DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A DUAL POWERED CRUCIBLE FURNACE FOR

ALUMINIUM CANS RECYCLING

BY

TAMZOR Lebari

A Report Summitted to Nigerian Society of Engineers, Port Harcourt Branch, in Partial Fulfilment
for Membership Registration

January, 2025
 ABSTRACT

There is great need for metal scraps recycling and commercialization in Nigeria owning to the abundant
and indiscriminate disposal of metal scraps which constitute health hazard to citizens through the blockage
of drainage systems, causing erosion and flooding, defaces the aesthetics of the cities through mounting
heaps of metallic waste. This research work designed and fabricated a manually operated dual powered
tilting crucible furnace suitable for laboratory and workshop practice for recycling of aluminium cans and
scraps and other low melting metals and alloys. It consists of a cylindrical stainless steel pot contained in a
refractory lined mild steel square box, fired with both gas and electricity and incorporates a K-type digital
thermocouple for temperature measurement. The stainless steel crucible pot has a diameter of 195mm,
312mm high and 3mm thick. The refractory material was locally developed from asbestos, clay, cement
and perlite combined in the ratio 1:1:1:5 by volume. The fabricated furnace was tested for performance
evaluation by melting different samples of aluminium cans using both gas and electricity. It was found that
the furnace has fairly uniform melting rate with both gas and electric powered operations but has varying
heating rate which decreased with increasing charge mass. The furnace also has no-load heating rates of
28.7oC/min and 20.1oC/min when powered with gas and electricity respectively. The furnace has a melting
capacity of 0.0093 m3 for 25kg of aluminium charge with total output heat of 199.93 MJ and thus suitable
for use in small scale foundries and tertiary institutions
TABLE OF CONTENTS
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

The rate of indiscriminate disposal of metallic waste in Nigeria is alarming. This is a major concern to the

government and the society. This waste poses great threat to urban management, defaces the aesthetics of

the cities through mounting heaps of metallic waste, and also a health hazard to citizens through the

blockage of drainage systems, causing erosion and flooding. Recycling this metallic waste can be cheaper

than reproducing the products from the raw material in most cases, and also takes care of the emerging

waste disposal crisis that is ravaging our society (Emifoniye et al., 2020). Aluminum recycling is one of the

most lucrative business practices in Nigeria and the world at large. The recycling of aluminum involves

melting of aluminum scraps and further casting it into ingots, billets or finished/semi-finished products.

The metal to be recycled (cast) is required to be melted at a correct temperature before pouring into the

mould. This can be achieved with the use of furnaces. Furnaces are refractory lined vessels that contain the

material to be melted and provide the energy to melt it. The operating temperature required in the furnace

depends on the melting and pouring temperature of the materials being melted. They can range from about

350 °C for zinc alloy to 1700 °C for alloy steels. But for aluminium, the operating temperature is from

650 °C and above. There are various types of furnace. Modern furnace types include electric arc furnaces

(EAF), induction furnaces, cupolas, reverberatory and crucible furnaces. For ferrous materials, EAFs,

cupolas and induction furnaces are commonly used (Folayan, 2001).

The crucible furnace been one of the oldest and simplest furnaces used in the foundry is primarily used to

melt smaller amounts of nonferrous metals but can also be used for ferrous metals. It is mostly used in

small foundries or for specialty alloy lines. A crucible furnace is a type of furnace which uses the crucible

as a metal container for melting purposes. The crucible is made from the material of higher refractory

properties with higher melting temperature than the materials being melted and it is normally made from
clay. The basic components of a crucible furnace include the body, the heating source, crucible (melting

chamber) and vent or chimney. The crucible can be fired with solid fuel such as coke, charcoal, etc.,

gaseous fuel like natural gas, liquid fuel such as diesel, used oil, etc., or electricity. Materials such as

metals and plastics are cast into shapes by melting them, pouring the molten metal into a mold, and

removing the casting after the metal has solidified and cooled. The choice of selection of furnace type for a

particular job is determined by the furnace capacity, melting rate and temperature control desired, quality

of melt required, economics of melting, availability of heating media, forms and types of charge material

and environmental considerations, such as air pollution and noise (Nwigbo, 2017).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The effective teaching of practical metal casting techniques in Nigerian tertiary institutions and indigenous

production of machine components and mechanical parts are not feasible. One major cause of this is lack of

or poor teaching facilities in tertiary institutions and inability of students to access foundry industries for

practical training. Almost all tertiary institutions and even most of the foundry industries in Nigeria, have

suffered several set-backs such as lack of stable electrical power supply, high cost of importation of foreign

furnaces, raw materials etc. which had resulted to low production output, loss of man hours, high cost of

production, and in most cases, loss of jobs occasioned by closure of most of the industries. There are about

160 foundries in Nigeria at different stages of life and death conditions and they meet less than 5% of

Nigeria’s demand for machine components and mechanical parts (Adeosun and Osoba, 2008). Most

castings in Nigeria are imported, the poor performance of the manufacturing sector in Nigeria is indicative

of the low state of the foundry industry of which majority are small–medium scale enterprises with an

unsubstantial total productive cost and input to the upper limit of only between 5-20 million naira. This is

quite very low compared to that in the US; put the market value of the annual casting shipments at 28-30

billion US dollars produced by approximately 3,200 foundries as reported by Asibeluo and Ogwor (2015).

These myriads of problems therefore, necessitated this research work.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this project work is to design and fabricate a dual power crucible furnace for use in

the Foundry workshop of the Department of Mechanical Engineering. To achieve this object, the following

specific objectives were set;

(1) To compare the thermal efficiency of gas fired with electric fired furnace

(2) To carry out performance evaluation on the designed furnace

(3) To test the fabricated furnace for suitability for foundry use

(4) To provide portable laboratory furnace for experimentation

1.4 Significance of the Study

This project work will be beneficial to the tertiary institutions in particular as it will facilitate effective

teaching of Foundry Technology and technical skills of the students through practical demonstration of

metal casting and recycling processes and the society at large as products from metal casting technology

are widely used in every human endeavor. The findings and recommendations of this work will also be

beneficial to the foundry and manufacturing industries and other allied industries and as well serve as a

reliable source of literature for future researchers in the field.

1.5 Scope of the Study

The scope of this work covers design and fabrication of gas and electric powered crucible furnace suitable

only for laboratory use for melting of non-ferrous metals with low melting points hence the high melting

temperature metals and alloys cannot be melted with this furnace. It thus covers component design,

materials selection, materials procurement, fabrication processes which involves welding, machining and

assembling. Performance evaluation of the fabricated furnace which involves experimentation and

validation are also covered in this work.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of Previous work

Metal casting has been a technological practice of great benefit to man for so many centuries. Casting is the

essential foundation of civilization. It involves melting of metal, pouring the molten metal into preformed

container (called mould) and allowed to solidify. With it, man unlocked his future, placing him on the path

toward conquering his environment. Without the process of metal casting (foundry), there would be no

metals, and if there were no metals, there would be virtually nothing. Many products would be nonexistent

if it were not for metal casting, as metal cannot be obtained in a useable form from the earth.

Typical applications of casting process are pistons, connecting rods, cylinder blocks, mill rolls, water

supply pipes and specials, wheels, machine tool beds, manhole covers and frames, impellers, machine and

table vices, pulleys, crankshafts, etc. Some of the industries linked to foundry industry are automotive

industry, cement industry, textile industry, tool industry, ship industry, building and road construction

industry, etc. which employ the use of furnace (Ekpe et al., 2015; Adeolu et al., 2017).

Previous studies show the importance of efficient and effective furnace in the production process involved

in foundry technology hence the local foundry craftsman and technicians use furnace for casting different

objects such as machine parts, domestic cooking pots, spoons, frying pans etc. According to

Katerina et al. (2016), for a nation to advance technologically, it must be able to harness and convert its

mineral resources, fabricate most of its equipment and machines locally. Abed et al. (2013) also

emphasized the importance of melting and heat treatment of metals in manufacturing process. Ability to

harness, convert the mineral resources into what is beneficial to the people of the country and the world at

large, development of machine and equipment locally are some of the attributes of technologically
advanced countries. Ahmed (2009) also asserted that the production of metal is one of the major industrial

practices that should be in the forefront of industrialization because metals are versatile elements whose

field of application is very wide in human lives and development of a country. Statistics have shown that

furnaces are one of the largest consumers of energy and are facing increased pressure to produce high

quality products at equal or lower cost to be competitive (Oyawale, 2011; Kulani et al., 2018).

Historically crucibles were made of clay, but they can be made of any material with higher temperature

resistance than the substance they are designed to hold. The most commonly used furnaces may be

classified according to the source of heat, type of work and working environment. It can be broadly divided

into two classes: Fuel fired furnaces (depending on the type of fuel, i.e. solid fuel, liquid fuel and gaseous

fuel and electrically heated furnaces (conversion of electrical energy into heat energy). Depending on the

method of heating, electrical furnaces can be grouped into resistance, arc, induction, plasma and electron

beam furnaces. Thus, there are different types of crucible furnaces which include:

a) The stationery pot: this is the simplest form of crucible furnace. The molten metal is ladle out

directly for casting.

b) The lift- out pot: consist of a pot that can be lifted out of the furnace by means of a tongs for

pouring.

c) The tilting pot: here the entire furnace is tilted to pour out the molten metal directly into the ladle or

mould, in which the molten metal is transferred to the mould or ladle by mechanically tilting the

crucible and furnace body.

The crucible furnace is applicable in annealing, heat treating, research & development, melting, sintering

ceramics, general purpose heating, thermal reactors, gold, silver and copper melting, etc.
2.2 Recent Review

The huge economic benefit of the secondary method of aluminium production has enabled the continued

interest in developing various furnaces for its processing.

Ekpe et al. (2015) reported the design and fabrication of a gas-fired crucible furnace for melting scrap

aluminium. The furnace body was built with 2mm mild steel sheet and the crucible pot made from

ceramics. Thermal insulation was achieved using fibre glass and refractory bricks. A locally fabricated gas

burner was incorporated in the design. The results obtained revealed that the designed furnace a melting

efficiency of 28.24%, maximum operating temperature of 820oC and a melting capacity of 5kg of charge.

Gbasouzor and Philip (2018) fabricated a laboratory size crucible furnace using local materials.

The furnace was fired by diesel and incorporated a thermocouple, digital thermo controller and a voltage

regulator. The furnace body was built with 2mm mild steel sheet and the crucible pot made from stainless

steel. The refractory material was a homemade mixture consisting of port land cement, clay, silica sand and

perlite with mixing ratio of 1:1:1:1:7. The results revealed that the furnace has a heating rate of

61.24oC/min, maximum operating temperature of 1915oC and very good fuel economy which is less than

1.41 litres/hr.

Olalere et al. (2015) developed a crucible furnace fired by spent engine oil. This furnace melts 30 kg of

Al-Si alloy in 20 minutes and consumes 7 litres of used engine oil. The flow rate of oil was found to be

5.833 x 10-6 m3/sec. Thermal efficiency of furnace was 46.74% on its performance evaluation. However,

the reported thermal efficiency of furnaces fired by diesel were found to fall between 10.34% and 11.45%

(Asibeluo and Ogwor, 2015). This low melting efficiency value was attributed to heat loss due to open

nature of furnace. In general crucible furnaces fired with petrol, oils, diesel, lubricating oils, kerosene and

mixture of different oils results in good heating but also results in emission of high nitrogen oxides, carbon,

and sulphur emissions. The cost, availability of petrol and its derivatives and also due to its non-renewable
nature and environment hazards of these fuels has encouraged focus on bio-fuels as alternative fuels by

many researchers (Suresh and Nagarjun, 2016).

Garba (2015) designed and fabricated a charcoal powered crucible furnace using locally available materials

for melting scrap aluminum. Mild steel sheet of 3mm thickness and mild steel (angle iron) of 5 mm

thickness were used or the furnace body and support respectively. The refractory material used consisted of

asbestos, clay sand and cement. It was found that furnace produced a total of 67,943.16 kJ of heat energy

and took 1hr 33mins to melt 10 kg. The melting efficiency of the furnace was 76%. The results of the

performance test of the furnace performance also indicated that it consumes 3kg of charcoal in 1hr 33mins

to melt 10kg of aluminum.

Rasheed et al. (2020) reported the fabrication of a crucible furnace for melting non-ferrous metal scraps.

The furnace was fired using diesel with a melting capacity of 30Kg. The developed crucible furnace has a

fuel consumption rate of less than 1.36 litres/hr, heating rate is 77.3 oC/min, melting rate of 0.2Kg/min and

heating efficiency of 27.6% which is quite impressive when compared with the conventional crucible

furnace of maximum efficiency.

Emifoniye et al. (2020) designed and fabricated a furnace for plastic wastes recycling which consisted

mainly of thermometer for measuring temperature, mild steel, glass fiber, heating coil, outer and inner

layer. After its fabrication, the furnace was seasoned before use. This was achieved by closing the furnace

door without loading it and heated to 1350 oC (the highest design temperature range). Various weights of

plastic wastes weighing 3, 5, 8, 10, 14 and 15kg were used to evaluate the fabricated furnace. The time of

melting and the temperature of melting were recorded. The results obtained showed that as the weight of

plastic wastes melted increases the time and temperature of melting also increases.

The design and fabrication of foundry cum forging furnace have been reported by Gulfam et al. (2019)

which was fired by coal. The furnace body was fabricated with 2mm mild steel sheet and the crucible pot
made from mild steel sheet, lined with plaster of paris (POP) and refractory bricks on the exterior as

refractory material. The fabricated furnace was found to be 67% efficient and suitable laboratory use.

Bhandari et al. (2018) designed a Crucible Furnaces by using Black Smithy Setup. The furnace was

constructed in pit format with fire bricks of 75 mm thickness and a dimension of 220 × 110 mm. The time

taken to melt aluminum is 75 minutes and ambient temperature was 30°C, maximum furnace temperature

achieved was 1000 °C.

Adeodu et al. (2017) developed of a 30 Kg aluminium diesel-fired crucible furnace using locally sourced

materials. The furnace drum had a combustion capacity of 0.1404 m3 and fitted with a chimney to allow

for combustion gas escape. A blower was incorporated in the system, it was designed to discharge air into

the furnace at the rate of 0.3 m3/s with an air/fuel ratio of 400:1. The aluminium crucible furnace is

designed to consume 4 litres of diesel fuel with a rating of 139000 kJ/gallon which is required to

completely melt 30-kilogram of aluminium over a period of 18 min. the furnace was able to reach a

temperature of 780 ᴼC in 18 minutes.

Bhamare et al. (2017) fabricated a Portable Metal Melting Furnace. The heating medium is LPG gas. The

components selected for the manufacturing were metallic plate, insulating material (glass wool), burner,

gas cylinder, gas pipe, LPG gas, graphite crucible and gas regulator. The gas cylinder of 5 kg was used

with a 1.0 kg/hr regulator. A maximum of 680 ᴼC was reached by the furnace in 15 minutes.

Meriga et al. (2018) developed a low-cost electrical resistance-based metal melting furnace for casting

applications. The furnace was designed to melt metals with temperatures below 1000 ᴼC. It was tested with

aluminium and its alloys and a 700 ᴼC was achieved in 100 minutes. The charge inserted took 100 minutes

to melt.
2.3 Summary of Reviewed Literature and Knowledge gap

The foregoing literature reviewed revealed that several researchers have worked extensively on types of

crucible furnace, improving upon the previous works of others and creating a more distinct blend of energy

sources. As a result, the aim of embarking upon this research work is to explore the possibility of creating

an effective, yet, portable dual-powered tilting crucible furnace, fabricated by making use of locally

available materials, as well as evaluating its performance in relation to both environmental and systematic

factors. Undoubtedly, this will go a long way in influencing the decisions behind crucible furnace design,

quality control and usage.

 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Design

The design of this research work is based on thermodynamic analysis of furnaces, materials availability,

energy source and transfer. The following parameters guided the design and fabrication of this melting

furnace.

3.1.1 Design Considerations

In designing the furnace, several important parameters which determine its overall performance were

considered. Hence the following factors were considered;

(i) The quantity of charge (i.e., aluminium wastes) put into the melting chamber

(ii) Capacity of the melting chamber

(iii) Heat required to melt charge

(iv)Heating rate

(v) Maximum operational temperature

(vi)Melting efficiency

(vii) Cost

(viii) Ease of maintenance

3.2 Design Analysis

3.2.1 Capacity of Crucible

The furnace is intended to melt 25kg of charge and capacity of the crucible (melting chamber) was

estimated using Equation 3.1.

2
V c =π R H =M / ρ (3.1)

where V c is volume (capacity) of the crucible (m3), M is the mass of metal charge (Kg) and ρ the

density (kg /m3) of aluminium and R and H are the internal radius (m) and height (m) of the crucible

respectively.

3.2.1 Dimension of Crucible

The furnace crucible is cylindrical in shape and the internal diameter and height of the crucible were

determined by the furnace capacity (melt volume), with considerations that the ratio:

H
=(1.6−2.0) (3.2)
D

In this design, H / D=1.6 ⇒ H =1.6 D=3.2 R

The internal diameter of the crucible or melting chamber (Figure 3.1) was estimated using Equation 3.3

obtained from Equation 3.1 as follows.

Figure 3.1: Crucible

2 3
V c =π R H =3.2 π R

( )
1
Vc 3
R=
3.2 π
 ( )
1
Vc 3
∴ D=2 (3.3)
3.2 π
where, R , D and H are the internal radius (m), internal diameter (m) and height (m) of the crucible

respectively. The material and design data for and computation are given in Table 3.1.

3.2.3 Heat supplied to the furnace by gas (heat input)

The amount of heat supplied to the furnace is the heat input to the furnace chamber as a result of gas

combustion from the burner. This is determined from the ratings on the gas regulator which has 1.5kg/hr,

the melting time and the gas burner rating (5.5kW) using Equation 3.4.

Q¿ = pt (3.4)
where p is the gas burner rating (kW) and t the heating time (seconds).
It was assumed that 30% of heat required for melting was lost to the surrounding due to convection,
radiation and conduction via the furnace chimney, burner vent, refractory linings etc., and the total heat
supplied was then estimated using Equation 3.5.
Total heat input Qinput =0.3 Qoutput +Q¿ (3.5)

3.2.4 Burner Design

It is recommended that burners be placed at one end of the furnace so that flame has the longest path to

travel. In this manner maximum fuel efficiency is achieved. Burners should also operate at as near to the

theoretically correct or stoichiometric air/fuel ratios as possible. The principle of conservation of mass for a

mixing chamber requires that the sum of the incoming mass flow rates equal the mass flow rate of the

outgoing mixture. It is assumed that mixing chambers does not involve any kind of work (w = 0).

In addition, kinetic and potential energies are usually negligible (KE = 0 and PE = 0). Then all that is left in

energy equation is the total energies of the incoming fluid streams and the outgoing mixture.

The conservation of energy requires that these two equal each other. Conservation of mass equation gives:

dm dm
M ¿ −M out = and =0 (3.6a)
dt dt
 ⇒ M ¿ =M out (3.6b)

Where M ¿ is the mass flow rate of incoming gas and M out is the mass flow rate of outgoing mixture

3.2.5 Heat supplied to the furnace by electricity (heat input)

Heat input to the furnace chamber through the electrical element was estimated using Equation 3.7.

Q=IVt (3.7)

and the power rating of the heating element was estimated using,

P=IV (3.8)

where, I is the current (A), V the voltage (V) and t the time (s) taken to melt the charge.

In this design, V =¿240V and t=60 mins=3600 s, as the furnace is intended to melt the charge with

electric power in a maximum of 60mins.

3.2.5 Heat required to melt charge (heat output)

In order to obtain enough fluidity of the molten required for casting, the charge must be heated to a poring

temperature, an appropriate temperature far more than its melting temperature. The quantity of heat

required for this, was estimated using Equation 3.5 (Gbasouzor and Philip, 2018).

Qout =M C s ( T a−T r ) + Mh f + MC s ( T p−T a ) (3.9a)

M [ C s ( T a−T r ) + hf +C s ( T p−T a ) ] (3.9b)

where, M is the mass of charge (kg), C s the specific heat of aluminum (kJ/kgoC), T a the melting

temperature of aluminum (oC), T p the pouring temperature (chosen as 800oC), T r the room temperature (oC)

and h f the latent heat of fusion of aluminium (kJ/kg).

During heating of the charge, some amount of heat is absorbed by the crucible pot and some quantity of

heat is given off as losses through the furnace chimney and other sources. For efficient design, heat losses

are minimized. However, heat absorbed by the crucible pot was estimated using Equation 3.10.
 Qc =ρ c V c C c ( T p −T r ) (3.10)

where, ρc is the density of crucible material (kg /m3), V c the volume of crucible material ( m3), C c the

specific heat of crucible material (kg/oC), T p the pouring temperature (chosen as 750oC) and T r the room

temperature (oC). The crucible pot was made with stainless steel.

Total heat output was obtained by combining Equations 3. 9 and 3.10 as follows.

Q output =M [ C s ( T a−T r ) + hf +C s ( T p−T a ) ] + ρc V c C c ( T p−T r ) (3.11)

The design and materials parameter for the design computation are listed in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Design and materials parameters

S/N Parameter Symbol Value Unit
1 Density of aluminium ρ 2700 Kg/m
3

2 Specific heat capacity of aluminum Cs 0.896 kJ/kgoC

3 Melting temperature of aluminum Ta 660 o
C
4 Pouring temperature Tp 800 o
C
5 Room temperature Tr 28 o
C
6 Latent heat of fusion of aluminium hf 398 kJ/kg
7 Specific heat capacity of stainless steel Cc 0.468 kJ/kgoC
8 Density of crucible material (stainless steel) ρc 8000 Kg/m
3

9 Density of furnace body material (mild steel) ρb 7850 Kg/m

3

3.2.6 Heating Time

This is the heating time of the furnace, which is one of the basic design criteria that must be met. It is the

time required to heat the aluminum charge from ambient room temperature of 28o to 800oC in crucible

furnace. This was obtained from Equations 3.4 and 3.9 as follows.

Qinput =Qoutput

0.3 Qoutput +Q ¿=Q output (3.12a)

0.3 Qoutput + pt=Qoutput

 0.7 ×Q output
t= (3.12b)
p

3.2.7 Thermal Efficiency of Furnace

The efficiency of the crucible furnace when melting the charge (aluminium scraps) was estimated using

Equation 3.13.

Qth Qoutput
η= ×100 %= × 100 % (3.13) where,
Qexp Qinput

Qth is the theoretical heat required to melt the charge and Qexp the experimental (actual) heat

required to melt the charge

3.2.8 Weight of Furnace

The weight of the furnace is an important parameter in its design as it affects the design of the tilting

mechanism. It consists of the weight of crucible pot, maximum weight of charge material to be melted,

weight of refractory lining and other components such as burner unit, cover, chimney, etc.

The weight of the crucible pot was estimated using,

W c= ρc V c g (3.14)

πh 2 2 2
with V c= [ d −d +d t ]
4 o i o
(3.15)

where ρc is the density of crucible material (kg /m3), V c the volume of crucible material ( m3), t the

thickness of the crucible (m) and d i and d o are the inner and outer diameters of crucible respectively.

Weight of furnace body W b =ρb V b g (3.16)

2
with V b =6 l t

where ρb is the density of furnace body material (7850 kg /m3 ), V b the volume of furnace body material (m3

), t the thickness of the furnace body (m).

Since the furnace is designed for maximum charge mass of 25kg, weight of furnace material including

charge will be,

 W f =W c +W b +25 g=ρ c V c g+ ρb V b g+ 25 g

¿( ρc V c + ρb V b +25)g (3.17)

The weight of the refractory lining including weight of the furnace cover and other unrecognized weights

was assumed to be half of the weight of furnace material including charge. That is,

W u =¿ unrecognized weights ¿ 0.5 W f ;

Hence total weight of furnace, W tf ¿ W f +W u=1.5W f (3.18)

3.2.9 Tilting Mechanism

To be able to pour molten metal easily a tilting mechanism was incorporated into the design. Due to the

small capacity of this furnace, manually operated tilting mechanism was adopted, which consists of a

supporting shaft and roller bearings. The supporting shaft is subjected to both bending and torsional

moments. Therefore the shaft diameter was estimated using (Sharma and Aggarwal, 2012),

16
3
d=
π τ max
[√ ( K b
2
M b ) +( K s M t )
2
] (3.19)

where, M t is the torsional moment (Nm), M b the bending moment (Nm), K s the combined shock and

fatigue factor applied to torsional moment¿ 1.0 for load applied gradually to rotating shafts;

K b is the combined shock and fatigue factor applied to bending moment ¿1.5 for load applied gradually to

rotating shafts; and τ max is the maximum shear stress = 55MN/m2 for shaft without key way;

= 40MN/m2 for shaft with key way.

In this design the tilting is effected by the use of a short shaft machined on the lathe machine, subjected to

both bending and torsional moments and the shaft size selected based on Equation 3.15.
3.3 Design Calculations

The computations of the various design parameters for the crucible furnace are given in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Design Calculations

Parameter Input data Calculation Results/output

Capacity of M =¿ 25kg, ρ=¿2700 Kg/m3 M 25 kg 0.0093 m
3
V c= =
crucible ρ 2700 Kg/m 3

( ) ( )
Diameter of π=¿ 3.142; V c =0.0093 m3 V c 13 0.0093 m3
1 0.195 m=195 mm
crucible D=2 =2 3
3.2 π 3.2(3.142)
Height of D=195 mm=0.195 m H=1.6 D=1.6 ×0.195 0.312 m=312 mm
crucible
Heat input p=5.5 k W ; t=60 mins Q¿ = pt=5500× 3600 19.8 MJ
Melting heat ρ=¿2700 Kg/m ; 3
Qout =M [ C s ( T a−T r ) +h f +C s ( T p −T a) ]17.303 MJ
T a=660 C; T r=28 C
o o
¿ 25 [ 896 ( 660−28 ) +398+896 ( 800−660 ) ]
T p=800 oC
V c =0.0093 m ;
3
C s=¿
o
0.896kJ/kg C;
h f =398 kJ /kg
Heat ρc =8000 Kg /m
3
Qc =ρ c V c C c ( T p −T r ) 26.90 MJ
absorbed by V =0.0093 m3 ¿ 8000 ×0.0093 ×
c
crucible pot C =0.468 kJ /¿ o 468 ( 800−28 )
c kg C
T p=800 oC
T r=28 oC
Heat output Qout =173.03 MJ Qoutput =Qout +Qc 19.993 MJ
Qc =26.900 MJ ¿ 173.03+26.90
Furnace Qinput =¿ Q output 86 %
efficiency η= ×100 %
Qoutput =51.26 MJ Qinput
17.303
¿ ×100 %
19.993
Melting Qoutput =199.93 MJ 0.7 ×Q output 0.7 × 19.993× 106 42 mins
time t= =
p=5.5 kW p 5.5 × 10
3

( ])
Shaft K b =K s=1.0 16
1
20 mm
diameter τ max=¿ 55MN/m2
d=
π τ max
([√
K b M b )
2
+ ( K s M t )
2 3
 Volume of d o =195+3=198 mm πh 2 2 2 0.00032 m
3

crucible ¿ 0.198 m
V c= [ d −d +d t ]
4 o i o
material d i=D=195 mm
¿ 0.195 m
t=0.003 m
h=0.309 m

Weight of ρc =8000 Kg /m3 W c= ρc V c g 25.1 N

crucible V c =0.00032 m
3 ¿ 8000 ×0.000322 × 9.81
material 2
g=9.81 m/ s
Volume of l=400 mm t=3 mm 2 0.00288 m
3
V b =6 l t
furnace
body
Weight of ρc =8000 Kg /m
3
W f =(ρc V c + ρb V b+ 25)g 475.1 N
furnace V c =0.00102 m
3 ( 8000 × 0.00102+7850 × 0.00288+25 ) 9.81
3
ρb =7850 Kg /m
3
V b =0.00288 m
2
g=9.81 m/ s
Total weight W f =¿ W tf =1.5W f 712.6 N
of furnace

3.4 Materials/Parts Selection

The materials used in the course of this research work were sourced locally and selected based on their

thermal properties, insulation ability, weldability, machinability, availability and affordability. The selected

materials and component parts with their specifications are shown in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4: Materials /parts selection

S/N Component/Part Materials Reasons for selection

1 Furnace Mild steel o Good machinability
body/casing o Available and affordability
o Good weldability
2 Refractory wall Cement, asbestos and o Available and affordability
clay o Low thermal conductivity
3 Crucible pot Stainless steel o Good machinability
o Available and affordability
o Good weldability
 o High thermal conductivity
o Good thermal and chemical
stability at high temperature
o Good corrosion resistance
4 Gas line/pipe Polymer o Readily available and affordable
5 Fuel Gas and electricity o Availability and reliability
6 Furnace cover Mild steel o Good machinability
o Readily available and affordable
o Good weldability
7 Chimney Mild steel o Good machinability
o Readily available and affordable
o Good weldability
8 Base stand Mild steel o Good machinability
o Readily available and affordable
o Good weldability

3.3 Tools and Equipment used

The various tools and equipment used in course of carrying out the fabrication of the furnace are listed

below;

(i) Hack saw

(ii) Measuring tape

(iii) Welding machine

(iv) Folding machine

(v) Drilling machine

(vi) Marking tools

(vii) K – type digital thermocouple

3.4 Fabrication Techniques

The designed furnace was fabricated in the Welding and Fabrication workshop of Ken Saro – Wiwa

Polytechnic, Bori. The various processes involved in the fabrication work include measurement, marking
out, cutting, machining, folding and welding. Different components were separately fabricated and later

assembled. After assembling, the sharp edges were chamfered and the structure was painted. The details for

the fabrication process for each component are given below.

Furnace cover: The cover was fabricated from a 3mm thick mild steel sheet and formed into a square of

side 370 mm with a hole of 200 mm which serves as the chimney/exhaust.

Crucible (melting chamber): The materials specification of the furnace crucible is stainless steel sheet

3mm thick folded to give a cylindrical drum of diameter 195mm and 312mm high, and welded using

stainless steel electrode. The base was also sealed by welding with a circular stainless steel plate 3mm

thick.

Furnace body/casing: The furnace case is a square box of side 370mm and 400mm high fabricated from

3mm thick mild steel sheet and accomplished by electric arc welding using gauge 12 carbon electrode.

Chimney/exhaust: The chimney serves to enhance emission of furnace gases and was fabricated by

welding a mild steel pipe measuring 200mm diameter and 150mm high to the central hole on the furnace

cover.

Furnace walls Refractory lining

Before the lining process began, screw nails were randomly welded on the forged housing which served as

reinforcement for the refractory materials. The refractory materials were achieved with a mixture of

Portland cement, clay, silica sand and perlite in the ratio of 1:1:1:7. Before the refractory laying, a skeletal

structure (cylindrical) with diameter 110mm and a height of 100 mm was constructed and placed at the

centre of the base of the forged housing, this was used to hold refractory materials, its compartment and for

the system not to be blocked. The part to be lined at the base was wetted with water and the refractory

material was laid to a height of 100 mm. Later on, another skeletal structure (cylindrical) with diameter
300mm and a height of 410 mm was also constructed and placed at the centre onto the laid liner. Then the

forge housing walls were wetted with water and the refractory material was rendered onto the walls of the

forged housing using a hand trowel and it was properly rammed.

Drying: The furnace body is then allowed to dry for 28 days and any crack was duly observed and repaired

as it dried.

Assembly: The parts assembled include, the casing, cover, the crucible stands, crucible, the electrical

heating element, refractory lining and the gas burner. The cover stand which has a support for the cover

and serves as a holder for the cover is first welded to the body of the furnace body before the cover is

carefully placed in an anchor and it is held in place using a pin. Then the burner is placed in the 50mm hole

drilled in the burner housing at an angle 450 on the horizontal plane. The assembled diesel fired crucible

furnace and its drawings are shown in Appendix C.

4.5 Testing/Experimentation

The fabricated crucible furnace was tested for performance evaluation in the Foundry workshop of the

Department of Mechanical Engineering work, Ken Saro – Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori. Two types of tests were

carried out with the furnace; no load/preheating test and continuous load test. In the no load test, the

furnace was fired empty without loading it with aluminium for 20 minutes and the furnace temperature was

recorded after regular interval of 5 minutes. In continuous load test, the furnace was set up and charged

with 2kg of aluminium cans, with a K-type digital thermocouple (Figure 3.2) incorporated into it to

measure the temperature rise within the combustion chamber of the equipment. The gas cylinder was filled

with 5kg of gas and the furnace was fired to melt the charge. The duration for the melting operation was

noted by using a stop watch and the melting rate and heating rates were calculated using Equations 3.17

and 3.18 respectively. The procedure was repeated with 4, 6, 8 and 10kg of aluminium cans and the

duration for the melting operation and melting rate in each case were also recorded. The furnace was again

tested when fired with electricity with the gas line switched off for with 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10kg of aluminium
cans with the duration for the melting operation and both melting and heating rates in each case also

recorded.

Total mass of charge(kg)

Melting rate= melt charge(mins )¿
Total time taken¿

(3.17)

Pouring temperature
Heating rate= melt charge(mins)¿
Total time taken¿

(3.18)

Note that the pouring temperature is the sum of the melting temperature and holding temperature. So the

total melting time is the sum of time required for the charge to be heated to melting temperature and the

holding time (time to achieve pouring temperature).

Figure 3.2: K – type digital thermocouple

3.4 Principle of operation

The mode of operation of the gas/electric fired crucible furnace depends on the source of heat. When in gas

fired setting, the operation begins when the gas line is opened by turning on the gas valve. This delivers the

gas to the burner under gravity. Heating is initiated via combustion of the gas when a spark is introduced
manually by a lighter or matchstick, and then the fuel (gas) ignites. The gas flame is controlled by adjusting

the regulators on the gas tap to produce high-energy flame required to generate heat needed to melt the

aluminum scraps. The furnace is now covered with the roof and after some minutes. As this continues over

time, the temperature rises gradually within and around the crucible, thereby melting its content. When the

furnace is in electric fired setting, the gas line is switched off and then switching on electrical energy

supply which is directly delivered to the crucible by the electric heater. The electric heater works on the

principle of electric resistance. The resistance to current flow causes the heating element to be heated up.

The heat generated by the heating element is dissipated over the surface of the crucible by means of

conduction since it is in contact with the electric burner and by free convection, is transferred throughout

the fluid content within the crucible. The rheostat attached to the electric heater can be used to regulate

current flow to the heating element in order to prevent excess heat and avoid burning. In either gas or

electric powered setting, the furnace temperature can be read directly from a K-type digital thermocouple

attached to the furnace. When the crucible content is fully melted and is ready for pouring, the crucible

content is emptied by tilting the furnace via the tilting mechanism and then poured into the prepared mould

cavity. The holes on the sides of the furnace are made to keep a balance between the pressure within and

outside the system.

 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the results and discussion of the design, fabrication and experimental tests carried out

on the fabricated furnace for performance evaluation and workability. Also the applicable safety measures

and maintenance procedures are also presented.

4.1 Design and Computational Results

After a thorough design analysis and calculations, the result/computational output of the various parameters

used in the design and fabrication of the crucible furnace are given in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Design result/computational output

S/N Design parameter Symbol Value Unit

1 Furnace capacity Vc 0.0093 m
3

2 Diameter of crucible D 195 mm

3 Height of crucible H 312 mm
4 Heat required for melting Qout 26.124 kJ
 5 Heat absorbed by crucible pot Qc 25.140 kJ
6 Heat output Qoutput 51.264 kJ
7 Melting time t 60 mins .
8 Furnace efficiency η 62−86 %
9 Weight of crucible Wc 25.1 N
10 Total weight of furnace W tf 738 N
11 Shaft size d 20 mm

Table 4.1 indicates that the theoretical thermal output of the fabricated furnace is with thermal efficiency of

86%. The estimated theoretical heat input with gas powered operation is 28% higher than that of the

electric powered melting. This is believed to be caused by the low electrical resistance of the heating

element used

4.2 Experimental Results

The fabricated furnace was evaluated to ascertain its performance by subjecting it to experimental tests.

The results obtained are presented and discussed in this section.

No load test
The furnace was preheated to enable it melt effectively and the result obtained when powered separately

with both gas and electricity are tabulated as indicated in Table 4.2 and Figure 4.1.

Table 4.2: No load test

S/N Time taken (mins) Temperature (oC)

Gas powered Electric powered
1 0 29 29
2 5 190 125
3 10 350 230
4 15 480 320
5 20 620 426
 700

Temperature (oC)
600

500

400

300 Gas powered

Electric powered
200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20

Time (mins)

Figure 4.1: Variation of temperature with heating time for the furnace

Both Table 4.2 and Figure 4.1 indicate that the temperature of fabricated furnace increased with heating

time when powered with both gas and electricity at uniform heating rates of 28.7 oC/min and 20.1oC/min

respectively. It is also evident that the furnace acquired a faster heating rate when powered with gas.

The furnace acquired a maximum temperature of 620 oC in 20 minutes when powered with gas which is

31.3% increase over the electric powered operation in the same heating duration. The low heating output

observed with the electric powered operation may have been caused as a result of low electrical resistance

of the heating element. This result however gives better heating rate than those reported by

Rahul et al. (2017) with heating rate of 19oC/min.

Load test

The results of the load test performed with the fabricated furnace are indicated in Table 4.3 and

Figures 4.2 and 4.3. The furnace has fairly uniform melting rate with both the gas and electric powered

operation but has varying heating rate which decreased with increasing charge mass. Table 5 also indicates

that the furnace has higher melting capacity when powered with gas compared with when powered with

electricity, thus becomes more efficient with gas powered operation.

 Table 4.3: Experimental results

S/N Mass of Heating time Melting rate Pouring temperature Heating rate
charge (kg) (min) (kg/min) (oC) (oC/min)
Gas Electric Gas Electric Gas Electric Gas Electric
powered powered powered powered powered powered powered powered
1 2 8 12 0.25 0.17 730 720 91.3 60.0
2 4 13 17 0.31 0.24 720 725 55.4 42.7
3 6 18 23 0.33 0.26 750 746 41.7 32.4
4 8 24 30 0.33 0.27 750 745 31.3 24.8
5 10 30 35 0.30 0.29 745 740 24.8 21.1

35
Heating time (mins)

30
Gas powered
25 Electric powered

20

15

10

0
2 4 6 8 10

Mass of charge (kg)

Figure 4.2: Variation of heating time with mass of charge melted in the furnace
 100
90
80 Gas powered

Heating rate (oC/min)

70 Electric powered
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2 4 6 8 10

Mass of charge (kg)

Figure 4.3: Variation of heating rate with mass of charge melted in the furnace

(a) As cast aluminium spanner

(b) Finished aluminium spanner

Figure 4.4: Cast spanner using the fabricated furnace

4.2 Safety Precautions

To ensure the furnace functions maximally while in operation and not posing threat/risk to the operator or

the surrounding equipment, some safety considerations were made.

(1) Use standard or recommended materials for repair when necessary.

(2) Use the automatic start/stop device and control when furnace door is closed/opened respectively.

(3) Use adequate personal protective equipment-PPE while operating the furnace

(4) Do not operate the furnace in a confined space, or wet environment to prevent accident

(5) Always have working fire extinguisher available for emergency response to fire accident

(6) Always switch off the furnace when not in use or during any power outage.

(7) Do not heat combustibles in the furnace as it can lead to fire outbreak

4.3 Maintenance Procedures

1. Regular inspection and preventive maintenance of the furnace should be carried out

2. Recommended materials and the right tools should always be used in repair and maintenance
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

The crucible furnace was successfully designed, fabricated and tested for performance by firing it using gas

and electricity to melt aluminium cans and the castings were made in sand moulds. The temperature

achieved was able to heat and melt the metal (aluminium scrap), in other to achieve the set objective. The

furnace operated more effectively in gas powered setting than electric powered setting. The following

conclusions were also made:

(i) The crucible furnace proved to be effective for melting of aluminium and other low melting

temperature materials.
(ii) The temperature of fabricated furnace increased with heating time when powered with both gas and

electricity at uniform heating rates of 28.7oC/min and 20.1oC/min respectively on no-load test

(iii) The furnace has fairly uniform melting rate with both the gas and electric powered operations but

has varying heating rate which decreased with increasing charge mass

(iv)The furnace has a melting capacity of 0.0093 m3 with total output heat of 199.93 MJ and thus suitable

for use in small scale foundries and tertiary institutions

5.2 Recommendations

In order to improve on the design of the crucible furnace, it is recommended that:

(i) The burner compartment should be made in such a way that it will be adjustable. This will enable the

burning zone to be adjusted to suitable positions.

(ii) More research should be carried out on the development of low weight refractory materials so as to

reduce the overall weight of the furnace

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APPENDICES

Appendix A

Fabricated crucible furnace

Section through the furnace

3D conceptual model
Orthographic views
 Appendix B

Assembled Furnace

Appendix F
 Appendix C

Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation

S/N Part Quantity Material Unit cost (N) Total cost (N)
1 Crucible pot 1 sheet Stainless steel 28000 28000
2 Furnace casing 1 sheet Mild steel 25000 25000
3 Furnace stand 1 Mild steel 8500 8500
4 Furnace base Mild steel 10000 10000
5 K – type thermocouple 1 12000 12000
6 Refractory cement 1 bag Cement 4500 4500
7 Gas burner 1 10000 10000
8 Electric heater 1 12000 12000
9 Gas cylinder 6kg LPG 15000 15000
10 Gas regulator 1 3000 3000
11 Gas pipe/hose 4 yards Polymer 700 2800
12 Connecting wire 4 yards 250 1000
13 Refractory sand 1 bag Perlite 25000 25000
14 Bolts 4 Mild steel 300 1200
15 Stainless steel electrode 1 pack Stainless steel 4000 4000
16 Carbon electrode 1 pack Mild steel 2500 2500
17 Lighter 1 1200 1200
18 Handle 1 Mild steel rod 8500 8500
(16mm)
Total 174,200