are made visible
by the smoke.

Purpose of smoke
 The smoke makes the convection currents visible but the currents are there even in the
absence of the smoke.
Purpose of the candle
 It heats up the air creating the convection currents.

Practical uses of convection.

How ice blocks are used to cool a drink in a glass (convection in liquids)
 The ice blocks are less dense than the water and float at the top.
 They cool the liquid around them and it becomes denser and sinks to the bottom of the glass.
 Warm liquid rises to the top because it is less dense where it is also cooled. This process
continues until the whole liquid is cold.

How a hot water jug is used to warm up a liquid.

 The heating element is placed at the bottom of the jug.
 The heating element warms up water around it and the warm water rises to the surface
because it becomes less dense.
 Cold water sinks to the bottom because it is denser and comes into contact with the hot
element and is therefore heated.
 This process continues until all the water is heated and starts boiling

Why the freezer is placed at the top in a fridge or why an air conditioner is placed closer to
the ceiling in buildings.
  Freezer or air conditioner cools air at the top and the air sink to the bottom of the room
because it becomes denser.
 Warm air rises to the top to replace the sinking cold air because it is less dense.
 The warm air is in-turn cooled and sinks to the bottom. This process continues until all the air
in the freezer or room is cold.

The solar water heater

 It consists of a glass covered panel mounted on the roof of a house and it is designed to trap
energy from the sun and use it to warm water.
 The panel contains thin, black copper pipes mounted on a thick black copper plate.
 The pipes are thin to minimize amount of water passing through the panel so that it warms up
quickly.
 The thin pipes and plate are made of copper because copper is a good conductor of heat.
 The plate and pipes are painted black to increase absorption of heat as black is a good
absorber of heat.
 Loss of heat by conduction to the roof surface is prevented by insulating the panel with
expanded polystyrene
 The glass prevents heat loss by convection and traps heat energy inside the panel through
the green house effect.
 The solar water heater is placed on the roof to trap as much sunlight as possible.
 The best position for the panels on a building in the southern hemisphere is on a north facing
roof.

The solar Cooker

 A solar cooker is an easy and cheap way of harnessing the energy from the sun for cooking.
 It uses a curved shiny surface to capture solar energy and focus it into one position.
 The rays are focused onto a black pot or a pressure cooker.

Why is the dish shiny ?

 To reflect or change the direction of radiation energy without absorbing it..
Why is the dish curved ?
 To focus the reflected energy onto a single point, a black pot or a pressure cooker.
Why is a black pot used ?
 To ensure that most of the heat is absorbed and used for cooking purposes. Black surfaces
are good absorbers of heat.
The Vacuum Flask (Thermos flask)
 It keeps hot liquids hot and cold liquids cold
 It is very difficult for heat to travel in or out of the flask
 Tranfare of heat by conduction and convection is minimized by making the flask a double
walled glass vessel with a vacuum between the walls.
 Radiation is reduced by silvering both walls on the inside of the vacuum.
 The slight heat loss is by conduction up the walls and out through the stopper
 If a hot liquid is stored inside, the slight heat loss by radiation from the hot inside wall is
reflected back across the vacuum by the silver on the inside of the outside wall. If a cold liquid
is stored any heat from
Beams
 A beam is a bar supported in some way and is used to carry a load.
 Beams are used to build large structures and their purpose is to support a load.

Supporting beams
There are two kinds of beams depending on how the beam is supported. Beams can be supported in
the middle, at both ends or at one end.

The Simple beam

Is a beam which is supported at both ends or in the middle. Examples include a bench, bridges,
tables, see saw etc.

The Cantilever Beam

It is a beam supported at one end. e.g. shop shelving, a diving board etc.

Loading a beam
When a beam is loaded, forces will act within the beam. These internal forces are called stresses.
Stress is the force acting internally on a material. A loaded beam will bend as evidence of these
forces.
Load

Top of beam is compressed while bottom of beam is stretched. The

central layer experiences no stresses and is the neutral axis

Top of beam is stretched while bottom of beam is compressed. The central

layer experiences no forces and it is called the neutral axis.

The top part of the beam s stretched while the

bottom is compressed, The central layer will
be under no stresses and this layer is called
the neutral layer or neutral axis.

The Neutral Axis

 It is the central layer in a loaded beam that does not experience any stresses or forces.
 Since it does not experience any forces, it does not play any part in supporting the load.
 Tension and compression forces increase with distance from the neutral layer
 The material in this region is therefore removed from beams to avoid wastage of material and
this reduces the weight of the beam as well as its cost.
Advantages of removing the neutral axis
Omitting or removing this part has the following advantages;
1. It reduces the weight of the beam making it easier to work with.
2. It reduces the weight of the beam improving the weight to mass ratio and in a way makes it
support a larger load as it is not supporting an unnecessary weight of its own.
3. It reduces the cost of the beam as

Examples of beams where the neutral axis has been removed or omitted.
1. Power line pylons are made broadest at the base where stresses are greatest and become
smaller higher up.
2. Railway lines are in the form of an I instead of a rectangle or square.
3. Hollow steel tubes withstand bending and twisting and are used for many commercial
purposes e.g school furniture.
4. Many plant stems are hollow for the same reason. A maize plant has a soft pith and hard
hollow cylindrical stem.
5. Animal bones are hollow tubes to combine strength with lightness

Factors affecting the strength of a beam

 the cross section of the beam,
 the depth of the beam, and
 the material that was used to make the beam.

The cross section is the shape that is obtained if the beam is cut right across.

Types of Forces/Stresses which operate on loaded beams.

There are three types of stresses which operate on loaded beams. These are;
Compression forces
 These are crushing or squashing forces.
 They are produced by forces trying to compress the material.
 They are shown by two arrows facing each other.

Tensional forces
 These are stretching forces
 They are produced by forces trying to pull the material apart.
 Tensile forces are shown by arrows facing away from each other.

Shearing forces
 These are twisting forces.
 They are produced by equal and opposite forces not in line with each other.
 The forces tend to make one part of the material slide over one another.
 Shearing forces are shown by arrows facing each other but not in line.

Experiment
Aim:
To investigate stresses operating on foam rubber under different circumstances
Materials:
foam rubber/sponge, pen, ruler, brick, load (brick)

Method 1
1. Take the form rubber and draw vertical lines at equal intervals around it.
2. Put the form rubber on a flat surface and put a load on top of the form rubber e.g. a brick
 3. Observe what happens to the length of the lines drawn on the foam rubber

Observations and results

The lines become shorter and the volume of the form rubber decreases. This is compression.

Method 2
1. Take the form rubber and pull it apart as shown on the diagram below.
2. Observe what happens to the lines

Observations and results

1. The length of the foam rubber increases,
2. The lines are further apart and the depth of the foam rubber decreases and this is more
marked in the middle where the lines are furthest apart.

The force that is acting on the foam rubber n this case is tension

Method 3
1. Twist the form rubber as shown on the diagram below.
2. Observe what happens to the lines drawn

Observations and results

The form rubber twist or shears together with the lines.

Other examples of forces operating on loaded beams.

Method
A foam rubber with lines drawn all around the sides is supported at both ends and a load put on top
as in the diagram below.
Observations
1. It is noted that the foam rubber will bend or buckle downwards.
2. Lines at the top will come closer together showing that there is compression and,
3. lines at the bottom will move further apart showing that there is tension. The top becomes
shorter and the bottom becomes longer.

The beam will bend but this time the top becomes longer and lines are further apart while the bottom
becomes shorter and the lines are closer together. The top is under tension while the bottom is
under compression.

Types of Beams
A beam is described according the shape of its cross section. These different cross sections are
designed to with stand different types of forces. Before choosing a beam, the forces operating on it
must be understood so that it would not fail. The different sections are produced by removing the
neutral axis from the beam. The following are some of the examples of beams used;

Diagram with different beams.

The strength of beams

Four things determine the strength of a beam;
1. The depth of a beam- the strength of a beam is directly proportional to the depth of the beam.
Deep beams are stronger than shallow beams but these deep beams can twist easily.
2. The cross section of the beam- tube beams are the strongest because they are strong in all
directions and cannot shear.
3. The material used to make the beam- some materials like metals are stronger than say wood,
and
 4. How the force is being applied- some beams are weak in certain directions. Most beams are
not strong under shearing forces, they twist.

The strength of material against a particular force is measured by applying a force until it breaks.
The greater the force needed to break the material, the stronger the material to that type of force.

A material which is strong against one type of force may be weak against another.
To compare the strength of beams, they must be made from identical material of the same mass but
with different cross sections.

 Beams should be strong and light in weight. Strong beams have a high strength to mass ratio.
The removal of the neutral axis in beams increases the strength to mass ratio of the beams.
 Of all beams, the cylindrical hollow beam is the strongest. They are strong in all directions,
light in weight and are not subject to shearing.
 All other beams are weak in a certain direction and are subject to shearing.

How beams break.

A beam breaks when it is overloaded. Breaking starts at the point where the beam is most stretched.
When breaking it starts by cracking and the cracks spread to other parts of the beam.

Experiment
Aim:
Making beams of different cross sections
Materials:
4 sheets of A4 0.5mm hard card(cover of exercise book), a 30cm ruler, a sharp knife or scissors, a
sheet of card board to use as a cutting board, glue or sellotape and a rod.

Method
1. Take the first card and draw lines across its length at 10mm intervals. Cut along all the lines
so that you have strips of card all 10mm wide. Glue all the strips by putting one on top of the
other and leave to dry. You now have a solid square beam of 10mm X 10mm.
2. Take the second card and draw lines at 10mm as before. Lightly drag a sharp knife or
scissors across these lines so that it becomes easy to bend the board along these lines. Bend
the card at each line so that you create a box shape. Keep bending and fixing with glue or
sellotape until the entire card is used up. You now have a square hollow beam 10mm X
10mm.
3. Make a solid cylindrical beam by rolling a piece of card over itself. Make sure that no hollow
space is left in the middle.
4. Make a hollow cylindrical beam by rolling the card around a rod. Use glue to fix it in place. Pull
out the rod from inside the beam.

Comparing the strength of the beams made above.

Materials:
2 retort stands, ruler, 50g mass, beams of different cross sections

Method
1. Fix the beam so that it is supported at each end as in the diagram below.
2. Measure the height of the beam in the centre using a ruler.
3. Hang the 50g mass from the middle of the beam.
4. Measure the height of the beam after the weight has been hung on it
5. Calculate the depression caused by hanging the mass on each beam.
Diagram

Observations and results

Type of beam Initial height of Final height of Depression (mm)

beam (mm) beam (mm)
Square solid 250mm 210mm 40mm
Beam
Square hollow 250mm 220mm 30mm
Beam
Cylindrical solid 250mm 235mm 15mm
beam
Cylindrical hollow 250mm 240mm 10mm
beam

Conclusions
Cylindrical beams are the strongest because they have the smallest depressions. This is because
cylinders are not subject to shearing forces. The hollow cylindrical is the strongest because it is not
weighed down by its own weight. The neutral axis has been removed so t has a higher strength to
mass ratio.

NB: each of the beams in the above experiment contained the same material, i.e. one complete
sheet of card. This means the beams had the same mass per unit length. You might have noticed
that the depressions in cylindrical hollow and cylindrical solid were very small.

Experiment: Comparing the strength to mass ratio of the beams above.

Materials:
identical beams as made above, a balance, a plastic bag, sand, two bricks/2 retort stands.
Method
1. Place two brick on a flat surface support a beam between the bricks as shown on the diagram
below.
2. Secure a ruler in place as shown so that you can observe the height of the beam
3. Hang the plastic bag in the centre of the beam
4. Start pouring sand into the plastic bag until the beam has depressed by 5mm
5. Weigh the sand to find out how much was needed to bend the beam by 5mm
6. Repeat the stages above for all the other beams recording the results
7. Work out the strength to mass ratio of the beams using the formula. Strength to mass ratio =
mass of sand ÷ mass of beam
Results

Type of beam Mass of sand Mass of beam (g) Strength to mass

required to move ratio
beam thru 5mm
(g)
Square solid 200g 100g 2:1
Beam
Square hollow 215g 100g 2,15:1
Beam
Cylindrical solid 240g 100g 2,4:1
beam
Cylindrical hollow 280g 100g 2,8:1
beam

Conclusion:
The more the sand required to move the beam by 5mm, the stronger the beam and the greater the
strength to mass ratio. Cylindrical hollow beams are the strongest since they have the largest ration.

When removing the neutral axis, the goal is to improve this ratio.

Experiment
Aim:
Investigating the effect of beam depth on strength of beam.
Materials:
ruler
Method
1. Try to bend a ruler across its length. It is easy or difficult.
2. Try bending the same ruler across its edge. Is it easy or difficult?

Observations.
1. Bending it across its length is easy.
2. Bending it across its edge is more difficult

Conclusions
1. A flat wide rectangular beam with a shallow depth is weak and easily bends or breaks.
2. A deep rectangular beam is stronger.
The strength of a beam depends on its depth.
Trusses

 A truss is a structure which is made up of several beams joined together and are used to
support large structures such as roofs and bridges.
 In trusses, the beams are always arranged in triangles. Triangles give strength to a structure
because they can resist shearing forces and they distribute stresses evenly throughout the
members of the truss.

Demonstration of how trusses support a load.

 In the diagram the load is supported from falling by the tension in wire 1.
 The horizontal beam number 2 is under compression and plays no direct part in supporting
the load but keeps the truss extended. i.e it supports the truss.
 Extra pieces, beam 3 and beam 4 can be added to the truss. Beam 4 is under tension and
beam 2 is under compression and these two hold up the truss. The load is now supported by
the tension in beam 1 and the compression in beam 3.
Making a trellis
More pieces can be added to the truss to produce a trellis as in the diagram below. A trellis is used
in long crane arms, bridges, roof structures etc.

 The diagonal parallel parts 1 and 5 are under tension and 3 and 7 under compression and
these parts support the load.
 The horizontal beams support the truss and the top ones 4 and 8 are under tension while the
bottom ones 2 and 6 are under compression.
 Together these triangles resist shear and diagonals can also be added to take care of shear.
 The trellis is lighter and cheaper because unnecessary material has been removed from the
centre of the beam.

Stresses in a bridge truss

 XYZ is a truss supporting a bridge YMZ.

 Beam YMZ(the bridge) tends to bend downwards due to the weight of the lorry
 XM is pulled down as it is holding YMZ so that it does not bend so much.
 Loading the truss therefore stretches XM (tension) while XY and XZ are under compression.
XY and XZ are held in place by YMZ when loaded which means it will be under tension when the
truss is loaded.
Forces in triangles are distributed equally and cancel each other out at the vertices of the triangles in
a truss.
Forces pulling outwards in YZ are in turn pulled along YZ and ZX and this presents YZ from bending.
Stresses in roof trusses

 If a roof was directly placed on the walls of a house, it would push the walls outwards. The tie
beam AB is added to prevent this from happening.
 The weight of the roof rests on AC and BC and these are under compression.
 To prevent the roof from sagging (AC and BC bending due to the weight of the roof) struts XY
and XZ are added and are under compression.
 A king post is added to prevent the tie AB from bending downwards because of the long span
over which it crosses. This gives stability to the structure.

1. The members experiencing tension in a truss are called ties. Ties can be made from beams,
ropes or wires since all these are strong under tension.
2. Members experiencing compression are called struts. Struts can only be made from beams
since only beams are strong under compression.
3. There is no material between the strts and ties so that the strength to mass ratio is increased.
4. When making roof trusses, the struts and ties are fixed together so that they form a series of
triangles.

Experiment
Aim:
Comparing the strength to mass ratio of a beam and a truss
Method
1. Bundle 6 drinking straws together and tie them using a rubber band to make a beam.
2. Weigh the beam and record its mass.
3. Place two brick on the ground and balance the beam between them as shown on the diagram
below.

4. Take a small amount of soil, put it in a plastic bag and support it from the middle of the beam
as shown. Continue adding soil until it has bent by 5mm at the centre.
5. Weigh the soil to find out how much was needed to bend the beam by 5mm
6. Now make a simple truss by bundling three straws and tying them together. Then add one
straw at each end and tie them together at the top. Take the last straw and tie it to the top of
the triangle and onto the horizontal beam as appears in the diagram below.
 7. Balance the straw on bricks and load it with soil as before. Keep adding soil until the beam
bends by 5mm
8. Weigh the soil and record the results

Results

Mass of Mass of soil to bend Strength to mass

beam/truss beam/truss by 5mm ratio
Beam 60g 45g 0.45
Truss 60g 75g 1.25

Conclusions
The strength to mass ration = mass of soil divided by mass of beam. The truss is stronger for its
mass than the beam because it has a greater strength to mass ratio. The greater this ratio, the
stronger the structure.

Advantages of trusses over beams

1. Trusses resist shearing forces unlike beams
2. Trusses are stronger than beams since ther are deeper than beams.
3. Trusses are lighter than beams and hence they have a high strength to mass ratio.
4. Trusses use lesser materials and therefore are cheaper than solid beams.

Joining Materials
 Beams are used to make structures.
 This obviously means that beams have to be joined to make structures.

Reasons for joining materials

1. To increase length of a beam
2. To introduce a bend in a structure
3. To attach extra pieces on a structure

Properties of a good joint

1. It has to withstand high stresses
2. It allows the structure to be flexible to allow a more even distribution of load.
3. Joints must also allow for shrinkage and swelling during weather changes.

Methods of Joining materials

Pinning Methods
 Beams joined by gripping them from outside with a binding device such as a clamp, a rope or
wire, nuts and bolts, screws, nails or rivets. This is called pinning.
 The more the number of pins used on a joint, the stronger is the joint as the stress is shared
among the pins.
 The arrange of the pins on the joint is an important factor for the strength of the joint.

Surface contact methods

Beams are held together from inside by adhesive, soldering, brazing or welding.
Pinning Methods

Joining Wood
Nails
 A method used to join wooden beams.
 A hammer is used to force the nail into the wood. Nails must never be hammered close to the
edge of a beam as the wood will crack weakening the joint.
 The bottom of the nail can be bent over to prevent the joint from becoming loose.

Screwing
 These are used to join pieces of wood.
 They are tapered (top wider while bottom is narrow). This makes it easier to start driving the
screw into wood.

 Screws are also threaded. The screw metal is cut into a spiral. As the screw is forced into the
wood, the spiral cuts into the wood and helps to embed the screw into the wood. A screw
driver is used to drive a screw into wood and this has to be of the right size and type.

 For bigger screws, a small hole is made in the material and the screw enlarges this hole.

Bolting
 a bolt is threaded along its length but it is not tapered.
 It is used to join both metals and wood.
 A hole is drilled through the materials to be joined and the bolt is passed through. Its head is
larger than the hole so it does not fall through.
 A nut is fixed on the end of the bolt to fix it in place. A washer is sometimes used with the bolt
to protect the material of the beam from being damaged.
Riveting
 they are often used to join metals.
 Rivets are made of soft metals such as iron, copper or aluminium and have a head at one
end.
 The rivet is heated and while it is hot is passed into a drilled hole in the beams.
 The other end is hammered flat and when it cools it contracts and makes a tight fit to the
beams.

Surface contact methods

Soldering
 solder is an alloy of tin and lead which melts at a low temperature of about 180°C.
 Surfaces to be soldered are cleaned by rubbing them with abrasive paper or with steel wool.
 Solder is melted onto a joint and when it solidifies, seals the joint.
 It is common in sealing brass or copper joints in plumbing jobs as well as joining conductors
in electronics.

Brazing
 it uses an alloy of brass and zinc and is used to join metals (steel and iron).
 When heated, the brass- zinc alloy melts onto the pieces of iron or steel to be joined. The
brass melts at a lower temperature than iron or steel.
 When the brass is deposited on the joint, it is as nearly as strong as the iron. Brazing makes a
flexible joint.
Welding
 Two metals are joined together by being partially melted and then fused together with more
molten iron.
 The metals are heated and the heat causes the materials to melt and flow.
 Welding uses electricity and a welding machine.
 Plastic materials can be joined this way with the welding rod of the same type of plastic.

Gluing
 it is done by applying glue on one face or both faces of the two pieces of wood or plastic and
then bringing the two glued sections together.
 The glue or adhesive is a liquid which eventually hardens to secure the joint. To increase the
strength of the joint, the materials to be joined can be;
 1. Mortised
2. Doweled
3. Dovetailed

 Glue will then be applied on the parts of the materials which will be fitted and allowed to dry.

Factors affecting the strength of a joint (pinned joints)

1. Size of contact area – the larger the size of the contact area the stronger the joint
2. Number of pins – more pins will make the joint stronger than few pins
3. Position of pins – putting pins in a single straight line will make the joint weak under shearing
forces.

Large structures
 A structure is a combination of beams fixed together so that it is self supporting and is able to
support a load.

Materials used in structures

 Materials need to be tough and strong and include;
1. Timber (wood)
2. Metals and alloys
3. Concrete – reinforced or pre stressed
4. Stones
5. Timber
Timber / Wood
 Wood has a high strength to mass ratio and it is tough and flexible. The closer the grains of
the wood are, the harder (stiffer) and stronger the wood.
 Hard woods include teak, mukwa, and mahogany and these are stronger than soft woods
which include pine, gumtree, eucalyptus and wattle.
 Planks are cut longitudinally (along the length of the tree) as this makes the fibres stronger. If
cut across the grain, it would have weak points and would crack along the grains.

Uses of timber
Timber is used to make;
1. furniture
2. roof trusses
3. Floor boards
4. Doors etc

Advantages of wood
1. It is a renewable resource
2. It is light in weight and therefore easy to work with
3. It is easier to cut and join and is therefore more flexible
4. It is cheaper

Disadvantages
1. Wood is not fire proof
2. Wood can be attacked by termites and other insects.
3. Its strength can be affected when it absorbs moisture
Metals
 Steel has the following properties which makes it a very good construction material;
1. Ductile – can be drawn into wire
2. Malleable – can be hammered into various shapes
3. High tensile strength
4. High compression strength
5. Compared to wood, steel has a larger strength to mass ratio

Uses of Metals
1. Make furniture
2. Pylons which hold electrical cables
3. Window frames
4. Scare folding used for construction projects

Advantages of metals
1. Strong under both tension and compression
2. Very durable especially if protected from corrosion
3. Can be moulded into various shapes and therefore becomes more flexible.

Disadvantages
1. It is expensive
2. Very heavy and difficult to cut and is therefore difficult to work with especially where the
beams are large

Concrete
 It is made by mixing cement, small stones, sand and water. The mixture is then moulded into
required shapes using suitable moulding materials. The concrete block is allowed to set out
and dry. Concrete is strong under compression but weak under tension.

Reinforced Concrete
 Tensile strength of concrete can be improved by putting steel rods in the wet concrete block
before it dries. As the concrete hardens, it sticks to the steel rods and this gives the concrete
a combination of strength in both tension and compression.

Pre-stressed concrete
 In pre stressed concrete, the steel rods are held under tension while the wet concrete is
poured on them. The tension is relaxed when the concrete has set hard. The steel rods then
keep the concrete under compression and this cancels out any tension that the concrete may
be subjected to when used in a structure.

Uses of concrete
1. Lintels
2. Slabs
3. Pillars
4. Bridge decks

Advantages of concrete
1. It is cheaper than metal especially when constructing large structures
2. Can be moulded into very large beams on site which makes it easier to make large structures
on site
3. Strong under compression

Disadvantages
1. Weak under tension unless when reinforced with metals

Stones
 It is a very strong material but it is inflexible and heavy. Granite, Marble and sandstone are
used during construction.
  Granite is hard, durable and attractive, Marble is hard and attractive and is used for
decorative purposes.
 Sandstone is soft and easy to work with and is fairly durable. Limestone and dolomite are not
commonly used.
 All stones are slowly weathered by acid rain.

Uses of stones
1. Making concrete
2. Decorating side walks
3. Making pavements
4. Building houses
5. Construction of bridges
6. Road construction

Construction of Bridges and Dams.

Bridge construction
 A bridge is a structure which spans a river or a gauge for traffic to pass through.

Issues to be considered when building bridges

1. Division of the span into smaller sections
2. Minimising the amount of bending
3. Reducing the self load, the weight of the bridge itself.
4. Decreasing the forces (stresses) on the supports .
5. Minimising the costs
6. Reinforcing the materials

Materials used on modern bridges.

1. Stones and timber were used on old bridges
2. Steel and concrete used on modern bridges. Steel is expensive but a lesser quantity is used.
Concrete is cheaper but more material is needed to give a strong structure.

Pier Bridge
 It is the most common type of bridge in Zimbabwe
 Pre-stressed concrete is used to make the deck.
 It is cheap to construct but not suitable for fast flowing rivers as the power of the flowing water
can wash away the piers of the bridge

Arch Bridge
 The function of an arch is to support a load by converting the downward force of the load into
a sideways thrust.
 The load pushes the units down and together and this thrust runs down the ring of the arch
and is transferred to the abutments.
 An arch is entirely under compression whereas the underside of the deck is under tension. In
an arch with a suspended roadway (e.g Birchneough bridge), the deck is supported from the
arch using vertical steel ropes which are under tension.
  The thrust(forces) on the abutments is very enormous and a very reliable foundation has to be
built on solid rock

Suspension bridge

DAMS

Dam Construction
 Dams are structures built across streams so as to accumulate water for use at a later stage.
The following principles are used in dam construction.
 The dam wall is wider at the base. This is to counter the increased water pressure which
increases with depth. The wide base also increases the stability of the dam wall by lowering
its centre of gravity.

CONGRETE DAM

CONSTRUCTION;

 Concrete dam walls are arched

 The dam walls should have strong abutments
 The arch changes horizontal forces of water into lateral forces which run through the wall
 These lateral forces are changed into compressional forces by the reaction from the
abutments
  Therefore the compressional forces acting in the arced dam wall support the force from the
dammed water
 Since concrete is strong in compression, the dam wall the dam wall will be able to withstand
the force due to the dammed water
 The thickness of the dam wall increases with depth, and this increases the stability of the dam
wall since pressure of water increases with depth

Jacking a dam wall.

 This is done by using steel rods that are well anchored onto solid ground and kept under
tension as the dam is being built. They are released when the concrete has dried and set and
lock the dam wall onto the ground to prevent water pressure from toppling the dam wall.
 If the span is long, the dam wall is built in the form of an arch. The arch changes the direction
of the stresses by redirecting forces to the abutments. The arch is under compression

Earth Dams
The earth (soil and gravel) is tightly compacted using so that water cannot get through.
The semi impervious section help to protect the dam wall by making it stable.
The grass and rock make the dam more resistant to the eroding action of water which might be
caused by waves.
The base is wider so as to withstand pressure which increases with depth.
Earth dams are constructed for small bodies of water with very little depth and are usually straight.
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Machines
 A machine is any device which is used to do work. It enables us to do work easier.
Types of Machines

 There are two types of machines;

Simple machines:- ( levers e.g hammers, wheel barrows, pumps, screw drivers etc)

Complex machines :- e.g cranes, earthmovers etc. these are built from a combination of simple
machines.

Mechanical Advantage
A machine makes a big job lighter which means there is an advantage when using a machine. This
advantage is called mechanical advantage (MA)
MA is the ratio of the load lifted to the effort exerted, i.e

 The larger the Mechanical advantage, the more useful is the machine or the less the effort
required to lift the load.
 MA is a ratio and has no units of measurement.

Velocity ratio (VR)

 It is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load. It is
calculated using one of the following formulae.

It is a measure of how useful a machine is. The smaller the VR the more useful a machine is.
Work Done
Two kinds of work can be identified when it comes to machines. There is work done by the machine
and work done by the effort. Work is calculated using the formula below;

The two kinds of work can therefore be calculated as;

Efficiency (E)
It is a measure of how well a machine works. If a machine is perfect, it is 100% efficient as work
input (work done by effort) equals work output work done. In reality, no machine is 100% efficient
because some energy is lost due to friction and it is lost in the form of heat. It is therefore necessary
to reduce friction as much as is possible.

Reducing friction
Friction is reduced by;
1. lubrication using grease or oil
2. putting rollers
3. putting bearings

Efficiency is calculated using one of the following formulae;

Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage.

Question
A crow bar 1.5m long is used to lift a 100kg rock out of a hole 25cmm deep. If the crowbar pivot is
50cm from one end;
1. What is the force that must be used to just lift the rock
2. What is the MA of the crowbar
3. What is the VR of the crowbar if the effort moves 75cmm downwards
4. What is the work done (this refers to work done by machine by moving stone) and
5. What is the efficiency of the machine.

Solutions
100kg (load) X 50cm(distance of load from pivot) = Effort X 100cm (distance of effort from pivot)
5000 = 100E
E = 5000/100
E = 50Kg
E = 50 X 10
E = 500N

Other machines
1. An Inclined Plane
 It is a sloping plane and is a simple machine because it reduces the amount of force required
to lift a load but the load has to move through a greater distance.
 The smaller the angle of the inclined plane, the smaller the force used to lift the load but the
further the load must move.
 In an inclined plane;
Levers
These are simple machines which move a load through a pivot. There are three types of levers:-
1. Those with the load in the middle i.e. effort, load, pivot or pivot, load, effort. Examples include
the wheel barrow

2. Those with the effort in the middle i.e. pivot, effort, load or load, effort, pivot. Examples include
the fishing line, hammer

3. Those with the pivot in the middle i.e. effort, pivot, load or load, pivot, effort. Examples include
see saw, pliers, scissors, borehole etc
Pulley
 Are grooved wheels mounted on a block and a rope passes through the groove and is used
for changing the direction and size of an effort required. There are three types of pulleys;

 Single fixed pulley

 It is used to change the direction of the effort

 Has a VR and MA which is equal to 1
 The effort is slightly bigger than the load because there is always some friction to be
overcome.
 It is more efficient than a single movable pulley

Single movable pulley

It has a pulley on which the load is attached and the pulley can be moved.
The rope on both sides of the pulley produces an upward force.
The VR = 2 because the rope has to move twice the distance moved by the load as the pulley
moves.

Block and tackle

 It consists of two blocks each with one or more pulleys mounted on the same axle
 One block is fixed and the other is movable
 Each fixed pulley simply changes the direction in which effort is applied and the movable
block increases the MA of the system.
  The more the pulleys, the easier it is to lift a load.
 Moving parts of the pulley system must constantly be lubricated to reduce friction.

Gears
 Gears are simple machines
 The gear system will consists of cog wheels mounted on an axle/shaft
Effort is applied on one gear which in turn drives the wheel carrying the load.
When the gear lever of a car is changed, the rate at which the engine turns the drive shaft is
changed
Low Gear
The effort wheel is smaller than the load gear wheel and the effort gear has to be turned several
times for the load gear to turn once
The velocity ratio will be high
This gear is used when the load is very heavy e.g. when the car is started from stand still or when
going uphill.
High gear/top gear
The wheels are the same size and it only takes one turn of the effort wheel to turn the load wheel.
This gear is used when the load is lighter e.g. when the car is already moving and needs to go a bit
faster.
Wheel and axle
Used in wells to lift water out.
The circumference of the wheel is much greater than that of the axle and a small effort on the wheel
turns the axle several times and the axle can carry a large effort.

Pressure
Pressure In solids
Pressure is force acting on an area. The unit of pressure is N/m² or Pascals (Pa)

Pressure In liquids
Gravity pulls a liquid down into its container and the liquid exerts pressure on the container. The
following points should be noted:-
Pressure of a liquid at a certain depth acts equally in all directions. This can be shown by punching
holes in a tin at the same depth and then filling the tin with water.
Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because of the weight of the liquid above. This can be
shown by punching holes on a tin at different depths and filling with water

TO SHOW THAT PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS INCREASES WITH DEPTH

A manometer

It is an instrument used to measure pressure in fluids.

It is a U tube half filed with a liquid such as mercury or water.
When both arms are open to atmospheric pressure, the level of the liquid in both arms are the same.
If one arm is connected to a gas supply, the levels move. The liquid in the arm connected to the gas
is forced downwards by the gas pressure.
The pressure of the gas is then balanced by atmospheric pressure plus the column of liquid of height
h.

Pumps
A pump is a device used for lifting water and gases using atmospheric pressure.
Types of pumps

Lift pump
Consists of a piston which moves up and down through a cylinder.
The pump has two leather or rubber flaps which act as valves
One is attached to the piston and the other one is on the cylinder as on the diagram below

Strokes/stages

 Up stroke 1/stroke 1:Valve 2 is closed and pressure below this valve is reduced to below
atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure pushes on the surface of the water in the well.
This opens valve 1 and water enters the cylinder section below valve 2

 Stroke 2/Down stroke: the downward movement of the piston closes valve 1 and the pressure
of the water opens valve 2. Water transfares to the cylinder section above valve 2

 Stroke 3/up stroke : everything that happened in stroke 1 is happening again with one extra
thing. As the piston is going up, water above valve 2 is lifted to the sprout where it gushes out
of the pump hence the name lift pump.

Drawbacks of the lift pump

It can only lift water through less than 9m

It only delivers water on the upstroke
A lift pump has to be primed before use. i.e. water has to be put in the pump first before it can work.

A force pump
Consists of a piston moving up and down through a cylinder.
The piston has no valve but both valves are on the cylinder as shown on the diagram.

 Upstroke as the piston moves up, valve Y is closed by the backward movement of water
from the reservoir and atmospheric pressure forces water up through valve X into the cylinder
section above valveX.

 Down stroke as the piston moves down, valve X is closed by the pressure of the water and
water is forced through valve Y into the reservoir and out through the sprout.

 Water flows continuously because of the pressure of the air trapped in the reservoir

The Blair Pump

It gives a steady supply of water for small communities

It can lift water to a height of about 10m
Pump handle is connected to a piston which moves in a cylinder that is fixed below the water level in
a well
Valves are present, one at the bottom of the cylinder and another one on the piston. These valves
only open upwards.
  Down stroke
The valve on the piston opens due to an increase in pressure in the space between the piston valve
and the cylinder valve, which is closed. Water transfares to the space above valve 1.
 Upstroke
The piston valve closes trapping water in the pump raising main cylinder.
Pressure inside the space between the pistion valve and the cylinder valve falls forcing more water
into the space.
Up stroke
The piston is pushed down again and the piston valve opens allowing more water into the pump
raising main. After a few strokes, each downward stroke will cause water to come out of the handle.

 Advantages of the blair pump

It is simple to construct
It is cheap to maintain

 Disadvantages

It can only deliver water on the down stroke.

The Bicycle pum

Is made up of a piston moving within a cylinder.

The cylinder has a hole at one end and the piston has a leather washer which acts as a valve.
When the piston is pulled out, pressure inside the cylinder is reduced and the tyre valve closes.
Atmospheric pressure forces air in around the edges of the washer into the cylinder.
When the piston is pushed inwards, the air in the cylinder is compressed.
The leather washer gives an airtight fit against the wallof the cylinder and the air is pushed into the
tyre through the tyre valve
As air is added to the tyre, it becomes increasingly difficult to pump in more air due to the increase in
pressure in the tyres.

The siphon
It is a way of emptying a liquid from a container which has no outlet. Fo the siphon to work;

THE SIPHON

The container must be full

The end C must be lower than A
The tube is first filled with water
When end C is opened, water flows out of the tube and this reduces pressure inside the tube.
Atmospheric pressure on the surface of the water in the container forces more water into the tube.
The water will continue to flow down the tube due to its weight until the container is empty
Hydraulic systems

These make use of three properties of liquids;

Liquids can pass pressure applied to them in all directions
Liquids cannot be compressed
Liquids can flow

Motor car breaking system

Pressure on the brake pedal causes the piston in the master cylinder to compress the brake fluid.
This pressure is passed on equally to the larger piston in the wheel cylinders.
This pressure forces the brake pads against the wheels
Force of friction stops the car
The brake pedal is the lever.
Brake fluid is used because it is non corrosive

THE BRAKING SYSTEM

Applications of hydraulic systems

Front end loaders
Motorised trench diggers
Automatic tipper trucks
Forces and Pressure
Pressure is force exerted per unit area
Pressure In solids
Think about these two situations:
 Pushing a drawing pin into a wall pointy end towards the wall.
 Pushing a drawing pin into a wall pointy end towards your thumb.

These are two similar activities with two very different results. The reason for this is the difference in
pressure. Assuming the same force is applied, each case would have a different pressure acting on the
thumb. In the first diagram the thumb pushes on a large area so the force is spread out and the pressure
is low. In the second diagram the force is concentrated on a small area so the pressure is much higher.
If a force is applied over a smaller surface area you get a larger pressure.

Pressure can be calculated using the following equation:

 Force will be in newtons, N.

 Area will be in either m2 or cm2.

If the area is in m2 then the pressure will be measured in Pascals or N/m2. If the area is in cm2 then the
pressure will be in N/cm2.
Example 1:
A lump of cheese of weight 20N stands on a table. It is a cubic lump with an area of 10cm2.
What pressure does it exert on the table?
Answer:
Nutrition
DIET

A balanced diet

o It is a meal that contains all the nutrients required by the body in their correct proportions.
o The components of a balanced diet include proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, fats, mineral
salts, water and roughage.
Carbohydrates
o They are energy giving foods which are broken down in the body to release energy
o The major classes of carbohydrates are glucose, sugars, starch and cellulose
o Foods rich in carbohydrates include cereals, potatoes, sadza, rice, honey etc

Proteins
o These are body building foods which are required for growth and repair of cells in the body.
o They are also used in the formation of specialised proteins such as hormones in the body.
o Foods rich in proteins include fish, eggs, meat, beans, insects and milk.

Fats and oils (lipids)

o These are energy giving foods which are more difficult to break down in the body and are
used by the body to release energy if there is a shortage of carbohydrates.
o They are used to store energy in the body.
o Foods rich in fats are margarine, butter, nuts, meat, soya beans and milk.

Vitamins
o These are protective foods which protect the body from contracting diseases.
o Vitamin A protects fro respiratory diseases, poor eye sight and blindness.
o Foods rich in vitamins include fruits and vegetables.

Mineral Salts
o These are needed in small quantities for any different metabolic functions.
o Calcium is needed for teeth and bone development.
o Phosphorous is needed for teeth and bone development and used n the formation of DNA.
o Iron is needed for the formation of red blood cells. A shortage of iron causes a disease called
anaemia.
o Iodine is important for the normal function of the thyroid gland. Lack of iodine causes mental
and physical retardation in children and goitre in adults.

Roughage and water

o That part of food which cannot be digested and helps in the movement of food in the digestive
system.
o Water is required for all chemical reactions to occur in the body. It is also used to dissolve
mineral salts and vitamins for the to be absorbed into the blood stream.
o Foods rich in roughage include vegetables, fruits and green mealies.

Malnutrition
o It means too much or a shortage of the necessary nutrients in a diet which affects the body.
o It results in undernourishment or over nourishment. Over nourishment is common in
developed countries while under nourishment is common in developing countries.
Food Deficiency Diseases.

Marasmus
o Also called Dry malnutrition and is caused by not eating enough food and the body is being
starved.
o The body is small, very thin and looks wasted.
o To cure the disease, more food should be given to the child.

Kwashiorkor
o It is caused by not eating enough proteins in the diet
Symptoms
1. A swollen abdomen, feet and face
2. Reddish hair
3. Sores on the skin and a peeling skin
4. Stunted or poor growth in children.

Effects of Kwashiorkor
1. Poor or stunted growth
2. Slowerbain development
3. Prolonged shortage of protein affects the liver

Goitre
Caused by the shortage of iodine in the diet

Symptoms and effects

1. An enlarged thyroid gland in adults and
2. Student growth in children

Sources of iodine
o Iodine is found in iodised salt, in cheese and in sea weed.

Night blindness
o Caused by the shortage of Vitamin A
o Vitamin A is required for the proper development of eye and respiratory tissues.

Symptoms
o Poor sight especially at night
o Respiratory infections due to poorly developed respiratory tissues.

Sources of Vitamin A
o Vitamins are found in vegetables and fruits.

NB: The deficiency of Vitamin C causes bleeding under the skin and slow healing to wounds

Rickets
1. It is caused by a shortage of Vitamin D
2. Vitamin D is required for the normal development of bones.

Symptoms
o Legs bend due to soft bones which are then weighed down by the body.

Anaemia
o This disease is caused by the shortage of iron in the diet.
o Iron is used in the body in the formation of red blood cells.
Food Tests
How to prepare food before tests
 The starch test can be done on solid food
 The other food tests require a solution which is made as follows
o Crush the food and mix it with water.
o Stir well and filter to remove the solids from the food solution.
o Use the solution during food tests.

Testing for starch

o Iodine solution is used to test for starch.
o Iodine solution is brown in colour and is added to the food to be tested.
o If the food being tested contains starch, the iodine changes colour from brown to blue black.
This is a positive test.
o If the food has no starch, the iodine remains brown. This is a negative test.

Testing for glucose/reducing sugars or simple sugars

o Glucose can be tested by using either benedict’s solution or a clinistix

Testing for glucose using a clinistix

o A clinistix is a strip of paper that is pink in colour.
o It is dipped into the food solution and if glucose is present, the clinistix will change colour from
pink to purple. The purple colour shows a positive test for glucose.
o If glucose is not present, the clinistix remains pink. This is a negative test to glucose.

Testing for glucose using Benedict’s solution

o It is blue solution that is used to test the presence of glucose.
o A few drops of Benedict’s solution are added to the food solution and the mixture is heated
gently over a water bath.
o If the food contains glucose, the solution will change colour from blue to brick red. Brick red
shows a positive test for glucose.
o If there is no glucose in the food, the solution will remain blue in colour.

Testing for Proteins

o Proteins can be tested using either an albustix or using the Biuret test.

Test for proteins using an albustix

o An albustix is a strip of paper which is yellow in colour.
o A solution of the food to be tested is prepared and an albustix is dipped into the food solution.
o If the food contains proteins, the albutix will change colour from yellow to green. Green shows
a positive colour for proteins.
o If the albustix remains yellow, then there is no protein in the food.

Testing for Protein using the Biuret’s Test

o A solution of the food to be tested is prepared
o A small amount of sodium hydroxide solution is added to the food followed by a few drops of
copper sulphate solution.
o If the food contains proteins, a purple colour is formed. This is the positive test for protein.
o If the food does not contain protein, the solution remains blue. Blue shows a negative test.

Testing for fats

o Fats can be tested using either the spot test or the emulsion test.

Using the spot test to test fats

o The food to be tested is rubbed onto a white clean paper and the paper is allowed to dry.
o If fats are present, a translucent spot remains on the paper after drying. The spot will allow
more light to pass through it than any other part of the paper.
o If there are no fats in the food, the paper dries to its original colour.

Using the emulsion test to test for fats

 o A solution of the food to be tested is prepared and an equal volume of ethanol is added to the
food solution.
o The mixture is allowed to settle and an equal volume of water is added. On adding water, the
mixture turns milky if fats are present. The milky colour shows a positive test for fats.
o If there are no fats, then the solution remains clear.

Special Dietary Requirements

o All people need a balanced diet but different people require different balances of food
nutrients
o The nutritional balances depend on the age, sex and the amount of physical activities done by
the different people.
o People in different stages of life like childhood, adulthood, pregnancy and old age will have
different nutritional requirements
Pregnant women

o They need a balanced diet with extra proteins, iron and calcium
o The extra proteins are for building new cells for the foetus
o Iron is for building or forming red blood cells for the foetus.
o Calcium is required for the formation of bones and teeth in the baby.
Nursing Mothers

o Nursing mothers need a diet that is the same as that of pregnant mothers as extra nutrients
are required for the production of breast milk for the baby to get a balanced diet.
Manual worker

o Requires a balanced diet with extra carbohydrates for energy during the hard physical work.
o Extra proteins are required for body building as the body adapts to the hard manual work.
Growing Children

o They need a balanced diet with extra protein for the building of new tissues during growth.
Breast Feeding

o Breast milk is the best food for a baby for the following reasons;
Advantages of breast feeding

1. Breast milk contains balanced nutrients for the baby.

2. The milk contains antibodies which help to protect the baby against diseases. (breast milk
gives the baby natural passive immunity against diseases)
3. Breast feeding creates a close bond between the mother and the child.
4. The mother’s milk is clean and hygienic (it is free from pathogens)
5. The milk is always at the correct temperature required by the baby.
6. It is cheap and is always available.
7. Breast feeding increases child spacing by mothers and is good for family planning.
Methods of Preserving Food

Micro organisms such as bacteria and Fungi and enzymes found in the food itself causes food to
decay. The following are some of the methods which are used to preserve food;

1. Drying – removes water from the food which stops any enzymes and micro organisms from
working as no chemical reaction can occur in the absence of water. Used for meat, maize and
some vegetables
2. Salting – a lot of salt is applied to the food and salt kills micro-organisms by removing water
from the bacteria. Water is removed by osmosis. The method is used for meat and fish.
3. Sugaring – a lot of sugar is added to the food in the form of a syrup. The sugar kills the
bacteria by removing water from them through osmosis.
 4. Smoking – food is exposed to smoke. Smoke contains harmful chemicals which kill any micro
organisms. Foods preserved include meat, seed maize, onions etc.
5. Canning – the food is paced in cans and heated to about 100°C and the cans are sealed
while hot. The heating kills all the bacteria and sealing while hot prevents entry of new micro
organisms.
6. Pickling – food is soaked in vinegar. The acetic acid in vinegar lowers the pH of the food
which stops the action of bacteria and enzymes because they can not operate in acidic
conditions.
7. Refrigeration/Freezing – the temperature of the food s lowered to below 4°C. This slows down
the action of micro organisms.
Substance use and abuse

The health of individuals is sometimes affected by abuse of certain substances. Substances abused
include the following;

a. Tobacco
o Tobacco smoke is a mixture of gases and vapours some of which are toxic and
dangerous.
o Some gases condense in the respiratory system to form tar which increases the
chances of lung cancer. Smoking is the number one cause of lung cancer.
o The tar also sticks to hairs in the respiratory system which causes a constant cough as
the system tries to remove the tar.
o The tar and other chemicals in the smoke irritate the walls of the system causing
bronchitis.
o Tobacco smoke damages air sacs and causes accumulation of liquids in the lungs a
disease called emphysema.
o Smoking causes low birth weight for pregnant mothers
o Cigarette smoke also contains carbon monoxide which is a poisonous gas that causes
suffocation
o Nicotine in tobacco smoke is addictive and causes smokers to increase their smoking.
Diseases caused by Smoking

a. Lung cancer – starts with a cough and chest pains. This is followed by spitting mucus and
blood. Smoking also causes cancer of the mouth, the tongue, the larynx and the bladder.
b. Bronchitis – a bacterial disease which occurs in heavy smokers and causes a noisy cough.
Usually occurs in older people and can be treated using antibiotics.
c. Emphysema – Accumulation of fluids in the lungs due to damage of the respiratory walls and
causes short breath and wheezing when breathing. It is associated with chronic bronchitis.
d. Stroke – smoking damages blood vessels supplying the brain with blood which increases the
chances of a stroke.
e. Heart Attack – smoking damages coronary arteries which supply the heart with oxygen which
increases the chances of a heart attack.
f. Stomach ulcers – it is also believed that smoking cases stomach ulcers.
Passive Smoking – occurs when non smokers inhale smoke produced by smokers especially in
closed areas such as cars, busses, offices etc. Long term effects of passive smoking are just the
same as for smokers.

Alcohol

o Little amounts of alcohol are believed to make people feel relaxed and jovial and this reduces
anxiety
o It also cases loss of muscle control and reduces reaction time which increases accidents
when driving or working with machines.
 o Our bodies also treat alcohol as a poison which is broken down in the liver. Excessive intake
causes damage o the tissues of the liver, a disease called liver cirrhosis
o Alcohol causes loss of self control causing immoral behaviour and antisocial behaviour.
o Family is neglected financially, emotionally and socially.
o If addicted, withdrawal can cause irritation, anger and desperation.
Mandrax and Cannabis

o These drugs are processed from a plant called cannabis sativa which is found in most parts of
the world.
o If the plant is smoked raw, the drug is called marijuana or mbanje. If processed into a white
powder, the drug is called mandrax.
o The drug causes an exaggerated feeling of well being and a relaxed uncaring attitude.
o These drugs case
 Alters personality permanently
 Causes memory lapses, disturbed thoughts and hallucinations
Solvents

o Some people sniff organic solvents such as ethanol or glue because they make people feel
relaxed
o These have the following harmful effects;
 Reduced self control
 Hallucinations
 Damage to the respiratory system and to the liver
The Body’s Defence Mechanisms

1. The Skin
o It is a physical barrier against all pathogens (disease causing organisms) such as
bacteria.
o If the skin gets damaged, pathogens can enter and cause an infection.
o The skin must be protected from injury and wounds must be treated quickly.
2. Tears
o Tears have a mild antiseptic which kills pathogens in the eyes to avoid infection.
o They also clean the eyes by washing out any dirt.
3. Wax and Hairs
o Found in the ears and are needed to trap dust and micro organisms. The dirty wax
needs to be removed occasionally.

4. Mucus and hairs

o Are found in the respiratory system to trap dust and micro organisms. Mucus found in
the genitals and rectum is acidic and helps to destroy bacteria.
5. Stomach acids
o The stomach produces hydrochloric acid and it is needed to kill bacteria ingested
together with food.
6. Blood Clotting
o Caused by blood platelets and prevents excessive blood loss and stops entry of
pathogens into the blood stream.
7. Saliva
o It is an alkaline and reduces dental decay by neutralising acids produced by bacteria in
the mouth.
8. White blood cells
o Are of two types. Phagocytes hunt and kill bacteria while lymphocytes produce
antibodies that destroy bacteria.
Immunity
 o Is the protection of the body against diseases or toxins by the action of specific antibodies.
Antibodies

o These are chemicals produced by white blood cells and their purpose is to destroy any
invading pathogens or neutralise their toxins
Antigens

o These are pathogens or toxins which stimulate the body to start producing antibodies to
defend itself.
Types of Immunity

o Immunity can be passive or active.

o Active immunity occurs where the body is stimulated to produce antibodies.
o Passive immunity occurs when readymade antibodies are introduced into the body. The body
is not making its own antibodies.
o There are four types of immunity as follows;

1. Natural active Immunity

 A natural infection stimulates the body to produce antibodies leading to recovery.
 This information is stored in the brain and if a similar infection occurs, the same
antibodies are produced to defend the body.
2. Artificial active Immunity
 Weakened antigens are introduced into the body through a vaccine.
 The body is stimulated to produce antibodies against these antigens.
 The information is stored in the brain and is
 used when an actual infection occurs.
3. Natural Passive Immunity
 Readymade antibodies are naturally introduced into the body. This occurs when a
foetus receives antibodies from the mother through the placenta or when a baby
receives antibodies during breast feeding.
4. Artificial Passive Immunity
 Readymade antibodies are introduced into the body by an injection. This is used where
doctors feel there is no adequate time for the body to be stimulated to produce its own
antibodies.
Immunity for babies

o Before birth and when they are breastfeeding, babies receive antibodies naturally from their
mother and therefore have natural passive immunity.
o When vaccinated against diseases, they are injected with antigens which stimulate their
bodies to produce antibodies. This is artificial active immunity.
o Eventually they may be infected with actual diseases naturally and their bodies develop
natural active immunity.
Child Immunisation and the Six Killer Diseases

Age Immunisation
At Birth BCG (Protects against TB
3 Months DPT 1 (Polio, Diptheria, Whooping Cough & Tetanus)
4 Months DPT 2 (P Polio, Diptheria, Whooping Cough & Tetanus)
5 Months DPT 3 (Polio, Diptheria, Whooping Cough & Tetanus)
9 Months Measles
18 Months DPT 4 (Polio, Diptheria, Whooping Cough & Tetanus)
5 Years BCG & DPT (TB & Polio, Diptheria, Whooping Cough &
Tetanus)
  The Immunisation schedule is meant to protect children from the six killer diseases.
 The BCG vaccination protects children against TB
 The DPT vaccination protects children against diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus.

Tuberculosis (TB)
 It is caused by a bacterium which is spread through the air.

Symptoms
 Chronic cough, fever, sweating, pain in the chest, loss of weight and weakness.
 TB can be cured if treated in time.

Diptheria
 Is caused by a bacteria which is spread by direct contact or through the air.

Symptoms
 A sore throat, fever and a cough with discharge and blood.
Whooping Cough
 Is caused by a bacteria which is spread by droplet infection.

Symptoms
 A characteristic whooping cough and vomiting which leads to dehydration and death.

Tetanus
 Is caused by bacteria and usually infects wounds. The tetanus bacteria live in the dirt around
us and is mostly associated with rust.

Symptoms
 Muscle rigidity and spasms evident with failure to open your mouth, a condition known as
locked jaws.
 It is caused by a virus which affects young children and is spread through the air.
 It is also spread through poor hygiene practices.

Measles
 It is caused by a virus and spreads through droplet infection.
 It is very dangeros especially to small children.

Symptoms
 Fever
 A runny nose and a cough
 Red and sore eyes
 After a few days a rush appears first on the forehead and neck and then spreads.

Pathogens
 Pathogens are disease causing micro organisms.
 They include virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa.
 Pathogens pass from one individual to the next in various ways including the following;

Disease transmission methods

Method of Transmission Example of Disease

1 Physical Contact Chicken pox, measles
2 Droplet infection (through breath or coughing) TB, Measles, Flu,
Pneumonia and mumps
3 Vectors e.g. mosquitoes and tsetse fly Malaria and sleeping
sickness
4 Contaminated water and food Bilharzia, cholera,
desentry, typhoid etc
Diarrhoea
 It is a symptom of a disease and occurs when a person passes frequent watery stools.
 The person becomes dehydrated especially if they are vomiting as well.
 The lost liquids need to be replaced by taking oral rehydration solution (ORS)

How to prepare an ORS Solution

 An ORS solution is made by mixing the following
o 1 litre of clean boiled water
o ½ level teaspoon of table salt
o 6 level teaspoon of sugar

Dysentery
 It is an infectious disease of the colon

Symptoms
 Diarrhoea that comes and goes alternating with constipation.
 Cramps in the belly
 A need to have frequent bowel emptying even when little or nothing comes out.
 In severe cases stools will have mucus and blood
 Person becomes very weak but there is no fever.

Treatment of dysentery
 Can be treated using antibiotics e.g. tetracycline

Prevention
 Basic hygiene before and during preparation and consumption.
 Making use of toilets
 Protecting sources of drinking water
 Eating warm food and if food is taken raw, ensure that it is thoroughly cleaned.

Typhoid
 It is an infection of the intestines caused by a bacteria. The bacteria causes ulcers in the
intestines leading to severe bleeding.
 It is spread through contaminated water.

Symptoms of Typhoid
 It starts with a fever
 Headache and sore throat and often a dry cough.
 Fever rises every day until temperature reaches 40°C
 The skin feels hot and dry
 Usually there is vomiting, diarrhoea (green stools)or constipation
 Death may result as a result of damage to the intestines because of the ulcers.

Treatment
 Seek medical help
 Lower the fever with cool wet clothes
 Give plenty of fluids such as soups, juices and ORS to avoid dehydration from diarrhoea.

Prevention
 Basic hygiene before and during preparation and consumption of food.
 Making use of toilets
 Protecting sources of drinking water
 Eating warm food and if food is taken raw, ensure that it is thoroughly cleaned.

Cholera
 Is caused by a bacteria called vibrio cholera and is spread by drinking contaminated water or
eating contaminated food. The bacteria is also easily spread by flies.
 When the bacteria get to the intestines, they multiply and in the process produce toxins which
cause diarrhoea and vomiting.
Symptoms
 Cholera begins with severe diarrhoea and vomiting along with abdominal pains
 The patient passes watery stools with a ‘rice water’ appearance.

Treatment
 People should seek immediate medical help if they suspect they have cholera.
 ORS should be used in severe cases of diarrhoea until medical help is obtained.
 Disease can be treated using antibiotics.

Prevention
 Basic hygiene before and during preparation and consumption like washing hands.
 Making use of toilets and proper toilet habits like washing hands after use
 Protecting sources of drinking water and treating water that may not be clean.
 Eating warm food and if food is taken raw, ensure that it is thoroughly cleaned.
 Isolation of infected persons as the bacteria can easily be spread by flies.
 A vaccine can be given against cholera

Malaria
 It is caused by a parasite called plasmodium which is transmitted by the female anopheles
mosquito.
 The mosquito is the vector

Life cycle of the Plasmodium parasite.

In the human body

 Parasite enters the human body while the mosquito is feeding. A mosquito first injects saliva
into the blood to stop blood clotting and in the process injects the plasmodium parasite.
 It then goes to the liver the parasites will multiply. It is releases into the blood stream about
ten days from day of infection.
 In the blood, the parasite enter red bllod cells where they multiply. The red blood cells
rapture/burst every few days releasing the parasites and their toxins into the blood. The toxins
cause fever and shivering in the infected person.
 The parasites in the blood seek and infect new red blood cells
 If a mosquito bites an infected person, the parasite will get into the mosquito.
In the mosquito
 The parasite gets into the mosquito during feeding and goes to the stomach where they
multiply.
 The parasite they moves to the salivary glands of the mosquito from where they will be
injected into humans as the mosquito bites another person.

Symptoms of Malaria
 Severe headache
 Loss of appetite
 Alternate feeling of fever and weakness
 Painfull joints

 The eggs, larva and pupa are found in water.

Methods of controlling Malaria

1. Prevent the breeding of mosquitoes by removing the conditionsfavourabe for breeding. This
includes;
a. Bury all empty containers to avoid accumulation of water.
b. Put oil on stagnant water to stop respiration of larva and pupa
2. Killing adult mosquitoes by spraying residual pesticides which continue working over time
3. Preventing mosquito bites using one of the following methods;
a. Use of mosquito nets
b. Put wire mash on windows to minimise entry of mosquitoes.
c. Use mosquito repellent jelly
d. Wearing long sleeved clothes
4. Use of malaria vaccines especially before visiting malaria prone areas
5. Use anti malarial drugs to kill the plasmodium parasite e.g. chloroquine, primaquine and
fancida.

Reproduction in Humans
Sexual reproduction in humans
Testes: have many coiled tubes which produce sperm, and the cells between tubes produce
testosterone, a male hormone.
Scrotum: holds testicles outside the body and keeps them a few degrees below body temperature
which allows maximum sperm production. Epididymis: a coiled tube which is
used to store sperms that have been produced by the testis. If sperms are not released, they are
recycled inside the body.
Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra.
 Prostate gland and seminal vessicles: makes
seminal fluid which activates, nourishes and
lubricates the now active sperms. The fluid
containing sperms is called semen. Urethra:
carries semen from sperm duct to tip of penis
Penis: the male sex organ, used to transfer semen to
the female. In most mammals, it is also used to expel
urine from the body.

Ovary: contains follicles which develop into the ova

(eggs) and also produces progesterone and oestrogen
(female hormones).

The Funnel of Oviduct: this receives the egg and directs it

into the oviduct
Oviduct: also called fallopian tube and carries the ovum to
the uterus. Fertilisation also occurs in the first 1/3 of the
tube.
Uterus: also called the womb, it is where the foetus
develops into a baby during pregnancy.
Cervix: closes the base of the uterus but can expand to
allow the baby to come out. Vagina: also called the birth
canal, receives the penis during intercourse, and is the way
out for the baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle about 8cm long, it is very flexible and secretes slippery
mucus when aroused to reduce friction.

Menstrual cycle:
 The reproductive cycle in females is called the menstrual cycle and has an average length of
28 days (though it varies with individuals).
 The cycle is regulated by hormones which are produced by the ovaries.
Day 1~5:
The Pituitary Gland produces a hormone to stimulate the maturation of ONE follicle in the ovary. At
birth each female ovary already contains eggs which mature one at a time during her lifetime.

Day 5~12:
 Follicle keeps maturing
 Oestrogen is produced by follicle and the ovarian tissues to prepare the uterus lining. The
uterus lining develops more blood vessels and becomes thicker in preparation for receiving a
fertilised egg.

Day 13/14/15:
Ovary: The Pituitary Gland produces a hormone which triggers the release of the egg from follicle
into the fallopian tube.

Day 15~28:
The follicle hardens and starts producing progesterone which keeps the uterus lining thick for
possible embryo implantation.

Day 28; Scenario 1: Egg is not fertilized:

If no implantation takes place, the hardened follicle degenerates, causing a fall in the levels of
progesterone. The lining of the uterus can not be maintained in the absence of progesterone and
therefore it collapses.
Menstruation is the removal of the unfertilised egg and uterus lining from the body and last for 3 – 5
days.
At this point we go back to day 1, the process starts all over again. Day 28;
Scenario 2: Egg is fertilized:
If egg is fertilised then implantation occurs. The hardened follicle remains intact and continues

producing progesterone. This keeps the uterus lining thick for pregnancy.

Sexual intercourse: sperms are released into the vagina and they swim through the cervix and
oviducts to the first third of the oviduct (1st third from the ovary) where one combines with the egg.

Fertilisation: the joining together (fusion) of an ovum and a sperm (gametes) to form a zygote.

Development of zygote:
1) One sperm penetrates the ovum.
2) The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against sperms.
3) Head of sperm (male nucleus) approaches and then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.
4) Zygote divides over and over, to make a ball of cells called an embryo (6 days after fertilisation).
5) The Zygote implants itself in the wall of the nucleus (implantation) which is followed by
conception (development into an individual)

Development of foetus
Zygote is changed through growth (increase in number of cells) and development (organisation of
cells into organs)

Umbilical cord: contains umbilical artery which carries deoxygenated blood and waste products e.g.
urea from the foetus to placenta and umbilical vein which carries oxygenated blood and soluble food
such as iron, glucose and amino acids from placenta to foetus. It contains the blood of the foetus

Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such as foods, wastes and oxygen between
mother and foetus, it is the physical attachment between the uterus and the foetus. It has the
mother’s blood in it. (*It also serves as a form of protection for the foetus from mother’s immune
system and blood pressure difference, and it secretes hormones to maintain the uterus during
pregnancy.

Amniotic sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid. The sac is broken at birth.
Amniotic fluid: a fluid which protects the foetus against mechanical shock, drying out and
temperature fluctuations.
Antenatal (same as prenatal: before birth) care:
a) A change in diet:
1. more proteins → growth of foetus
2. slightly more fat → for the production of new cell membranes
3. more vitamin C and D → for proper development of blood vessel walls and bones
4. iron → for the production of haemoglobin
5. calcium → for the growth of bones and teeth

b) Guidance on motherhood
checks on foetus and mother including: weight check, blood tests, urine tests, vaginal examination,
blood pressure checks, hormone checks, checks on foetus size and position, heartbeat and
ultrasound scanning

Labour and birth:

1) Labour
The uterine muscular wall contract and cervix tries to relax, then contractions get more frequent.
Contractions cause amniotic membrane to break and release amniotic fluid.
2) Expulsion
Powerful Contraction pushes baby out.
3) Afterbirth
The Placenta is expulsed out. All contraction & pain are gone

Gamete: Size Mobility Numbers

Sperm smaller very mobile (uses its tale) many more (they can be
made) 300 000 000 in one
ejaculation!!!!
Egg/Ovum larger not mobile (moved by cilia and far fewer and limited
peristalsis in oviduct) number

Methods of birth control

Natural Methods
1. Abstinence: don’t have sex at all
2. Rhythm method: It involves avoiding sex during the fertile period and having it only during
the safe period (it involves keeping a record of the menstrual cycle and a record of body
temperature so as to identify the fertile period. It tracks such characteristics as body
temperature, cervical mucus and symptoms of ovulation pain

Effectiveness
60% to 90% effective

Advantages
 It is free
 Accepted by religious and cultural groups
 Both partners participate
Disadvantages
 High failure rate
 Unreliable for women with irregular periods
 Requires training for one to learn how to identify the fertile period
 It needs motivation and discipline to record signs daily
 Imposes restrictions on sexual activities

Side effects
 Sexual frustration

3. The Withdrawal Method

 This method involves withdrawal during sexual intercourse before ejaculation
Advantages
 It is free
 Accepted by religious and cultural groups
 Both partners participate
Disadvantages
 High failure rate as partners may get carried away.
 Some sperm may already have been deposited in the vagina before withdrawal.

Chemical Methods/ Hormonal Methods

4. Contraceptive pill: there are two types – the mini-pill contains progesterone which affects the
uterus and makes implantation difficult, and the combined pill which contains oestrogen and
progesterone (synthetic progesterone) and prevents ovulation.
Advantages
 Very effective (99,6% - 99,8%)
 Easy to use
 It is reversible
 It does not interfere with sexual activity
 Menstrual bleeding is lighter, shorter, and regular and there are fewer cramps.

Disadvantages
 Must be taken daily.
 May suppress the production of breast milk in some women
 Slightly increases the risk of a heart attack especially for women above 35 years.
 Increases chances of the formation of blood clots.
Side Effects
 Causes weight change
 Causes mood changes
 It causes breast tenderness in some women.
 It also causes spotting in the middle of the cycle.

5. Injection (Depo Provera)

It prevents release of the egg from the ovaries and causes thickening of cervical mucus which
disturbs the movement of sperms.

Advantages
 It is very effective (99,8%)
 It is convenient and private
 It is reversible
 It does not interfere with sex
 Improves breast feeding
 It does not interfere with other medication
Disadvantages
 Requires a doctor or nurse to administer
 Causes delays in returning to fertility
 It disturbs the menstrual cycle.
 Some people are scared of injections

Side Effects
 Headaches
 Weight changes and mood swings
 Causes a bloated feeling and may interfere with sexual desire.
.
6. Spermicide: a chemical applied as a gel, cream or foam to the vagina and it kills sperms. It is
very unreliable on its own but makes barrier methods of contracepton more effective.
Advantages
 It does not require a prescription
 Does not need medical supervision
 It is easy to use and has few side effects
 It improves the effectiveness of condoms and other mechanical methods.
Disadvantages
 It has a higher failure rate if used on its own. 60% -95% effectiveness
 It has to be used with every sex act
 It causes a mess
 Must be applied at least 3minutes and not more than 30minutes before sexual intercourse.

Side effects
 Can cause irritation to the penis or vagina.

Mechanical Methods/Barrier Methods

7. Male and Female Condom: thin rubber covering over penis, it protects from impregnation
and STDs, used by man and women. It prevents sperms from entering the vagina

Advantages
 No need for prescription
 Provides protection against STIs
 May be used as extra protection with other methods
 It is reversible

Disadvantages
 Must be used with every sexual act before contact of sexual organs.
 There is a risk of bursting if used incorrectly
 Reduces sensation.

8. Diaphragm/Dutch Cap: it is a rubber cap or dome which is placed into the vagina to cover
the cervix and prevent entry of sperms into the uterus. Must be used together with spermicide.
It must stay in place 6 hours after sex and needs a correct size.

Advantages
 The cap can be reused for upto 2 years
 No health concerns

Disadvantages
 Needs training for proper se
 Has to inserted before every sex act
 May not work effectively after 2 or three natural deliveries
 Less effective if wrong size is used.
Side Effects
 Possible discomfort due to the size of the cap
 Possible irritation from spermicide.
9. Loop (Intra uterine Device) IUD
 It is a small plastic coated copper coil placed inside the uterus and prevents the embryo from
implanting in the uterus.
 It has a string which is used to remove it.
 It can be left inside for months or even years.
 It is very effective (97% to 98%)

Surgical Methods
Vasectomy:
 sperm ducts are cut and tied so that no sperms are released.
 It is very reliable, 100% reliable
Female sterilisation:
 oviducts are cut and tied so that eggs are not fertilised.
 It is 100% reliable.

Infertility
 It is a situation where an individual is incapable of having children.
Causes of Infertility
1. Low sperm count – males may sometimes produce insufficient quantities of sperms needed
for fertilisation. At least 1 million sperms should be found in a teaspoon of semen.
2. Poor quality sperms – these may not be able be able to swim because of insufficient fluids or
because they have no tails.
3. Physical conditions which do not allow fertilisation to take place such as
a. Cancer growths in the uterus of fallopian tube which stop implantation
b. Blockage of sperm ducts or oviducts caused by STIs.
c. Cancer of the prostate gland which changes the pH of semen such that it kills the
sperms.

Artificial insemination:
By donor: man’s sperm has a problem, making impregnation impossible, so a donor gives his
sperm.
In vitro fertilisation: an ovum is fertilised outside a woman’s body. The fertilised ovum is implanted
into the uterus.
Fertility drugs: drugs which enhance reproductive fertility. For women, fertility medication is used to
stimulate follicle development of the ovary. The side effect is multiple pregnancies. They contain
varying amount of FSH and LH.

Sexually transmissible diseases

Gonorrhoea
 a bacterial infection caused by sex.

Symptoms/signs
 pain or burning when passing urine.
 a creamy discharge from the penis or vagina.
 inflammation of the testicles

Effects:
 in men the urethra becomes infected, in woman it is the cervix. If left untreated, the disease
can travel through the reproductive tract causing sterility and spread to the bloodstream,
infecting the brains, heart valves, and joints.
Treatment
 once diagnosed it can be treated using antibiotics.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

 the immune system becomes significantly weakened until an infection, from then on it is
called AIDS (acquired immune deficiency virus).
Transmission
 unprotected sex with an infected person
 contact with an infected person’s blood.
 from mother to child during pregnancy or childbirth
 or sharing syringes while injecting drugs

Prevention from spreading

physical ways –
 use condoms (or Femidom).
 don’t come in contact with other people’s blood.
 don’t share needles,
There is no cure yet, it can only be slowed down.

Population
 it is the number of people living in an area at a certain time.
 Population depends on birth rate and death rate
Birth rate
 Is the number of live babies born per one thousand people of the population in a year.
Death rate
  It is the number of deaths in one year per thousand people.

If the birth rate is higher than the death rate, the population of an area increases

Population growth rate = birth rate minus death rate

 A higher growth rate leads to a population explosion. This is a rapid increase in population
which has negative consequence on living standards.

Infant mortality rate

 It is the number of deaths of children who are less than one year per one thousand live births
per year.
 A low infant mortality rate shows that the health services of a country are effective.
 In developed countries both birth rate and death rate are low. This is because birth control is
widely practised and the number of children per couple is two. Government services like
schools and hospitals are adequate .
 In developing countries, the birth rate is still high while death rate is now falling due to
advances in primary health care.
Life Expectancy
 It is the average age a person expects to live in a particular area.
 Developed countries have a higher life expectancy than developing countries. Developed
countries have more older people than developing countries.
 A higher life expectancy also shows that health services are more developed in a area.
Dependency ratio
 It is a ratio of the number of children and elderly people in an area to the number of people of
the working age groups in an area.
 Children are those under 15 years and the elderly are those over 65 years
 The young and old depend on productive adults.

Dependency ratio = number of children + elderly

Number in working age groups

Doubling time
 It is the time it will take a population to double
 Doubling time = 70
Growth rate
Age Sex pyramids/ Population pyramids
  It shows the actual population in an area broken down by sex and 5 year age groups
 There are larger numbers of the population in the younger age groups showing a higher birth
rate.
 There are small numbers in the old age groups showing a low life expectancy.
 The dependency ratio is generally higher because of the greater proportion of the young in
the population.

Population growth and resources

 Increase in population may result in severe damage to the environment.
 Overpopulation causes poverty and excessive demands on health and social services
 Vegetation will be removed and soil erosion will increase because
o More land will be cleared for agriculture
o More trees will be cut down for firewood and building materials
o More animals will be raised in areas which can not support many animals.

Waste Disposal
 Human activities such as farming, industry, mining and other daily home activities generate
waste which must be disposed of.
 Human waste can either be;
1. Bio degradable waste and,
2. Non bio degradable waste
 Bio degradable waste is waste which can be broken down by micro organism and nutrients n
the waste are recycled. Examples include dead plant leaves, dead animals, food left overs etc
 Non bio degradable waste can not be broken down by micro organism. Examples include
plastic, metals and glass.
Non biodegradable waste can be disposed as follows;
1. It can be recycled and used again
2. The waste can be burnt
3. The waste can also be buried underground.

Industrial waste
 It includes chemical waste, gases and poisonous metals which pollute the environment and
air.
 The manufacture of asbestos and cement produces dust that causes diseases.
 Inhaling asbestos dust causes a disease called asbestosis and increases the chances of lung
cancer.
 Inhaling cement dust causes a disease called silicosis.
 Dust and smoke released from industries irritates the wall of the bronchi in the lungs causing
a disease called bronchitis..
 Chemical waste produced also pollutes water sources. If the waste contains nitrates and
sulphates, it will cause Eutrophication of water sources. These nutrients will cause an
increase in plant population in water bodies clogging them.

Sewage disposal
 Sewage is human excreta in the form of faeces and urine.
 Faeces and urine may carry pathogens which can be spread by vectors such as flies.
 Sewage must therefore be disposed of safely to ensure a healthy community
 There are many methods of sewage disposal including;
o Pit Latrines
o Blair pit toilets
o Flush toilets
Pit Latrines
 A pit latrine consists of a deep hole in the groundinto which human waste is deposited
 It should have a concrete platform for easy cleaning and a cover over the squat hole to
prevent flies getting in and out of the pit easily.
 May be used in isolated houses and villages
 Pit latrines should be at least 50m away from an under ground water supply to avoid seepage
of liquid waste into the water supply.
  The pit latrine should be built below the level of the water supply so that rain water does not
wash into the water supply.

Care of latrines
 Water should be added from time to time in the pit to facilitate decay of waste
 Surface structures should be cleaned from time to time with disinfectant to keep flies away but
the disinfectant should not get into the pit to avoid killing the bacteria that decomposes the
waste.
 When the pit is full, it should be drained to empty it or filled with sand and a new one built.

The Blair toilet.

 It is an improvement of the pit latrine in the following ways;

 1. It has a spiral structure which makes the interior dark which reduces entry of flies into
the toilet.
2. It has a vent pipe which carries odour high up in the air. Spiral design also helps
minimise odours.
3. The screen at the top of the vent pipe traps the few flies that find their way into the pit.

The Flush toilet/the water closet

 Has a squatting pan and uses to carry the sewage waste to a place where the waste is
processed.
 The water in the pan seals the pipes to prevent odours from coming back into the house.
 Sewage from flush toilets can be disposed of in one of the following ways;
1. Septic tanks
2. Biological filter method of sewage treatment
3. The activated sludge method of sewage treatment.
Septic Tanks

 It consists of two tanks that are built underground and the tanks are sealed.
 Sewage from the toilet is carried by water into the first tank.
 Solid waste settles at the bottom of the tank and a thick scam forms on the surface of the
liquid.
 Anaerobic bacteria digest the solid waste at the bottom of the tank.
 Liquid waste flows from the first tank into the second tank.
 The second tank is made of loosely arranged bricks and stones piled together with air spaces
in between.
 Liquid waste is broken down by anaerobic bacteria before it soaks away into the soil.
 When the first tank is full, the waste is drained away.

Sewage works
 Sewage from large communities is treated at sewage treatment plants. Two methods are
used at these plants:
1. The biological filter method and
2. The activated sludge method

The biological filter method

 In this method sewage passes through the following stages:

1. Screens – sewage from the city passes through screens which remove large solids as
stones, spoons, cloth etc
2. Grit Chamber – it is a pool where smaller solids as soil particles settle to the bottom
and are occasionally removed.
3. Sedimentation Tanks – solid organic waste settles as sludge at the bottom of the tank
and is drained, dried and used as a fertiliser.
 4. Sprinklers – liquid from the sedimentation tanks is pumped into sprinklers which
spread the effluent over a bed of porous bricks. The liquid effluent filters through the
bricks into a humus tank leaving solids on the bricks. The solids are broken down by
aerobic bacteria on the bricks. The bacteria are eaten by ciliates and the ciliates are
eaten by midge larvae. The larvae develops into different insects which fly away hence
the name ‘biological’ filter method
5. The humus tank – the filtered liquid is collected in humus tanks where remaining
solids settle and are drained away to be dried and used as fertiliser. The clear effluent
is discharged into rivers.
NB: the discharged effluent contains nitrates and phosphates which promote plant growth in rivers
creating a problem called eutrophication. This reduces the quantities of oxygen in the rivers killing
animal life.

The Activated sludge method

 This method has the following methods:
1. Screens – traps large solids which are removed
2. Paddles – rollers which break faeces into smaller particles and are driven by
machines.
3. Settling Tank –grit settles to the bottom of the tank and is removed.
4. Aeration Tanks – air is bubbled through the liquid to supply aerobic bacteria with
oxygen. This activates the bacteria, which breaks down the organic waste.
5. Sedimentation tank – allows the settling of sludge which is removed and is taken to a
digester.
6. The digester – it is a closed tank were anaerobic bacteria further breaks down the
sludge producing methane gas in the process. Methane gas is used as a fuel, the
sludge is removed, dried and used as a fertiliser and the liquid is recycled.

Water
 Communities need clean and safe water. The most common causes of water pollution are:
1. Animal and plant remains
2. Chemicals from agriculture and industry
3. Sewage
 Water may contain dissolved salts and pathogens which cause diseases.
 In Zimbabwe, drinking water is obtained from springs, shallow wells, deep wells, boreholes
and sand beds.

Springs
 These are outlets of underground water usually on the foot of hills or along river beds.
 Water from a spring is of a very high purity provided the area is not contaminated by waste.

Shallow wells
 Contain water were the water table is close to the surface and drain water from the top and
subsoil.
 Water generally not very safe because it has moved a small distance through the soil and the
wells can be polluted by animals and people.
 The wells are usually not protected.

Deep wells
 These wells are deep and water is generally safe because it has moved a very long distance
through the soil hence it is well filtered.
 Absence of light in deep wells reduces chances of vectors polluting the water.
 Wells can be protected by building brick linings and concrete covers.

Purifying Water
 The most common impurities found in water are micro organisms, macro organisms,
suspended solids and dissolved gases and chemicals.
 All these make water unsafe to drink and must be removed to make it safe to drink.
 The process of removing these substances is what is called water purification.
 Macro organisms and suspended materials are removed by filtering the water.
  Micro organisms are killed by boiling or chlorinating the water and,
 Dissolved substances are removed by using flocculants which change the dissolved
substances to solids so that they can be filtered.

The Water Treatment Plant

 A water treatment plant consists of a grid, settling tanks, filters, chlorination tanks and storage
tanks.
1. The Grid – removes macro organisms and large suspended materials like twigs.
2. Settling tanks – a flocculent is added to the water and it binds tiny suspended
materials and solidifies dissolved materials forming solids. Some of these settle to the
bottom of the tank and are removed.
3. Filters – the water flows into sand filters which remove any suspended particles in the
water. The filtered water moves into chlorination tanks.
4. Chlorination tanks – chlorine is added to the water. Chlorine form an unstable acid
with the water which kills all the micro organisms making the water safe to drink.
5. Storage tanks – the water is stored ready to be distributed to households for drinking.