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Modern (QM-1)

Blackbody Radiation
All normal matter at temperatures above absolute zero emits electromagnetic radiation,
which represents a conversion of a body's internal thermal energy into electromagnetic
energy, and is therefore called thermal radiation.
Conversely, all normal matter absorbs electromagnetic radiation to some degree.
An object that absorbs all radiation falling on it, at all wavelengths, is called a blackbody.
When a blackbody is at a uniform temperature, its emission has a characteristic energy
distribution that depends on the temperature. This emission is called blackbody radiation.

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1. At constant temperature the emissive power or the energy density 𝑢𝜆 is maximum for a certain
wavelength𝜆𝑚 and falls for both of the longer and shorter wavelengths.

2. For every wavelength 𝑢𝜆 increases with the temperature.

3. The most probable wave length 𝜆𝑚 depends only on the absolute temperature of the blackbody
and, with increasing temperature, shifts towards shorter wavelength (i.e. towards the U.V. end of
the light spectrum) as
𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
4. The area under each curve gives the total radiant power per unit area of a blackbody at that
temperature and total radiation emitted is directly proportional to 𝑇 4 (Stefan's law).

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/blackbody-spectrum/latest/blackbody-spectrum_en.html

Classical physics predicted that hot objects would instantly radiate away all their heat into
electromagnetic waves. The calculation, which was based on Maxwell's equations and Statistical
Mechanics, showed that the radiation rate went to infinity as the EM wavelength went to zero,
``The Ultraviolet Catastrophe''. Plank solved the problem by postulating that EM energy was
emitted in quanta with 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈.

Planck’s Law of black body radiation:-

Assumptions
1) A radiating system is composed of a collection of charged linear oscillators which
according to the EM theory radiate EM wave because of their accelerated motion.

2) An oscillator can have discrete set of energy which are integral multiple of a finite
quantum energy E= ℎ𝜈; ℎ being Planck constant. Son the oscillators can have values
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛ℎ𝜈
3) The change in energy of the oscillator due to emission or absorption of radiation can
take place by a discrete amount.

4) According to MB statistics the number of oscillators in 𝑛𝑡ℎ energy state ,

ℎ𝜈
𝑁𝑛 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑇

𝑁0 is the number of oscillators in the ground state.

With the above assumptions the amount of energy emitted by the blackbody per unit
volume within frequency range 𝜈 𝑡𝑜 𝜈 + 𝑑𝜈,
8𝜋ℎ 𝜈 3
𝑢𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 3 ℎ𝜈 𝑑𝜈
𝐶
𝑒 𝑘𝑇−1
Which is famous Planck Law of Radiation.

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𝐶 𝐶
[ Expressing in wavelength 𝜆 = we have , 𝑑𝜈 = | 2 𝑑𝜆| we have
𝜈 𝜆
8𝜋ℎ𝐶 1
𝑢(𝜆)𝑑𝜆 = 5 ℎ𝐶 𝑑𝜆
𝜆 −1
𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇
This is an alternative form of Plank’s law that gives energy density in the wave length λ
and 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆 in the spectrum of black body].

Deductions from Plank’s Law:- The different classical laws of radiations such as Wien’s
law, Rayleigh-Jean’s Law, Stefan Law follow Plank’s Law.

Wien’s Law:- In terms of wave length, plank’s formula,

8𝜋ℎ𝐶 𝑑𝜆
𝑢𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ℎ𝐶
𝜆5
𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 − 1
For short wavelength and low temp,
ℎ𝐶
𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 ≫1

8𝜋ℎ𝐶 ℎ𝐶 𝐶
− 2
∴ 𝑢𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝜆 = 𝐶1 𝜆−5 𝑒 𝜆𝑇 𝑑𝜆
𝜆5

This is Wine’s radiation law, an essential empirical formula containing two adjustable
constant C1 andC2 .
(this explains the shorter wavelength region of the plot)

Rayleigh- Jean’s Law:- In terms of wave length,

8𝜋ℎ𝐶 𝑑𝜆
𝑢𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 5 ℎ𝐶
𝜆
𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 − 1
ℎ𝐶
For Long wavelength (or low frequency )and temperature ≪ 1,
𝜆𝑘𝑇

8𝜋ℎ𝐶𝑑𝜆 8𝜋𝑘𝑇
∴ 𝑢𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = = 4 𝑑𝜆
𝜆5 ℎ𝐶 𝜆
(1 + )−1
𝜆𝑘𝑇
Which is Rayleigh- Jean’s Law. It shows that energy density of radiation is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of λ.
(this explains the longer wavelength region of the plot)

Wien’s displacement Law:- In terms of wave length, Plank’s formula runs as,

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8𝜋ℎ𝐶 𝑑𝜆
𝑢𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ℎ𝐶
𝜆5 −1
𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇
Now for wave length 𝜆 = 𝜆𝑚 corresponding to which 𝑢𝜆 attain its maximum value,

𝑑𝑢𝜆
| 𝜆=𝜆𝑚 =0
𝑑𝜆
ℎ𝐶
5 1 𝑒 𝜆𝑚𝑘𝑇 ℎ𝐶
𝑂𝑟, − + 5 . 2. =0
6
ℎ𝐶
𝜆𝑚 ℎ𝐶 𝑘𝑇𝜆𝑚 2
𝜆𝑚 (𝑒 𝑚𝑘𝑇
𝜆 − 1) (𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝜆𝑚 − 1)
ℎ𝐶
Introducing 𝑥 = and eliminating the common factors we get,
𝜆𝑚 𝑘𝑇
𝑥𝑒 𝑥
=5
𝑒 𝑥−1
There is transcendental equation can be solved graphically and is found to be ,
𝑥=5
ℎ𝑐
Or, =5
𝜆𝑚 𝑘𝑇
𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
This is Wien’s displacement law.
https://www.desmos.com/calculator/pseo0awphs

Stefan – Boltzmann Law:- The total radiation Q is obtained by integrating 𝑢𝜈 𝑑𝜈 for waves
of all frequencies from 0 to∞.
Thus the total radiation emitted by a black body,
∞ ∞
8𝜋ℎ 𝜈3
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑢𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 3 ∫ ℎ𝜈 𝑑𝜈
𝐶
0 0 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1
let
ℎ𝜈
𝑥=
𝑘𝑇
𝑘𝑇
∴ 𝑑𝜈 = 𝑑𝑥
∞
ℎ
𝑥3
𝑄 = ∫ 𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥
𝑒
0

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∞
8𝜋𝑘 4 𝑇 4 𝜋 4 𝑥3 𝜋4
∴𝑄= × 𝐴𝑠, [∫ 𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥 = ]
𝐶 3 ℎ3 15 𝑒 15
0

8𝜋𝑘 4 𝜋4
= 𝛼 𝑇4 where 𝛼 =
15𝐶 3 ℎ 3
This is Stefan-Boltzmann Law.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Photoelectric Effect:
photoelectric effect provides a direct confirmation for the energy
quantization of light. In1887 Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect: electrons were
observed to be ejected from metals when irradiated with light.

Facts about photo electric effect:

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/cheerpj/photoelectric/latest/photoelectric.html?simulati
on=photoelectric

1. No matter how low the intensity of the incident radiation, electrons will be ejected
instant the moment the frequency of the radiation exceeds the threshold frequency .
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2. At any frequency above 𝜈0 , the number of electrons ejected increases with the
intensity of the light but does not depend on the light’s frequency.
3. The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends on the frequency but not on
the intensity of the beam; the kinetic energy of the ejected electron increases
linearly with the incident frequency.

Failure of classical theory

1. According to wave theory, after the light falls on a substance electrons are emitted
after a certain instant of time. However, in photoelectric effect, the electron
emissions are immediate without a time delay.

2. The energy of a wave increases with increase in intensity. However, in photo electirc
effect, increase in intensity has no effect on the energy of electrons emitted. All that
happens is the number of electrons emitted, increases.

3. As the energy of a wave increases with increase in intensity, hence after sufficient
time there should be always emission of electron independent of threshold
frequency. However electrons will be ejected instant the moment the frequency of
the radiation exceeds the threshold frequency

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Inspired by Planck’s quantization of electromagnetic radiation, Einstein succeeded in

1905 in giving a theoretical explanation for the dependence of photoelectric emission on
the frequency of the incident radiation. He assumed that light is made of corpuscles each
carrying an energy ℎ𝜈, called photons.

i) When a beam of light of frequency 𝜈 is incident on a metal, each photon transmits

all its energy ℎ𝜈 to an electron near the surface; in the process, the photon is entirely
absorbed by the electron. The electron will thus absorb energy only in quanta of energy
ℎ𝜈, irrespective of the intensity of the incident radiation.

ii) If ℎ𝜈 is larger than the metal’s work function W (the minimum energy required to pull
the electron from the metal) the electron will then be knocked out of the metal 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑙𝑦.
Hence no electron can be emitted from the metal’s surface unless ℎ𝜈 > W . In other
wordS, electrons will be ejected if the frequency of the radiation exceeds the threshold
𝑊
frequency 𝜈0 = of the metal.
ℎ

iii) Rest of the energy(ℎ𝜈 − W) is converted as the kinetic energy of the electron (𝐾)
leaving the material.
Hence ℎ𝜈 − 𝑊 = 𝐾
It is known is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

• 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡

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Different Graphs of Photoelectric Equation

Photoelectric current V/s Retarding potential for different elements,

Photoelectric current V/s Retarding potential for different intensities

Electron current V/s Light Intensity

Electron current V/s Light frequency

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Stopping potential V/s frequency Electron kinetic energy V/s Light frequency

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Compton scattering:

When monochromatic X-rays or (γ –rays) fall on matter ( of low atomic number),the scattered
ray in a certain direction contained a component with the frequency of the incident radiation and
a second component with a lower frequency or a longer wavelength . The lower frequency
component originates from the inelastic scattering of the incident radiation. The wave length shift
is independent of the wavelength of the incident photon and also the target material; depends only
on the angle of scattering. Such a scattering is called Compton scattering.

Classical explanation: According to the classical explanation of Compton scattering, the electron
undergoes oscillatory motion because of the electric field associated with the incident
electromagnetic radiation. The accelerated electron emits electromagnetic waves and because of
Doppler shifts due to the motion of the electron, the emitted wavelength differs from the
wavelength of the incident radiation; however, the classical theory predicts that for a given angle
of scattering a continuous range in the value of the scattered wavelength should be formed, which
is contrary to experimental findings.

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COMPTON SHIFT CALCULATION:- Let us consider an X- ray photon of frequency 𝜈,

collides with an electron at rest in the target. The initial momentum of the electron is zero and its
initial energy i.e. the rest mass energy 𝑚0 𝑐 2 . As a result the electron is ejected with a velocity 𝑣
in the direction making angle 𝜃 with that of incident X- ray photon having momentum 𝑝𝑒 .

ComptonScatteringOfSubatomicParticles.cdf ComptonEffect.cdf

ℎ𝜈
The incident photon has the has energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈, 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝 =
𝑐

ℎ 𝜈′
The scattered X – ray photon of frequency 𝜈 ′ , energy 𝐸 ′ = ℎ 𝜈 ′ and momentum 𝑝′ =
𝑐′
moves in a direction at an angle φ with the incident direction .

From conservation of linear momentum,

𝑝⃗ + 0 = 𝑝⃗′ + 𝑝⃗𝑒

Or, 𝑝⃗ − 𝑝⃗′ = 𝑝⃗𝑒

Or, (𝑝⃗ − 𝑝⃗′ ) ∙ (𝑝⃗ − 𝑝⃗′ ) = 𝑝⃗𝑒 ∙ 𝑝⃗𝑒

Or, 𝑝2 + 𝑝̅ 2 − 2𝑝𝑝̅ cos ∅ = 𝑝𝑒 2 ……………. (1)

Applying the principle of conservation of energy

ℎ𝜈 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = ℎ 𝜈 ′ + 𝑚𝑐 2

Dividing by 𝑐 and re-arranging; taking E= 𝑚𝑐 2

ℎ𝜈 𝑚0 𝑐 2 ℎ 𝜈 ′ 𝐸
+ = +
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

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𝐸
𝑝 − 𝑝′ + 𝑚0 𝑐 =
𝑐

Squaring,

′
𝐸2 2
(𝑝 − 𝑝 + 𝑚0 𝑐) = 2
𝑐
Using 𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 ,

𝑝2 + 𝑝̅ 2 − 2𝑝𝑝̅ + 2(𝑝 − 𝑝′ )𝑚0 𝑐 + 𝑚0 2 𝑐 2 = 𝑝𝑒 2 + 𝑚0 2 𝑐 2 ………..(2)

(2)– (1) gives,

2(𝑝 − 𝑝′ )𝑚0 𝑐 − 2𝑝𝑝̅ (1 − cos ∅) = 0

(𝑝 − 𝑝′ ) 1
Or, = (1 − cos ∅)
2𝑝𝑝̅ 𝑚0 𝑐
1 1 1
Or, − = (1 − cos ∅)
𝑝̅ 𝑝 𝑚0 𝑐

Taking λ and 𝜆′ are the wavelength corresponding to the frequencies 𝛾 and 𝛾 ′

respectively, and using the relation
ℎ𝜈 ℎ
𝑝= =
𝑐 𝜆

ℎ
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − cos ∅)
𝑚0 𝑐
ℎ
Hence, the change in wavelength, 𝜆′ − 𝜆 = ∆𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅)
𝑚0 𝑐

The above relation shows that ∆𝜆 is independent of the wavelength of the incident
radiations and the nature of the scattering substances but it depends on the angle of scattering.
ℎ
𝜆𝑐 = is called Compton wavelength of the electron having a value 0.024 𝐴̇
𝑚0 𝑐
(a) If 𝜙 = 0 , cos 𝛷 = 1 and ∆𝜆 = 0
ℎ 6.63×10−34
(b) If 𝜙 = 900 , cos 𝛷 =0 then ∆𝜆 = = (9.11×10−31 )×3×108
𝑚 = 0.024 𝐴̇
𝑚0 𝑐
2ℎ
(c) If 𝜙 = 1800 , cos 𝜙 = −1 then ∆𝜆 = = 0.048𝐴̇
𝑚0 𝑐

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Thus ∆𝜆 has the maximum value at ∅ = 1800

Energy of scattered photon :-

We have ,
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = 𝜆𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
ℎ
; where 𝜆𝑐 = ; 𝛷 angle of scattering
𝑚0 𝑐

𝑂𝑟, 𝜆′ = 𝜆 + 𝜆𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
1 1
𝑂𝑟, =
𝜆′ 𝜆 + 𝜆𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
𝑂𝑟, =
𝜆′ 𝜆 + 𝜆𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)
ℎ𝑐 1
𝑂𝑟, 𝐸′ =
𝜆 𝜆
[1 + 𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)]
𝜆

𝐸
𝑂𝑟, 𝐸′ =
𝜆𝑐
[1 + (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙)]
𝜆
Putting,
ℎ 𝑐
𝜆𝑐 = ; 𝜆=
𝑚0 𝑐 𝜈
∴ The energy scattered photon is
ℎ𝜈
ℎ𝜈
1 + (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷)
𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 ∶ ℎ𝜈 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
[ ]
𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑛

This gives the energy of the scattered photon in terms of the angle of scattering 𝛷 and the
initial energy ℎ𝜈 of the incident photon .

Kinetic energy of recoil electron :-

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Since the gain in the electron energy is equal to the loss in photon energy , the kinetic energy of
the recoil electron is given by

𝐸𝑘 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 ′

1
= ℎ𝜈 [1 − ]
ℎ𝜈
1+ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷)
𝑚0 𝑐 2
This is the expression for the kinetic energy of recoil electron .
when 𝛷 =1800 then the above expression reduces to,

1
= ℎ𝜈 [1 − ]
2ℎ𝜈
1+
𝑚0 𝑐 2
2ℎ𝜈
𝑚0 𝑐 2
= ℎ𝜈 [ ]
2ℎ𝜈
1+
𝑚0 𝑐 2
ℎ𝜈
∴ (𝐸𝑘 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑚 𝑐2
1+ 0
2ℎ𝜈
ℎ𝜈
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: (𝐸𝑘 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = < ℎ𝜈: 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑚0 𝑐 2
1+
2ℎ𝜈
∴ It is not possible to transfer the total energy of the incident photon to the electron.

ℎ𝜈
(𝐸𝑘 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑚0 𝑐 2
1+
2ℎ𝜈
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/compton.html

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Relation between angle of scattering(𝛷) and angle of recoil electron :-

Applying the principle of conservation of momentum in the direction of the photon i.e. along x-
axis,
𝑝 = 𝑝′ cos 𝛷 + 𝑝𝑒 cos 𝜃

𝑝𝑒 cos 𝜃 = 𝑝 − 𝑝′ cos 𝛷
Along y axis,
0 = 𝑝′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷 − 𝑝𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑜𝑟, 𝑝𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑝′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷

Hence dividing,
𝑝′ sin 𝛷 sin 𝛷
tan 𝜃 = = ′
𝑝 − 𝑝′ cos 𝛷 𝜆 − cos 𝛷
𝜆

Why Compton effect cannot be observed with visible light ?

i) For light in the visible range, λ lies between 4000 to 8000 𝐴0 . Thus energy of incident
photon ≈ 2𝑒𝑣(𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥)
[for λ = 6000 𝐴0
ℎ𝑐 6.610−34 ×3×108
ℎ𝛾 = = ≈ 2𝑒𝑣]
𝜆 6000×10−10 ×1.6×10−17
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦is not larger than the binding energy of even loosely
bound electrons
ii) The value of 𝛿𝜆(= 𝜆𝑐 ( 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷))
Depends on 𝛷 and its maximum value (𝛷 =1800 )
= 2 × 𝜆𝑐
= 2 × 0.024𝐴0
=0.048𝐴0

It is too small to detect if the incident photons have 𝜆 of visible range (4000 - 8000𝐴0 )

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A photon strikes an electron bound to the nucleus .what is the effect on Compton shift ?

When the Compton scattering takes place from an electron , tightly bound to the atom, the
recoil momentum is taken by the whole atom which is much more heavier than electron.
ℎ
As Compton wavelength (𝜆𝑐 = ) inversely proportional to the mass of the scatterer ,
𝑚0 𝑐
new unmodified lines called Rayleigh line in scattered radiation appears , whereas Compton
line occurs due to free (or loosely bound )electron .)

Is it possible for a photon to transfer its entire energy to the electron ?

The energy transferred by a photon to the electron ,

ℎ𝜈
(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷)
𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝐸𝑘 = ℎ𝜈.
ℎ𝜈
1+ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷)
𝑚0 𝑐 2

now maximum energy transferred when 𝛷 = 1800

2ℎ𝜈
𝑚0 𝑐 2 1
𝐸𝑘𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈. ; 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 ℎ𝜈.
2ℎ𝜈 𝑚0 𝑐 2
1+ 1+
𝑚0 𝑐 2 2ℎ𝜈

∴ it is not possible to transfer the total energy of the incident photon to the electron.

ASSIGNMENTS
1. Draw the Black-body energy distribution law at different temperature. Write down the characteristics of such
curves.

2. Write down the assumptions made by Planck to explain such radiation.

3. On the basis of assumptions derive Planck’s law of black body radiation and explain the plot.

4. What is the form of the distribution under classical limit? What do you mean by ultraviolet catastrophe.

5. Mercury vapour absorbing photons of wavelength 140 𝑛𝑚 emits two photons. One of them has wavelength 180
𝑛𝑚. What is the wavelength of the other?

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6. Calculate the number of mode of vibrations associated with 𝜆=500𝑛𝑚 𝑎t thermal equilibrium in side the cavity of
a metal.

7. The human eye can detect 1. 0 × 10−18 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 of electromagnetic energy. How many 600 𝑛𝑚 photons does this
represent?

8. The intensity of the sunlight falling on the earth is 1300 𝑊/𝑚2. Calculate the average force exerted by it on a
Solar panel (assume as black body) of 100 𝑚2 . Assuming the light has mean wavelength 500 𝑛𝑚, calculate the
photo electric current if conversion efficiency is 60%.

9. Why do one need to overcome work function of a metal to obtain photo electrons?

10. Explain the characteristics of photo electric effect on the basis of Einstein’s equation.

11. A metal of work function 3.0 𝑒𝑉 is illuminated by light of wave-length3000 𝐴̇. Calculate (a) the threshold
frequency, (b) The maximum energy of photo electrons. (c)Stopping potential. [0.72 ×1015 𝐻𝑧;1.16 𝑒𝑉;1.16𝑉]

12. Light of wavelength 4560 𝐴̇ and power 1 𝑚𝑊 is incident on a cesium surface. Calculate the photoelectric current,
assuming a quantum efficiency of 0.5% . Work function of cesium is 1.93 𝑒𝑉. [1.68×10−6𝐴]

13. When two ultraviolet beams of wavelengths 𝜆1 = 80𝑛𝑚 and 𝜆2 = 110𝑛𝑚 fall on a lead surface, they produce
photoelectrons of maximum energies 11.390 𝑒𝑉 and 7.164 𝑒𝑉, respectively. (a) Estimate the numerical value of
the Planck constant. (b)Calculate the work function, the cutoff wavelength of lead. [6.627×10−34 𝐽 𝑠;4.14 𝑒𝑉;300
𝑛𝑚]
14. When a point source of monochromatic light is at a distance of 0.2 m from a photoelectric cell; the cut off voltage
and the saturation current are 0.6V and 18 mA. When the source is taken at a distance of 0.6 m away from the
photoelectric cell, then calculate the values of saturation current and stopping potential. [2 𝑚𝐴,0.6𝑉]

15. The work function of metals A,B are in the ratio 1:2. If light of frequencies 𝑓 and 2𝑓 are incident on the surfaces
of A and B find the ratios of maximum kinetic energies. [1:2]

16. Prove that photo electric effect cannot take place with free electrons.

17. A layer of Sodium 1 atom thick and 1 𝑚2 in area contain 1019 atoms. If the incident light delivers a power of
10−25 watts to each atom, then what would be the time required for an atom to accumulate sufficient energy to
emit a photo electron classically ( given work functions for sodium=2.3eV). What inference can be drawn
regarding the Einstein’s Photoelectric effect from the above problem?

18. What is the basic characteristic of Compton scattering that cannot be explained by classical ideas?

𝜃
19. Show that the Compton shift is 4.86 × 10−12 sin2 2 m at angle of scattering 𝜃.

20. Show that electron cannot get the total energy of the incident photon.

21. Under the approximation that incident energy is much higher than the rest mass energy of the electron, the
scattered photon gets 1/2 of the rest mass energy of the electron.

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22. X-rays of wavelength 2.0𝐴̇ are scattered from a carbon block. The scattered photons are observed at right angles
to the direction of incident beam. Calculate wavelength of scattered beam (b) Energy of recoil electron; (c) The
angle at which the recoil electron appear; (2.024; 1.17 × 10−17 ; 44.40 )

23. In Compton scattering experiment, the X-ray photon is scattered at angle of 1800 and electron recoils with energy
of 4keV. Calculate wavelength of the incident photon. [0.35 𝐴̇].

24. In a Compton scattering the UV light of wave length 2000 𝐴̇ is scattered from an electron at rest by 900 . Calculate
minimum resolving power of a device to detect it.

25. Consider a photon that scatters from an electron at rest. If the Compton wavelength shift is observed to be triple
the wavelength of the incident photon and if the photon scatters at 600, calculate (a) the wavelength of the
incident photon, (b) the energy of the recoiling electron, and (c) the angle at which the electron scatters.

Wave aspect of particle

de Broglie hypothesis :- According to de Broglie, the wavelength 𝜆 associated with any
moving particle of momentum 𝑝 for mass m and velocity 𝑣 is expressed as,
ℎ ℎ
λ= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣

Where h is Planck’s constant [h = 6.62 × 10−34 𝑗 𝑠𝑒𝑐]

Expression for de – Broglie wavelength for photon :-

According to Plank equation energy of a photon of frequency 𝜈 is

𝐸 = ℎ𝜈, … … … … … . (1)

According to the theory of relativity, the energy and momentum relation is given as,

𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 ; 𝑚0 is the rest mass .

For photon 𝑚0 = 0

∴ 𝐸 = 𝑃𝐶
𝐸 ℎ𝜈
∴𝑝= =
𝐶 𝐶

ℎ
Or, 𝑝 =
𝜆

ℎ
Or, 𝜆 =
𝑃

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Expression for de Broglie wavelength of an electron .

Non – relativistic case :- Let an electron is accelerated by 𝑉 volt . If 𝑣 be the

acquired velocity then ,
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2
2
𝑝
𝑂𝑟, = 𝑒𝑉
2𝑚
𝑂𝑟, 𝑝 = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉

𝑒 is the charge amd m is the mass of electron.

de- Broglie wavelength,

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
ℎ
𝑂𝑟, 𝜆 =
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
12.26
[Putting values of ℎ, 𝑚, 𝑒, we can get, λ = 𝐴0 ]
√𝑉

Relativistic case :- From the theory of relativity we have total energy E and momentum
relation is given by,

𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 ; … … … … … (1)
𝑚0 is the rest mass
Again total energy E is the sum of K.E and rest mass energy,
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐸 = 𝑇 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 … … … … … (2)
From (1) and (2),
𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 = ( 𝑇 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 )2
𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 = 𝑇 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4 + 2𝑇𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑝2 𝑐 2 = 𝑇 2 + 2𝑇𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝑇
𝑜𝑟, 𝑝2 𝑐 2 = 2𝑇 𝑚0 𝑐 2 (1 + )
2𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝑇
∴ 𝑝 = √2𝑇 𝑚0 (1 + )
2𝑚0 𝑐 2

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∴ From de – Broglie hypothesis,

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑇
√2𝑇 𝑚0 (1 + )
2𝑚0 𝑐 2
Replacing T = K.E. = eV,

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑒𝑉
√2eV 𝑚0 (1 + )
2𝑚0 𝑐 2
Putting,
ℎ
= 12.26 √𝑉𝐴0
√2 𝑚0 𝑒
12.25
𝜆= 𝐴̇
𝑒𝑉
√𝑉 (1 + )
2𝑚0 𝑐 2

Prob :-For an electron of K.E 1 MeV calculate de Broglie wavelength for

both relativistic and non-relativistic case:-
For non- relativistic case,
ℎ
𝜆=
√2𝑚 𝐸𝑘

K.E =𝐸𝑘 = 1𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 106 𝑒𝑣 = 1.6 × 10−13 𝐽

𝑚0 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
ℎ = 6.62 × 10−34 𝐽 − 𝑆
6.62 × 10−34
∴ 𝜆=
√2 × 9.11 × 10−31 × 1.6 × 10−13
= 1.23 × 10−12 𝑚
For relativistic case ,

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ℎ
𝜆=
𝑒𝑉
√2𝑇 𝑚0 (1 + )
2𝑚0 𝑐 2
6.62 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
=
√1.6 × 10−13 (1.6 × 10−13 + 2 × 0.8199 × 10−13 )
= 0.87 × 10−10 𝑚
Show that de Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass m and K.E .Eis ,
ℎ𝑐
𝜆=
√𝐸 (𝐸 + 2𝑚0 𝑐 2 )

Davisson and Germer’s experiment:- This experiment established the

correctness of de Broglie hypo thesis.

The experimental arrangement is shown in fig. the narrow beam produced by heating a
filament 𝑐 is accelerated through a known potential 𝑉 and directed to fall normally
towards the surface of a nickel crystal. The scattered electron in different direction are
collected by a detector; by rotating it about the crystal. It is biased such that the scattered
electrons with same energy as the incident beam can enter into it.

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Result :- The intensity of scattered electrons is plolated in a polar graph by talking radius
vector proportional to intensity and latitude angle (∅) as the angle of scattering at low
value of 𝑉 the plot is smooth but at higher value (44𝑉), hump appears on the plat ,which is
maximum for 𝑉 = 54𝑉 and ∅ = 500 on further increase of V the hump decreases and
disappears for higher voltages

Explanation: - From Bragg’s law, 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 − − − − − (1)

Here d is the spacing between adjacent planes of crystal responsible for scattering, 𝜃 is
the glancing angle of incident (angle between incident ray and the surface)

From the diagram,

𝜃 + 𝜙 + 𝜃 = 1800

1800 − 𝜙
∴𝜃=
2
∅
From geometry 𝑑 = 𝐷 sin ; 𝐷 is the interatomic spacing = 2 ∙ 15𝐴̇ = 𝐷 cos 𝜃
2

𝜙 𝜙
∴ 𝑛𝜆 = 2. 𝐷 sin sin (900 − )
2 2

𝜙 𝜙
= 2. 𝐷 sin 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 𝐷 sin 𝜙
2 2

For 1st order diffraction (𝑛 = 1) at 𝜙 = 500

𝜆 = 2 ∙ 15 sin 500

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= 1.65𝐴̇

Now according to de Broglie’s hypothesis we have for the electron accelerated through
p.d. V,
ℎ
𝜆= 𝑚𝑒 = 9 ∙ 1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
√2𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑣

12∙27
= 𝐴̇ 𝑒 = 1 ∙ 6 × 10−19 𝑐
√𝑉

12∙27
= 𝐴̇ 𝑉 = 6 ∙ 62 × 10−34 𝑗 − 𝑠
√𝑉

= 1 ∙ 67𝐴0

The agreement between the values of 𝜆 from Bragg’s diffraction and de Broglie relation
comfirms de Broglie hypothesis .

Application of de Broglie hypothesis

i)Energy of a particle in a box:-

Let us consider a particle with in 1D box, extending from x=0 to x= L .within this region
the potential energy is zero , and the walls are rigid.

Now as shown in the fig. the distance ‘L’ between the walls contains an integral no. of half
wavelength i.e.
𝜆
𝐿=𝑛
2

2𝐿
∴𝜆=
𝑛

∴Corresponding momentum from de Broglie hypothesis,

ℎ 𝑛ℎ
𝑃= =
𝜆 2𝐿

𝑃2 𝑛2 ℎ 2
∴ K.E = = QuantumParticlesInAnInfiniteSquarePotentialWell.cdf

2𝑚 8𝑚𝐿2

ii):Quantization condition for angular momentum of the electron on hydrogen atom.

To obtain Bohr’s quantum condition , the following assumptions are made

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• The motion of the electron in a stationary circular orbit is represented by a

standing matter wave of wavelength λ given by de- Broglie relation,
ℎ
𝜆= ……………(1) ; m= mass of the electron; v =
𝑚𝑣
velocity of electron in that orbit
• The circular orbit contains an integral no. of
wavelength i.e.

2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 ………(2)

n =1,2,3…𝑟𝑛 radius of the orbit

ℎ
From (1) and (2) 2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛.
𝑚𝑣

𝑛ℎ
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑛 =
2𝜋
ElectronWavesInBohrAtom.cdf BohrsOrbits.cdf

𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝜃 = 𝑛ℏ

It is Bohr’s quantization condition i.e. angular momentum is quantized

Using Bohr concept of matter wave show that each quantized Bohr orbit contains
an integral number de Broglie wave.

Angular momentum 2𝜋 𝑃𝜃 = 𝑛ℏ
𝑛ℎ
Or 𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑛 =
2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
Or 2𝜋𝑟𝑛 =
𝑚𝑣
ℎ
Or 2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 [∴λ= ]
𝑚𝑣
i.e. Bohr orbit contains an integral number of de Broglie wave.

Show that even in free space the velocity of de- Broglie wave depends upon
wavelength.

From the theory of relativity,

𝐸 = √𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4

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2 2
𝑚0 𝑐
= 𝑝𝑐 √1 +
𝑃2

𝐸 𝑚02 𝑐 2
√
𝑣𝑝 = = 𝑐 1 + 2
𝑝 𝑝

𝑚02 𝑐 2 𝜆2
= 𝑐 √1 +
ℎ2

[ it shows that even a dispersive medium for de- Broglie wave unlike E.M wave ]

iii) Phase velocity and group velocity of de Broglie matter wave :-

Phase velocity:- The phase velocity 𝑣𝑝 of the de- Broglie wave associated with moving
particle is given by,
𝜔
𝑣𝑝 = ; 𝜔 =angular frequency; 𝑘 =wave vector
𝑘

Now frequency and momentum of the particle is,

𝐸 = ℏ𝜔; 𝑃 = ℏ𝑘
𝐸
Now, 𝑣𝑝 =
𝑝

Non –relativistic case:-For a particle of mass m and energy E,

𝐸 𝑝2 ⁄2𝑚 𝑝 𝑚𝑣 𝑣
𝑣𝑝 = = = = =
𝑝 𝑝 2𝑚 2𝑚 2
𝑃 is the momentum and 𝑣 is the velocity ,
𝑣
𝑣𝑝 =
2
𝑖. 𝑒. Phase velocity is half particle velocity.

Relativistic case :- For a relativistic particle of mass m and velocity v,

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
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𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣
𝐸 𝑐2
∴ 𝑣𝑝 = =
𝑃 𝑣
𝐴𝑠 𝑣 always less than c, the velocity of light in free space , the phase velocity 𝑣𝑝 is thus
greater than c . According to special theory of relativity it is not possible . This suggests
that phase velocity has no physical meaning. Hence a particle cannot be described by
phase velocity i.e. a single wave.
D:\phylet\Physlet_Quantum_Physics\contents\need_quantum\waves_particles\intro.html

Group velocity :- The group velocity associated with de- Broglie wave for a particle
𝑑𝜔 ℏ𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝐸
𝑣𝑔 = = =
𝑑𝑘 ℏ𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑃
1. Non- relativistic case :- For a particle of mass m and velocity 𝑣,
𝑝2
𝐸=
2𝑚
𝑑𝐸 2𝑝 𝑚𝑣
𝑣𝑔 = = = =𝑣
𝑑𝑃 2𝑚 𝑚
2. Relativistic case ;- we have ,
𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4
𝑑𝐸
∴ 2𝐸 = 2𝑝𝑐 2
𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝐸 𝑝𝑐 2
∴ =
𝑑𝑝 𝐸

𝑝𝑐 2
∴ 𝑣𝑔 =
𝑚𝑐 2

𝑝
= =𝑣
𝑚
∴In both of the above cases we find that group velocity of de Broglie waves is equal to the
velocity of particle.

It suggests that the particle has to be represented by a superposition of such waves

slightly differing in wavelength; i.e. by a wave packet(discussed later).

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Q: Derive the relation between group velocity and phase velocity .

𝜔 𝑑𝜔
We have wave velocity 𝑣𝑝 = and group velocity 𝑣𝑔 =
𝑘 𝑑𝑘

𝑑𝜔 𝑑
∴ 𝑣𝑔 = = (𝑣𝑝 𝑘)
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘

𝑑𝑣𝑝
= 𝑣𝑝 + 𝑘
𝑑𝑘

𝑑𝑣𝑝 𝑑𝜆
= 𝑣𝑝 + 𝑘.
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝑘

𝑑𝑣𝑝 𝑑 2𝜋
= 𝑣𝑝 + 𝑘. . ( )
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝑘 𝑘

2𝜋 𝑑𝑣𝑝
=𝑣𝑝 − 𝑘.
𝑘 2 𝑑𝜆

2𝜋 𝑑𝑣𝑝
=𝑣𝑝 −
𝜆 𝑑𝜆

2𝜋 𝑑𝑣𝑝
∴𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 −
𝜆 𝑑𝜆

𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑖) 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒? 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 ? 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡?

WAVE PACKET : A wave packet can be constructed by superposing plane wave of

different wave numbers in such a way that they interfere with each other destructively
outside of a region of space.

Let us consider a wave 𝐴(𝑘)𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) and add such waves for a variety of 𝑘 value ranging
∆𝑘 ∆𝑘
over a small duration (𝑘0 − ) < 𝑘 < (𝑘0 + ); ∆𝑘 ≪ 𝑘0 ,
2 2

This superposition is called wave packet , described as

𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∫ 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑘 = ∫ 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑘

−∞ ∆𝑘

Where A and the angular frequency 𝜔 depends on k.

Expanding 𝜔(𝑘) as a power series about 𝑘0 ,

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𝑑𝜔
𝜔(𝑘) = 𝜔(𝑘0 ) + (𝑘 − 𝑘𝑜 ) ( ) +………………………
𝑑𝑘 𝑘=𝑘0

𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜔
Neglecting higher terms and writing (𝑘0 ) = ; ( ) =
𝑑𝑘
; we have,
𝑑𝑘 𝑘=𝑘0

𝑑𝜔
𝑖[𝑘𝑥−𝜔0 𝑡−(𝑘−𝑘𝑜 )( )𝑡]
𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∫ 𝐴(𝑘)𝑒 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘
∆𝑘

𝑑𝜔
𝑖[𝑘𝑥−𝑘0 𝑥+𝑘0 𝑥−𝜔0 𝑡−(𝑘−𝑘𝑜 )( )𝑡]
= ∫ 𝐴(𝑘)𝑒 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘
∆𝑘

𝑑𝜔
𝑖[(𝑘−𝑘0 )𝑥 − (𝑘−𝑘𝑜 )( )𝑡+(𝑘0 𝑥−𝜔0 𝑡)]
= ∫ 𝐴(𝑘)𝑒 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘
∆𝑘

𝑑𝜔
𝑖[(𝑘−𝑘0 )𝑥 − (𝑘−𝑘𝑜 )( )𝑡]
= ∫ 𝐴(𝑘)𝑒 𝑑𝑘 𝑒 𝑖[(𝑘0 𝑥−𝜔0𝑡)] 𝑑𝑘
∆𝑘
∴𝛹(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡)𝑒 𝑖(𝑘0𝑥−𝜔0 𝑡) ……………………………………..i)
𝑑𝜔
𝑖(𝑘−𝑘𝑜 )(𝑥− 𝑡)
where𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡) = ∫∆𝑘 𝐴(𝑘)𝑒 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘
Equation( i) represents a plane wave with propagation constant 𝑘𝑜 and angular
𝑑𝜔
frequency 𝜔0 , modulated by 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡); which depends on 𝑥 and 𝑡 through (𝑥 − 𝑡). It
𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝜔
follows that the wave packet moves with group velocity 𝑣𝑔 = .where the individual
𝑑𝑘
𝜔
wave moves with phase velocity 𝑣𝑝 = .
𝑝

phase and group velocities

https://www.desmos.com/calculator/adks4paxds

Formation of wave packet

https://www.desmos.com/calculator/es9lznalwy

uncertainty principle
https://www.compadre.org/PQP/quantum-need/section5_9.cfm

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WavepacketForAFreeParticle.cdf
5544 1

• i) Find the Fourier transformation 𝐹(𝑘) of 𝑓(𝑥), where,

𝑓(𝑥) = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎
= 0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒
ii) Plot 𝑓(𝑥),𝐹(𝑘). Find ∆𝑥; ∆𝑘 then comment about their product.
iii) Also explain the case when ∆𝑥 → 0

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• Find the Fourier transformation of Gaussian wave packet. Here establish the
uncertainty principle.

EvolutionOfAGaussianWavePacket (2).cdf

Uncertainty Principle
Important steps on the way to understanding the uncertainty principle are wave-particle
duality and the deBroglie hypothesis. As we proceed downward in size to atomic
dimensions, it is no longer valid to consider a particle like a hard sphere, because the
smaller the dimension, the more wave-like it becomes. It no longer makes sense to say
that we have precisely determined both the position and momentum of such a particle.
When we say that the electron acts as a wave, then the wave is the quantum
mechanical wavefunction and it is therefore related to the probability of finding the
electron at any point in space. A perfect sinewave for the electron wave spreads that
probability throughout all of space, and the "position" of the electron is completely
uncertain.

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HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

It is impossible to measure accurately and simultaneously the values of two canonically
conjugate variables and the magnitude of the product of the uncertainties in the values
of then must be at least equal to the reduced Planck’s constant (ħ) .

Thus if 𝑝, 𝑞 are two canonical conjugate variables then ∆𝑞∆𝑝 ≥ ħ

The uncertainty relations are –

∆𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 ≥ ħ[𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑥 ] … … 1)

∆𝜙 ∆𝐽 ≥ ħ [ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝐽]…2)

∆ 𝐸∆ 𝑡 ≥ ħ[ f𝑜𝑟 𝐸 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡] … … 3)

∆𝐸 is the uncertainty in determining energy of the system and ∆t is the uncertainty in

time .

• 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠(2)(3)𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚(1)

Applications of uncertainty principle :-

Minimum energy of harmonic oscillator :- The total energy (E) of the oscillator is

𝑃2 1
𝐸= + 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2
2𝑚 2
Let us consider that the uncertainty in the position of the oscillator is ∆x and the
uncertainty in its momentum is ∆p. Then according to uncertainty relation

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ħ
∆𝑝∆𝑥 =
2

ħ
Or,∆𝑥 =
2∆𝑝

Therefore the total energy E is of the order of

(∆𝑝)2 1 ħ 2
𝐸≈ + 𝑚𝜔2 ( )
2𝑚 2 2∆𝑝
2 2
∆𝑝 𝑚 ħ𝜔 ∆𝑝 𝑚 ħ𝜔 2∆𝑝 𝑚 ħ𝜔
𝐸≈( ) + (√ ) − 2( ) (√ )+ √
√2𝑚 2 2∆𝑝 √2𝑚 2 2∆𝑝 √2𝑚 2 2∆𝑝

∆𝑝 𝑚 ħ𝜔 2 ħ𝜔
≈( −√ ) +
√2𝑚 2 2∆𝑝 2
1
∴ 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ħ𝜔
2

1
The minimum energy of the harmonic oscillator is ħ𝜔
2

(2)Non – existence of the electrons in the nucleus:

The radius of the nucleus is of the order of the 10−14 𝑚 and maximum uncertainty in
position is 2 × 10−14 𝑚
now ∆𝑥∆𝑝 ≃ ħ

ħ 1.054 × 10−34
∆𝑝 ≃ = −14
= 5.27 × 10−21 𝑘𝑔 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
∆𝑥 2 × 10
The minimum uncertainty in momentum can be taken as the momentum of electron.

The total relativistic energy E of the electron is given by ,

𝐸 2 = 𝑃2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4

For the electron with minimum energy 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸 2 = 𝑃2 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑐 2 + 𝑚02 𝑐 4

= (5.27 × 10−21 )2 × (3 × 108 )2 + (9.11 × 10−31 )2 × (3 × 108 )2

𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.58 × 10−12 𝐽 = 98 Mev

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That is a free electron must have an energy of at least 9.88 MeV in order to exists in the
nucleus . As the maximum K.E of emitted electron is 4 MeV, it follows that a free electron
cannot exists in atomic nucleus .

(3) Energy and Radius of the Bohr’s first orbit:-

Let r be the radius of an electron moving around the nucleus of the hydrogen atom.
Maximum uncertainty in position of electron with respect to the nucleus is ∆𝑥 =
ħ ħ
𝑟.Possible value of momentum , p =∆p= =
∆𝑥 𝑟

𝑝2 ħ2
∴ Kinetic energy of electron = =
2𝑚 2𝑚𝑟 2

𝑧𝑒 2
Potential energy of electron = −
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

ħ2 𝑧𝑒 2
So the total energy E = 2
− ……………………(1)
2𝑚𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

In the ground state energy E is minimum and radius of electron First Bohr radius and let it
is 𝑎0
𝑑𝐸
∴[ ] =0
𝑑𝑟 𝑟=𝑎
0

2ħ2 𝑧𝑒 2
− + =0
2𝑚𝑎 3 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑎02

4𝜋𝜖0 ħ2
∴ 𝑎0 =
𝑧𝑚𝑒 2

For hydrogen atom z= 1

4𝜋𝜖0 ħ2
𝑎0 =
𝑧𝑚𝑒 2

Putting 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔

1
= 9 × 109 𝑁 − 𝑚2 /𝑐 2
4𝜋𝜖0

𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝑐

ħ = 1.054 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑆

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putting these values we have ,

𝑎0 = 0.529 𝐴̇

Substituting the value of 𝑎0 in eq (1) we get-

𝑚𝑒 4
𝐸=− = −13.6𝑒𝑣
2(4𝜋𝜖0 )2 ħ2

The energy of electron in the ground state (first orbit ) of hydrogen atom is – 13.6 ev

(4) Particle in a box :- Let us consider a particle confined to a box of length 𝑙 . the
uncertainty ∆𝑥 in the position is l i.e. ∆𝑥 = 𝑙

∆𝑥∆𝑝 ≃ ħ
ħ
∆𝑝 ≃
∆𝑥
ħ
∆𝑝 ≃
𝑙
Energy E =
2
ħ
𝑝2 (∆𝑝)2 ( 𝑙 )
≃ ⋍
2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚
ħ2
∴𝐸=
2𝑚𝑙 2
Uncertainty in frequency of radiation emitted by an atom :-

On transition from a higher energy state to lower energy state the nucleus, atoms and
molecules emit characteristics radiation.

An excited system has a small finite life time ∆T and the uncertainty for this interval is of
the same value. The energy of the excited state is therefore also uncertain.

If ∆E is the uncertainty in energy then,

ħ
∆E ∆t ≥
2

ħ
∆E≥ …………….(1)
2∆𝑇

Now for radiation of frequency γ, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈

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∴ ∆𝐸 = ℎ∆𝜈
ℎ
∴ from (1) , ℎ∆𝜈 =
4𝜋.∆𝑇

1 1
∴ ∆ 𝜈= .
4𝜋 ∆𝑇

E.gThe are lifetime for an excited atom is 10−8 𝑠𝑒𝑐

i.e. ∆T= 10−8 𝑠𝑒𝑐

1
∴∆𝜈= × 10−8
4𝜋

= 0.8× 107 𝐻𝑧

Thus the radiation from an excited atom does not have a precise value γ but has a range
from 𝜈 − ∆𝜈 to 𝜈 + ∆𝜈

Obtain the relations ∆𝝓 ∆𝑱 ≥ ħ ; ∆ 𝑬∆ 𝒕 ≥ ħ from the basic uncertainty relation.

A beam of short wavelength gives accurately the position of a

particle - justify
ħ
According to uncertainty principle, ∆𝑝 ∆𝑥 = . To determine the position accurately,
2
ħ
the value of ∆𝑥 must be small.Now ∆𝑝 ∆𝑥 = (constant), ∆𝑝 should be larger for the
2
ℎ
accuracy in measurement of 𝑥. Since λ = as de Broglie hypothesis, so for large 𝑝(or ∆𝑝) 𝜆
𝑃
should be small.

Determination of position with a γ-ray microscope:

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If we try to measure the position and linear momentum of an electron with a high
resolving power microscope, we may observe electron at least one photon is scattered by
it into the lens

The resolving power of microscope

𝜆
∆𝑥 = ………………(1)
2 sin 𝜃

This is the range in which the electron would be visible when disturbed by photon hence
‘∆𝑥’ is the uncertainty in measurement of position

However, the incoming photon interacts with the electron through the Compton effect in
order to see this electron, the scattered photon should enter the microscope at least
within the angle ‘2𝜃 ‘

Let 𝜈 and 𝜈 ′ be the frequency of the incident and scattered

photon.

From momentum conservation along x- axis

ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 ′
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷 + 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
𝑐 𝑐
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 ′ ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝑣 ′
or, 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷 = − 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 𝜃
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

𝑝𝑥 being the component of momentum along x-axis

Similarly component of momentum along x-axis due to another extreme photon

ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 ′′ 𝜋 ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 ′′
𝑝′𝑥 = − cos ( + 𝜃) = + 𝑠𝑖 𝑛 𝜃
𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑐 𝑐
To observe the scattered photon,𝜃 is restricted between the values – 𝜃 𝑡𝑜 𝜃,
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈 ′ ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝜈′
∴ ∆ 𝑝𝑥 = [ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃] − [ − sin 𝜃]
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

ℎ𝜈
=2 sin 𝜃 (considering 𝜈 = 𝜈 ′ = 𝜈 ′′ , as energy
𝑐
transferred to the photon is very small)
ℎ
= 2 sin 𝜃 … … … … . (2)
𝜆

𝜆 2ℎ
From (1) & (2) ;∆𝑝 ∆𝑥 = . sin 𝜃 = ℎ;
2 sin 𝜃 𝜆

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Single –Slit diffraction experiment: Let a beam of electrons is moving along

x- direction with a well-defined momentum 𝑝. If this beam is made to pass through a slit of
width 𝑎, as shown in the figure, then the y coordinate of the position of an electron passing
through the slit id determined to an accuracy ∆𝑦 = 𝑎

Smaller is the width of the slit greater is the accuracy in the knowledge of the y co ordinate
of the electron.
ℎ
Taking wave nature of electron, the associated wave length; 𝜆 = a diffraction pattern is
𝑝
observed on the screen on the other side of the slit. Since the electron is most likely to be
found with in the central pattern, the uncertainty of the y component of the momentum of
the electron is ∆𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝 sin 𝜃
𝜆
From theory of diffraction sin 𝜃 = ;
𝑎

𝜆
Hence ∆𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝 ;
𝑎

i.e. better knowledge of 𝑦 component of position (smaller value of 𝑎 ), result less

accuracy in the knowledge of y component of momentum.
𝜆
∆𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝 ; hence ∆𝑝𝑦 𝑎 = 𝑝𝜆
𝑎

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ℎ
Or, ∆𝑝𝑦 ∆𝑦 = 𝜆 = ℎ
𝜆

i.e. ∆𝑦∆𝑝𝑦 = ℎ

https://www.compadre.org/PQP/quantum-need/section5_8.cfm

Dr Quantum - Double Slit Experiment.mp4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q1YqgPAtzho

https://www.compadre.org/PQP/quantum-need/section5_4.cfm

DOUBLE SLIT EXPEIMENT WITH PARTICLE:

Let a mono-energetic beam of electron, emitted from a source be incident on two
identical slits 𝑆1 ,𝑆2 .After passing through the slits the electrons fall on the screen P, where
intensity is plotted. Three cases may arise as shown in figure when,

i) If 𝑆1 is open only,
ii) If 𝑆1 is open only,
iii) Both slits are open.
If an single electron is fired at a time the same interference pattern is developed after a
long time. Hence interference does not occur between different electrons but it is a
property of single electron i.e. each electron interact with both slits (how ? we don’t
know), as such , it is meaningless to ask which slit the electron passed through.

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If we employ a detector that can observe which slit an electron goes through actually,
the interference pattern disappears.(paticle nature appears). This experimental finding
introduces a new fundamental concept: the microphysical world is indeterministic. Unlike
classical physics, where we can follow accurately the particles along their trajectories, we
cannot follow a microscopic particle along its motion nor can we determine its path. It is

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technically impossible to perform such detailed tracing of the particle’s motion. Such
results inspired Heisenberg to postulate the uncertainty principle, which states that it is
impossible to design an apparatus which allows us to determine the slit that the electron
went through without disturbing the electron enough to destroy the interference pattern.

Wave function and Principle of Linear Superposition :

To explain the double slit experiment of electron, we assume that each particle can
be described by wave function 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) such that absolute square of this function gives the
intensity I.

𝐼 = |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥, 𝑡)𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)

Now we describe 𝜓1 , 𝜓2 be the wave functions describing the electrons on he screen

coming from the slits 𝑆1 ,𝑆2 respectively. Now intensities on screen when individual slits
are open are 𝐼1 = |𝜓1 |2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = |𝜓2 |2

When both of them are open together, resultant amplitude 𝜓 = 𝜓1 + 𝜓2 ;

Resultant intensity 𝐼 = |𝜓|2

=(𝜓1 + 𝜓2 )∗ (𝜓1 + 𝜓2 )

= 𝜓1 𝜓1 ∗ + 𝜓2 ∗ 𝜓2 + 𝜓1 𝜓2 ∗ + 𝜓1 ∗ 𝜓2

=𝐼1 + 𝐼2 +(𝜓1 𝜓2 ∗ + 𝜓1 ∗ 𝜓2 )

=𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) ;

Taking 𝜓1 = |𝜓1 |𝑒 𝑖𝜃1 and 𝜓2 = |𝜓2 |𝑒 𝑖𝜃2

This shows that due to presence of the phase term 𝐼 ≠ 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ; and interference
term appear on the screen.

Max Born suggested that the wave function must be interpreted statistically. His
postulate can be stated as ; If a particle is described by wave function 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) ; then
probability of finding the particle within an element 𝑑𝑥 about point 𝑥 at time 𝑡 is

𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑥

The quantity 𝑃(𝑥) = |𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥, 𝑡)𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) is called position probability
density.

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In 1935, the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger devised his famous thought experiment
or paradox, known as “Schrödinger’s cat”, to graphically illustrate the problem
decoherence (superposition) (and to illustrate the general bizarreness of quantum
mechanics). He proposed a scenario with a cat in a sealed box, where the cat's life or death
was dependent on the state of a particular sub-atomic particle. According to the
Copenhagen interpretation, the cat is in a kind of limbo represented by a wave
function which contains the possibility that the cat is dead but also the possibility that it is
alive. The cat, then, remains both alive AND dead until the box is opened, i.e. a superposition.
This is usually taken as a demonstration of the way that quantum physicsbreaks down
when dealing with large objects. SCHRÖDINGER&#39;S CAT EXPLAINED - YouTube (480p).mp4

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26. For an electron of K.E 1 MeV calculate de Broglie wavelength for both relativistic and non-relativistic
case..[00866 𝐴̇;.0087𝐴̇]
27. Calculate de Broglie wavelength length corresponding to most probable velocity of thermal neutron.
[1.779𝐴̇]
28. Compare de Broglie wavelength of a ball of mass 100gm and velocity 1m/sec with that of 1MeV
electron.
29. Calculate the velocity at which Compton wavelength is equal to the de Broglie wavelength. [𝑣=𝑐√2]

30. Obtain the uncertainty relation between energy and time ; angular momentum and angle from basic
uncertainty relation;

31. i)An electron of 200𝑒𝑉 passed through a hole of radius 10−4 cm. Calculate uncertainty of angle of
emergence. ii) what is the uncertainty of angle of emergence of a 1 gm lead ball of velocity 1m/sec
passing through a hole of radius 1 cm.

32. An electron has speed of 500 m/s with accuracy 0.005%. Calculate uncertainty in position of electron.
4.61mm.

33. A 20 gm riffle bullet takes 1 sec to reach the target. According to uncertainty principle discuss the
accuracy.

34. A simple pendulum of length 1𝑚 contains weight of 1 𝑘𝑔 .Calculate its zero point energy and quantum
state. [4.9×10−2𝐽 ; 𝑛=1019]

35. (a)Estimate the energy of the electron that we need to use in an electron microscope to resolve a
separation 0f 0.27 nm.(b)in a scattering of protons from a crystal plane the fifth maximum is obtained
at 300 .Estimate crystal plane separation. (20 𝑒𝑉;.1 𝑛𝑚)

36. Using uncertainty principle estimate ground state energy of Helium atom. [−10.35𝐴̇]

37. The angular momentum of electron in a hydrogen atom is known to be 2ℏ within 5%

accuracy-is it possible? [𝑛𝑜 𝑎𝑠 Δ𝜃=10 𝑟𝑎𝑑]

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38. Calculate the momentum of a photon of largest energy in the hydrogen spectrum. Also calculate the
velocity of the recoiling atom when it emits the photon? [7.7267x10-34 kg/m/s; 4.35m/s] Show that in
a Bohr atom, the nth orbit contain n complete electron wave.

39. Calculate the ground state energy of positronium.

40. Show that the kinetic energy T of an electron, having de Broglie wavelength equal to the Compton
wavelength, is given by,
𝑇=𝑚0𝑐2(√2−1)

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