Knowledge Representation
&
Search
Punjab University College of Information Technology, Lahore
Introduction
• Search is the essential basis of human problem solving
[Newell & Simon].
• According to Newell and Simon, intelligent activity, in
either human or machine, is achieved through the use
of:
• Symbol patterns that represent significant aspects
of a problem domain.
• Operations on these patterns to generate potential
solutions to problems.
• Search to select a solution among these
possibilities.
• The assumptions mentioned above form the well-
known physical symbol system hypothesis (PSSH.)
Examples of PSS
Examples of physical symbol systems include:
Formal Logic: the symbols are words like "and", "or", "not", "for all x" and
so on. The expressions are statements in formal logic which can be true or
false. The processes are the rules of logical deduction.
Algebra: the symbols are "+", "×", "x", "y", "1", "2", "3", etc. The
expressions are equations. The processes are the rules of algebra, that
allow one to manipulate a mathematical expression and retain its truth.
A digital computer: the symbols are zeros and ones of computer memory,
the processes are the operations of the CPU that change memory.
Chess: the symbols are the pieces, the processes are the legal chess
moves, the expressions are the positions of all the pieces on the board.
The physical symbol system hypothesis claims that both of the following
are also examples of physical symbol systems:
Intelligent human thought: the symbols are encoded in our brains. The
expressions are ‘thoughts’. The processes are the mental operations of thinking.
A running ‘AI’ program: The symbols are data. The expressions are more data.
The processes are programs that manipulate the data.
State Space Search
A State Space is a graphical representation of
a problem.
State Space includes all possible states of the
problem including the solution state.
By representing the problem as a state space
graph we can use graph theory to analyze the
structure and complexity of both the problem
and the procedures used to solve it.
State Space is also known as Solution Space
or Problem Space
State Space Search
A state space is represented by a four-tuple [N,A,S,GD],
where:
N is the set of nodes or states of the graph. These
correspond to the states in a problem-solving process
A is the set of arcs (or links) between nodes. These
correspond to the steps in a problem-solving process.
S is a nonempty subset of N, contains the start state(s) of
the problem.
GD, a nonempty subset of N, contains the goal state(s) of
the problem. The states in GD are described using either:
A measurable property of the states encountered in the
search.
A property of the path developed in the search.
Example of State Space
Representation
8-puzzle problem
2 8 3 1 2 3
1 6 4 8 4
7 5 7 6 5
state description
3-by-3 array: each cell contains one of 1-8 or blank
symbol
two state transition descriptions
84 moves: one of 1-8 numbers moves up, down, right,
or left
4 moves: one blank symbol moves up, down, right, or
left
State Space Graph
1 4 3
7 6
5 8 2
Up Right
Left Down
1 3 1 4 3 1 4 3 1 4 3
7 4 6 7 6 7 8 6 7 6
5 8 2 5 8 2 5 2 5 8 2
1 3 1 3
7 4 6 7 4 6
5 8 2 5 8 2
Homework
City of Konigsberg Problem and its
graphical formulation
Traveling Salesperson Problem
Reference: Artificial Intelligence: Structures and
Strategies for Complex Problem Solving 4th Ed. (George F. Luger,
and William A. Stubblefield) pages 82-84, 91-92
Strategies for State Space
Search
A state space may be searched in two
directions: from the given data of a
problem instance towards a goal or
from a goal back to the data.
Data Driven Search
Goal Driven Search
Data Driven Search
Data Driven Search (Forward Chaining)
The Problem Solver begins with the given
facts of the problem and a set of legal
moves or rules for changing state. Search
proceeds by applying rules to facts to
produce new facts, which are in turn used
by the rules to generate more new facts.
This process continues until it generates a
path that satisfies the goal condition.
Goal Driven Search
Goal Driven Search (Backward Chaining)
It takes the goal that we want to achieve,
see what rules or legal moves could be
used to generate this goal and determine
what conditions must be true to use them.
These conditions becomes the new goals
or sub-goals
It recalls the simple childhood trick of
trying to solve a maze by working back
from the finish to the start.
Which Strategy?
In the final analysis, both data-driven
and goal-driven problem solvers
search the same state space graph;
however, the order and actual number
of states searched can differ. The
preferred strategy is determined by the
properties of the problem itself.
