Introduction
Name - PIYUSH SINGH
Class - XII ‘Science’
Roll No. - 23
Sec - ‘A’
Subject - Chemistry
School - TATA DAV Public School, Noamundi
Submitted To - Anant Meher
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that, The original and genuine investigation about the
subject matter and the related data collection and investigation has been
completed Solely sincerely by
Piyush Singh of Class 12
Held in
TATA DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL
Noamundi, West Singhbhum during the academic year 2025-2026
Regarding the Project title
" Foaming Capacity of Soap and Detergent "
He worked sincerely under the guidance of faculties and
Prepared this dissertation.
Internal Examiner External Examiner
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Apart from the efforts of mine, the success of any project depends
largely on the encouragement and the guidelines of many others. I take
this opportunity to express my gratitude to the people who have been
instrumental in the successful completion of this project.
I express deep sense of gratitude to almighty god for giving me strength
for the successful completion of the project.
I express my heartfelt gratitude to my parents for constant
encouragement while carrying out this project.
I gratefully acknowledge the contribution to the individuals who
contribute in bringing this project up to this level, who continues to look
after me despite my flaws.
I express my deep sense of gratitude to the luminary, The principal
TATA DAV Public School, Noamundi, West Singhbhum who has been
continuously motivating and extending their helping hand to us.
I shall fail in my duty if I didn't thank master in-charge, A guide, Mentor
who critically reviewed project and helped in solving each and every
problem, occurred during implementation of the project.
The guidance and support received from all the members who
contributed and who are contributing to this project, was vital for the
success of the project. I am grateful for their constant support and help.
CONTENTS
Introduction
· oap and detergents
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· Manufacturing
· Structure of Soap molecule
· Cleaning action of Soap
· Formation of scum
· Preparation of Soap
· Limitations of Soap
Experiment 1:
· Compare the foaming capacity of 5 soaps
Experiment 2:
· E ffect of addition of Sodium Carbonate on the foaming capacity of
different soap.
· Preparation of synthetic detergents
· Advantages of detergents over soap
· Disadvantages of soap.
Experiment 3:
· Emulsification power of detergents.
INTRODUCTION
Soap:
oap is the sodium salt (or potassium salt) of a long chain carboxylic acid
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(fatty acid) which has cleaning properties in water. A Soap has a large non-
ionic hydrocarbon group and an ionic group, -COO⁻ Na⁺.
Examples of soaps are - Sodium stearate and Sodium palmitate.
odium Stearate CH₃(CH₂)₁₆ COO⁻ Na⁺ → Sodium stearate soap is the
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sodium salt of a long chain saturated fatty acid called stearic acid
(CH₃(CH₂)₁₆ COOH).
Sodium Stearate Soap has a long alkyl group C₁₇H₃₅ and an ionic
carboxylate group -COO⁻ Na⁺.
odium palmitate C₁₅H₃₁ COO⁻ Na⁺ → Sodium palmitate soap is the sodium
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salt of a long chain saturated fatty acid called palmitic acid C₁₅H₃₁ COOH.
Soap is the salt of strong base (sodium hydroxide) of a weak acid
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(Carboxylic acid), so a solution of soap in water is basic in nature. Being
basic, a soap solution turns red litmus paper to blue.
Detergents:
etergents are called 'soap less soaps' because though they act like a
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soap having the cleaning properties, they do not contain the usual 'soaps'
like sodium stearate etc.
etergents are better cleaning agents than soap because they do not form
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insoluble calcium and magnesium salt with hard water and hence can be
used for washing even with hard water. Unlike soap, a detergent can lather
well even with hard water.
detergent is the sodium salt of a long chain benzene sulphonic acid (or
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the sodium salt of a long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate) which has cleaning
properties in water.
A detergent has a large non-ionic hydrocarbon group and ionic group like
sulphonate group, SO₃Na⁺ or sulphate group SO₄Na⁺
Examples of detergents are:
Sodium n-dodecyl benzene sulphonate and
Sodium n-dedecyl sulphate
CH₃-(CH₂)₁₁-C₆H₄ SO₃⁻ Na⁺
· Sodium n-dodecyl benzene sulphonate
(CH₃-(CH₂)₁₀-CH₂-SO₄⁻ Na⁺
· Sodium n-dodecyl sulphate
ence, the structure of a detergent is similar to that of soaps. Detergent
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molecules also consist of two parts: A long hydrocarbon chain which is
water repelling (hydrophobic); a short ionic part which is water attracting
(hydrophilic). Detergent lather well in hard water because they do not form
insoluble calcium or magnesium salt on reacting with the calcium ion and
magnesium ions present in hard water. Detergents are made from long
chain hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum. The cleaning action of soap
is similar to that of a soap.
Manufacturing of Soap:
oap is made from animal fat or vegetable oils. Fats and vegetable oils are
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naturally occurring esters of higher fatty acids (long chain carboxylic acids)
and a compound called glycerol (obtained from animal and plants) are
heated with sodium hydroxide solution, they split to form sodium salts of
fatty acid (called soap) and glycerol. Soap is made by heating animal's fat
or vegetable oil with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution (caustic soda
solution)
Fat or oil + Sodium Hydroxide → Soap + Glycerol
(ester) (alkali) (Sodium salt) (alcohol)
(of fatty acid)
he process of making soap by the hydrolysis of fats and oils with alkali is
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called saponification. Common salt (NaCl) is added to the mixture to make
the soap come out of the solution. Though most of the soap separates out
on its own but some of it remains in solution. Common salt is added to
precipitate out all the soap from the aqueous solution. Solubility of soap
decreases when we add NaCl.
Structure of Soap Molecule:
A soap molecule is made up of two parts -A long hydrocarbon parts
and a short ionic part containing -COONa+ group.
The soap molecule is said to have a tadpole structure. The long
hydrocarbon chain is hydrophilic (water repelling). So, the hydrocarbon part
of soap molecules is insoluble in water but soluble in oil and grease. The
ionic portion of soap molecule is hydrophilic (water attracting) due to the
polar nature of waten molecules. So, the ionic portion of soap molecules is
soluble in water but insoluble in oil and grease.
As the hydrocarbon part of the soap molecule is soluble in oil and grease,
so it can attach to oil and grease particles on the dirty clothes, the short
ionic pant of the soap moderne is soluble in waten. So it can attach to the
water particles (in which the soap is dissolved and the cloth is dipped)
Miscellus formation takes place when soap is added to water because the
hydrocarbon chain of soap molecules hydrophobic (waten attracting) and
hence soluble in water.
Cleaning Action of Soap:
hen this soap is dissolved in water, it forms a colloidal suspension
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in water in which the soap molecules cluster together to form spherical
micelles. (A spherical aggregate of soap molecules in the soap solution in
water is called micelle)
In a soap micelle the soap molecules are arranged radially with
hydrocarbon ends directed towards the centre and ionic ends directed
outwards. (The ionic ends are directed outwards because negative charges
at the end repel one another)
icelles formation take place when soap is added to water because the
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hydrocarbon chain of soap molecules hydrophobic (water attracting and
hence soluble in water).
icelle formation does not take place when soap is added to organic
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solvents because hydrocarbon chains of soap molecules are soluble in
organic solvents like ethanol.
hen a dirty cloth is put in water containing dissolved soap then the
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hydrocarbon ends of the soap molecules in the micelle attach to the oil or
grease -particles of the cloth. In this way the soap molecules micelle
entraps the oily or greasy particle by using its hydro-carbon ends. The ionic
ends remain attached to water and when the dirty cloth is agitated in this
solution, the soap micelles get dispersed in water and soap water becomes
dirty but the clothes gets cleaned. But sometime, soap cleaning action
reduces. This is because the soaps are not suitable for washing clothes in
hard water. Hardwater contains calcium and magnesium ion which react
with sodium carbonate to produce insoluble carbonates of higher fatty acids
and forms an inslouble precipitate called “scum”.
The scum on ‘curdy precipitate’ formed by action of hard water on soap,
sticks to the clothes being washed and intences with the cleaning ability of
the additional soap. This makes the cleaning of clothes difficult.
Insoluble carbonates of the high fatty acids are-
2 C17H35 COO- Na+ + CO2+ → (C17H35COO)2 Ca + 2 Na+
2 C17H35 COO- Na+ + Mg2+ → (C17H35COO)2 Mg + 2 Na+
This hardness of water can be removed by addition of sodium carbonate.
Ca2+ Na2 CO3 → CaCO3 + 2 Na+
Mg2+ Na2 CO3 → MgCO3 + 2 Na+
Preparation of Soaps:
Soap is prepared from oils or fats. Animal's fats or oils obtained from plants
(olive oil, castor oil or palm oil) are used. Oils or fats are the esters of fatty
acids or glycerol, when oils or fats are heated with a solution of sodium
hydroxide, they split up to form sodium salt of the respective fatty acid and
glycerol.
The process of splitting esters like fats or oil using alkalis is called
saponification. The reaction from which soap is made is an example of
saponification. In the manufacture of soap, some common salt (NaCl) is
added to the solution after saponification. In the manufacture of soap, some
common salt (NaCl) is added to the solution after saponification. Addition of
NaCl decreases the solubility of soap. Soap separates from the solution
and floats on the surface. This is called salting out of soap. The soap is
then skimmed off. It is then mixed with a desired colouring agent and
perfumed and then moulded into various shapes. Solution left behind after
skimming off the soap, glycerol is recovered. Glycerol is used in making
drugs, cosmetics, paints, etc.
Limitations of Soap:
ard water contains calcium and magnesium salts. Soap is not suitable for
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washing clothes with hard water because of two reasons.
hen soap is used for washing clothes with hard water, a large amount of
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soap is wasted in reacting with the calcium and magnesium ions of hard
water to form an insoluble precipitate called scum, before it can be used for
the real purpose of washing. So, a larger amount of soap is needed for
washing clotheswhen the water is hard.
he scum (or curdy precipitate) formed by the action of hard water or soap
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sticks to the clothes being washed and interferes with the cleaning ability of
the additional soap. This makes the cleaning of clothes difficult. The
formation of lather or foam (झाग) is necessary for removing dirt from clothes
during the washing of clothes. Soap does not give lather easily with hard
water because it reacts with calcium and magnesium to form scum. Soft
water, however, does not contain any calcium or magnesium ions and
therefore, lather easily formed when soap is added.
EXPERIMENT -1
Aim:
To compare the foaming capacity of five different commercial soaps.
Apparatus:
· test tubes.
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· 5 conical flasks (100ml)
· Test tube stand
· Bunsen Burner
· Stop watch
Material Required:
Five different samples of soap and distilled water.
Theory:
he foaming capacity of soap sample depends upon the nature of soap
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and its concentration. This can be compared with different samples of
soaps by taking the same concentration of solution and shaking them. The
foam is formed and the time taken for disappearance of foam is compared.
The lower is its in all cases time taken by a solution for disappearance of
foam the lower is its foaming capacity.
Procedure:
ive conical flasks are taken and numbered 1 to 5. In each of this flask
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equal amount (5gm) of the given sample of soaps shering and granules
and 50ml of distilled water is added. Each conical flask is heated few
minutes to dissolve all the soap completely
In a test tube stand, five big clean and day-test-tube are taken of
corresponding numbers 1to5. 1ml of the fire soaps solution then poured in
the test- tube of corresponding numbers. 20 ml of distilled waten is then
added to each lest tubes.Test tube on I is then shaken vigorously 5 times
the foam would be formed in the comply comply spe space above the
container Then the stopwatch is immediately stepped and the time taken
for the disappearance of foam & noted
The lesser the time taken for the disappearance of foam the lesser is the
foaming capacity.
Observation:
Amount of each soap sample taken = 5gm
Harcunt of dirtilled water taken = 50 ml
Volume of each soap solution taken = 1ml
Volume of distilled water added = 10ml.
Sl. No. Sample Time taken (sec)
1. Lifebuoy 25
2. Cinthol 32
3. Lux 40
4. Dove 50
5. Pears 55
Conclusion:
he soap for which the time taken for disappearance of foam is highest has
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the maximum capacity and is the best soap among the soap tested.
EXPERTMENT-2
Aim:
tudy the effect of the addition of sodium carbonate (washing soda) on the
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foaming capacity of different soap.
Apparatus:
· est tubes
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· Test tube stand
· Bunsen Burner
· Stop watch
Material required:
· .5 sample of soap
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· Water (distilled and tap both)
· M/10 Na₂CO₃ solution
Theory:
hen sodium or potassium soaps are put into water containing calcium
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and magnesium ions (hard water) results in formation of scum which
appears grey appearance on the cloth. To achieve the same washing and
cleaning action more soap must be added.
CH₃₅COONa + Ca²⁺ → (CH₃₅COO)₂ Ca + 2Na⁺
↓ ↓
(Water soluble) (Scum)
ard water is that high mineral content (mainly calcium and magnesium ion
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in contrast with soft water).
Hand water minerals primarily consist of Calcium (Ca²⁺), magnesium (Mg²⁺)
metal cations and sometimes other dissolved components such as
bicarbonates and sulphates, calcium carbonate such as (CaCO₃) in the
form of other mineral deposits.
hen Na₂CO₃ is added to tap water, then the calcium (Ca²⁺) and
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magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions precipitate as their carbonate i.e. foaming capacity
of soap increases.
Ca²⁺ + Na₂CO₃ → CaCO₃ + 2Na⁺
Mg²⁺ + Na₂CO₃ → MgCO₃ + 2Na⁺
Procedure:
Ø issolve 0.5g of soap and dissolve it in 50ml of distilled water.
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Ø Take three test tubes and add distilled water in first, tap water in
second and third test tube.
Ø To above test tubes add soap solution separately.
Ø Now shake 1st tube for formation of foam.
Ø Now start the stop watch to calculate the time for disappearance of
foam.
Ø Similarly, perform the experiment with other soap solution. Record it
in observation table.
Observation:
Amount of each soap sample taken = 0.5 ml
Amount of distilled water taken = 50 ml
Volume of each soap solution taken = 1ml
Volume of distilled water added = 10ml
Sl. No. Water used (ml) Time taken (sec)
1. 200 55
2. 100 40
3. 50 33
Conclusion:
oaming capacity of soap is maximum in distilled water. The foaming
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capacity of soap increases on the addition of sodium carbonate.
Preparation of Synthetic Detergent:
ynthetic detergents are made from hydrocarbons obtained from coal or
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crude oil (petroleum). Such hydrocarbons are treated with conc. H₂SO₄. A
synthetic detergent is the sodium salt of a long chain benzene sulphonic
acid or the sodium salt of a long-chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate.
o produce synthetic detergents, concentrated sulphuric acid heat, addition
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of sodium hydroxide give the sodium salt of sulphonic acid. This sodium
salt of sulphonic acid is the synthetic detergent.
Properties:
ynthetic detergents do not react with the ions present in hard water.
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Hence, synthetic detergents have no problem in foaming lather hard water,
i.e., their efficiency is not effected by hard water. They even lather in sea
water and water containing acids. So, hard water can not be tested by
using detergent. Apart from this, detergent dissolve faster than soaps in
water. This is why they almost replaced the soaps.
Advantages of detergent over soap
ynthetic detergents work well even with hard water but soap does not.
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Foam lather (Thick) easily with any kind of water. Detergents may be used
in saline and acidic water. In little amount also, it has better cleaning action
this detergent dissolved faster in water than soaps synthetic detergents do
not form insoluble salts of calcium or magnesium with water. Hence, lesser
amount of detergents are required for
washing.
odium sulphate and sodium silicate are the component of detergents
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which keeps the detergent powder dry.
Disadvantages of Detergent
ome synthetic detergents are non-biodegradable i.e. they are not
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decomposed by the bacteria or micro-organism. Hence they cause water
pollution in lakes and rivers. They lead to the persist for a long time, making
the water unfit for aquatic life. But however, detergents made with linear
hydrocarbon chains are more easily degraded and therefore they are
environmental acceptable.
EXPERIMENT-3
AIM:
To compare the emulsification power of detergents.
Material Required:
· mulsifier use:
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· Used detergent →
Ø Surf Excel
Ø Rin
Ø Fena
Ø Ariel
· Oil Used →
Ø Desi Ghee
Ø Petrol
Ø Butter
Ø Almond Oil
Ø Mustard Oil
· Water
· Stop watch
· Test tube
· Test tube stand
· Small measuring cylinder
Procedure:
In a test tube take 5 ml of oil and water
Add 5-6 drops of emulsifying agent solution
Shake it well and start the stop watch.
top the stopwatch after the separation of oil in water buone state and the
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time of separation
Repeat the process for other side.
Observation:
Emulsion Type/ Oil Tide Fena RIn Surf- Arial Whee
Excel l
Almond Oil 0.40 1.41 0.58 0.47 1.04 1.10
Mustard Oil 0.14 2.19 1.37 2.12 0.56 3.31
Sesam 0.29 2.02 1.34 1.01 0.37 0.19
Ghee 0.28 3.32 0.47 0.56 0.51 1.18
Butter 0.32 1.00 0.39 0.37 0.35 0.42
Petrol 0.12 1.46 0.25 0.29 0.35 0.15
Result:
mong all the detergents which we tested with different oil sample, 'TIDE'
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was found to have the best emulsifying therefore it is best suited for
washing.
Conclusion:
Detergent Soap
Synthetic detergent are the sodium Soap are sodium salt of long chain
salt of long-chain benzene fatty acid (Carboxylic acid)
sulphonic acid and the sodium salt
of a long chain alkyl hydrogen
sulphate.
The ionic part of detergent is - SO₃⁻ The ionic part of soap is COO⁻ Na⁺
Na⁺ or SO₄⁻ Na⁺
This is prepared from hydrocarbons This is prepared from animal fats or
extracted from coal of petroleum plant based oil.
Their efficiency is unaffected in Their efficiency is decreased in
hard water. hard water.
Dissolve in water at faster rate Takes time to dissolve in water.
They are non-biodegradable They are biodegradable
Detergents have a number of advantages over soap due to which they are
replacing soaps as washing agents. Detergents are both better than soaps
because of the following reasons:-
etergent can be used in even with hard water whereas soaps are not
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suitable for use with hard water. Detergents have stronger cleaning action
than soaps. Detergents are more soluble in water than soaps. Soaps have
relatively weak cleaning action than detergents. Hence detergents are
preferably used more nowadays. And this is the reason due to which
detergents are almost replacing the soaps.
