sustainability

Article
Effect of Loading and Unloading Rates on Sandstone
Deformation and Dilatancy under True Triaxial Condition
Yingwei Wang 1,2 , Weihang Du 1,3, *, Dongming Zhang 3 and Beichen Yu 1,3

1 State Key Laboratory of Coking Coal Exploitation and Comprehensive Utilization,

Pingdingshan 467000, China
2 Institute of Coal Mining and Utilization, Pingdingshan Tianan Coal Mining Co., Ltd.,
Pingdingshan 467000, China
3 School of Resources and Safety Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: After conducting true triaxial tests on sandstone in a laboratory setting, this study aims
to determine the safe tunnelling rate of the roadway by examining the instability and failure char-
acteristics of surrounding rock under different disturbance stresses in deep underground roadway
excavation. Results showed that the mechanical properties, deformation, and failure characteristics
of sandstone differed under different loading and unloading rates. Specifically, as the loading rate
increased, the crack initiation stress increased while the damage stress remained unchanged, and
the deformation anisotropy of the rock decreased. In contrast, as the unloading rate increased, the
residual stress of the rock decreased, the brittleness increased, and the deformation anisotropy of the
rock increased. Additionally, the expansion of the rock went through three critical stages: (1) A–B: a
sharp increase in the dilatancy of sandstone (M) in a short period, accompanied by a large number of
cracks, (2) B–C: a weakened stage of expansion ability, in which M continued to decrease over time,
albeit at a slower rate, and (3) C–D: a stage of enhanced expansion ability, during which M began to
increase again, albeit at a slower rate than its rate of decrease. This final stage was the longest.

Keywords: true triaxial test; loading and unloading rate; mechanical and deformation properties;
sandstone
Citation: Wang, Y.; Du, W.; Zhang, D.;
Yu, B. Effect of Loading and
Unloading Rates on Sandstone
Deformation and Dilatancy under
True Triaxial Condition. Sustainability
1. Introduction
2023, 15, 5105. https://doi.org/ As energy demand continues to increase, shallow energy exploitation can no longer
10.3390/su15065105 keep up, and both domestic and foreign energy exploration and exploitation are moving
deeper. This trend has raised safety concerns in coal mining due to the increasing mining
Academic Editors: Kaihui Li and
depth [1]. However, traditional laboratory tests often fail to replicate the complex field con-
Jianjun Ma
ditions of deep rock masses. To address this issue, higher sample preparation requirements
Received: 1 January 2023 are needed to simulate the field stress conditions [2].
Revised: 26 February 2023 While previous scholars have conducted triaxial tests to analyze the physical and
Accepted: 28 February 2023 mechanical properties, deformation, and failure characteristics of rocks [3–6], the stress
Published: 14 March 2023 conditions of rock masses become more complicated during roadway excavation as coal
mining depth increases. To ensure the stability of the surrounding rock and improve
excavation safety, excavation speed is often reduced, which alters the disturbance stress of
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
surrounding rock to minimize the risk of instability and rockfall. Therefore, investigating
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
the mechanical properties of rocks under true triaxial stress is essential for understand-
This article is an open access article ing and controlling the stability of the roadway surrounding rock. This is of significant
distributed under the terms and importance to ensure the safety and economical production of coal mines [7].
conditions of the Creative Commons Many scholars have conducted laboratory tests to simulate rock’s triaxial loading
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and unloading tests to study the mechanical properties of surrounding rock. However,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ to better reflect the actual situation of underground rock mass under three-dimensional
4.0/). stress conditions during the excavation of a deep underground space project, the true

Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065105 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 2 of 21

triaxial test is used to simulate the stress path. For instance, Liu et al. [8] proposed a new
calculation method for the brittleness index of granite based on damage stress and axial
strain under true triaxial unloading conditions, which showed that the brittleness of granite
is stronger. Similarly, Yin et al. and Zhao et al. [9,10] studied the mechanical properties
of sandstone under different loading and unloading conditions using a true triaxial test
system. Zhang et al. [11] obtained rock failure laws of different depths and stress paths
of deep sandstone using true triaxial simulation tests and claimed that the M-C strength
criterion could describe rock failure characteristics more accurately. Hu et al. [12] found
that rock deformation anisotropy is related to bedding dip angle by conducting rockburst
tests on different bedding sandstones. Zhang et al. and He et al. [13,14] believed that
high stress and high unloading rate are the main inducing factors for the instantaneous
occurrence of rockburst based on true triaxial single-side rapid unloading tests of granite.
Zhang et al. [15] proposed a yield approach rate to describe how fast rock approaches
a yield point under different stress paths by studying the effect of different unloading
rates on rock strength under conventional triaxial conditions. Qiu et al. [16] quantitatively
described the volumetric dilatancy characteristics of granite under different unloading rates
by performing conventional triaxial tests. Guo et al. [17] studied the expansion criterion
of rock based on the viewpoint of energy. Hou et al. [18] performed a detailed study
on the dilatancy characteristics of rocks by uniaxial and triaxial tests on eight kinds of
rocks. Zhang et al. [19] conducted a numerical simulation of the dilatancy phenomenon of
sandstone under triaxial compression, which showed that the number of micro-fractures
in sandstone increases sharply after the dilatancy turning point. Cong et al. [20] studied
the failure mechanism of brittle rock at different unloading rates by conducting laboratory
tests on marble under axial pressure and confining pressure unloading and particle flow
simulation. Kang and Wei and Li et al. [21,22] conducted numerical simulation studies
of rock failure modes and strength characteristics at different unloading rates, which
obtained new mechanical parameters for reference and more clearly analyzed the root
cause of rock failure. Li et al. [23] conducted true triaxial tests on sandstone specimens with
void-type defects, which showed that the expansion phenomenon of sandstone specimens
with double voids and three voids is not obvious, and specimens are mainly shear failure.
Zhao et al. [24] studied the response mechanism of rock to the unloading rate under
complex triaxial stress. Dai et al. and Li et al. [25,26] found differences in the deformation
characteristics of rocks under different unloading rates by triaxial tests. Huang et al. [27]
studied the dilatancy characteristics of rock in the excavation process by loading and
unloading mechanical tests on sandy mudstone under different stress states. Hu et al. [28]
compared rock strength parameters under loading and unloading conditions and believed
that the mechanical property degradation of rock under unloading conditions appears more
serious. Young and Nasseri [29] investigated the anisotropic characteristics of sandstone
using a true triaxial loading and unloading test. Yin et al. [30] examined the dilatancy
characteristics of rock under intermediate principal stress and different stress paths using
a true triaxial experimental system. Wu [31] conducted a study on rock failure using a
true triaxial experimental system and found that the acoustic emission energy and count
under unloading conditions were higher than those under loading conditions, while the
expansion capacity was larger. Du [32] conducted a true triaxial test to investigate the
peak strength and failure mode of rock and concluded that the M-C strength criterion
was no longer applicable, and the failure mode of the rock changed from shear failure to
plate-crack failure. Chu et al. [33] performed cyclic loading and unloading tests on coal
samples under triaxial conditions, finding that the cumulative residual deformation of
coal samples increased with the number of cycles, and the relative residual deformation
decreased first, stabilized, and then rose sharply.
Wen et al. [34] conducted loading and unloading tests under triaxial conditions, and
concluded that rock failure was caused by lateral expansion under unloading conditions.
Jia et al. [35] used the RFPA (Realistic Failure Process Analysis) method to investigate
the mechanical characteristics and failure modes of combined rock under true triaxial
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 3 of 21

conditions. The results showed that the local failure characteristics of the combined rock
mass were significant, and the failure location was related to the hardness and softness
of the rock. Liang et al. [36] conducted true triaxial tests and found that shear failure was
the primary failure mechanism under the gradient stress cycle, while tensile failure was
the secondary mechanism. Chen et al. [37] also conducted true triaxial tests and found
that the length of granite bridges affected their strength and failure mode under unloading
conditions, and that intermediate principal stress had a significant influence on rock failure.
Furthermore, they found that true triaxial testing was more conducive to brittle failure of
rock than uniaxial testing.
Fan et al. [38] investigated the brittle failure of red sandstone under different stress
paths using true triaxial mechanics. Ma et al. [39] conducted true triaxial tests and found
that the influence of intermediate principal stress changes on rock’s mechanical properties
and failure modes was related to the stress path. Gong et al. [40–44] all used a true triaxial
testing machine to conduct rockburst tests on deep granite under high-stress conditions.
Here, a new dynamic bounding surface plasticity damage model is developed for rocks,
which considers high strain rates and confinements. The proposed model is validated
by conventional triaxial compression tests, dynamic triaxial tests, and split Hopkinson
pressure bar (SHPB) tests [45]. A dual coupled Micro-Macro Continuum-Discontinuum
approach named distinct lattice spring model (DLSM) is used to investigate the mechanisms
of zonal disintegration within deep rock masses. The model is validated through numerical
simulations and laboratory tests, and is found to be capable of reproducing the process
of zonal disintegration explicitly [46]. To investigate the influence of both damage and
plasticity on cavity expansion in rock medium, a plastic damage solution is derived for
undrained spherical cavity expansion using a modified Cam-Clay (MCC) model as the
plasticity driver and a damage evolution criterion. The proposed solution is verified
through a classic solution in literature, and the role of damage in undrained spherical cavity
expansion is investigated [47].
The existing research results have made significant contributions to our understanding
of stress-strain curves under loading and unloading conditions. However, few studies have
investigated the dilatancy characteristics of rocks under true triaxial loading and unloading
conditions. Therefore, in this study, we employed a true triaxial fluid-structure coupling
system to investigate rock deformation mechanical properties at different stages under
various loading and unloading conditions. It is worth noting that many deep underground
rocks are subject to three-dimensional stress inequality due to tectonic stress. Under excava-
tion stress, the rock mass often experiences unilateral or double-sided unloading, but most
studies on rock mechanical properties by scholars at home and abroad are based on uniaxial
or conventional triaxial tests, which cannot reflect the actual stress state of rock. Thus, the
true triaxial test is more suitable for reflecting rock deformation and mechanical properties
under different loading and unloading conditions. In this paper, we use the loading and
unloading modes of always loading, always holding, and always unloading, which closely
simulate actual engineering conditions, to simulate rock roadway driving. Moreover, we
varied the loading and unloading rates to simulate different working conditions.

2. Test Device and Sample

The test system adopts the “true triaxial fluid-structure coupling test system,” inde-
pendently developed by Yin and Li et al. [10,48]. The test device comprises a frame, true
triaxial pressure chamber, loading system, inner seal seepage system, data measurement
and acquisition system, acoustic emission test system, etc. The true triaxial pressure cell
was designed to withstand loading force up to 6000 kN in the X direction and Z direction,
4000 kN in the Y direction and sealing pressure of 60 MPa, which meet test requirements
and as shown in Figure 1.
 the lithology is sandstone. True triaxial sandstone specimens are strictly prepared accord-
ing to the International Society of Rock Mechanics standard. Young’s modulus E of sand-
stone is 10.6 GPA, Poisson’s ratio v of sandstone is 0.31, the porosity of the sandstone
measured by mercury injection is 4.15%, and the pore diameter peak is between 100 nm
and 500 nm. The apparent density is 2260 kg/m3, and the specimen is a cube specimen
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 4 of 21
with a side length of 100 mm, and the flatness of the end face is controlled to 0.05 mm to
reduce the influence of friction effect on the test.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. True
True triaxial
triaxial fluid-structure
fluid-structure coupling
coupling test
test system
system and
and specimen.
specimen.

3. Test
TheProgram
rock samples are taken from Yuwang Coal Mine of Huaneng Group, China, and
the lithology
To studyisthesandstone. Trueproperties
mechanical triaxial sandstone specimens
and deformation are strictly prepared
characteristics according
of sandstone un-
to
derthe International
different loadingSociety of Rock Mechanics
and unloading standard.
conditions, Young’strue
we conducted modulus
triaxialE of sandstone
mechanical
is 10.6atGPA,
tests varying Poisson’s
loadingratio
andvunloading
of sandstone is The
rates. 0.31,stress
the porosity of the sandstone
path is illustrated measured
in Figure 2, and
by mercury injection is 4.15%, and the pore diameter peak is between 100
the direction of loading and unloading stress is shown in Figure 3. The tests were divided nm and 500 nm.
The apparent density is 2260 kg/m 3 , and the specimen is a cube specimen with a side
into two parts:
length (1)ofTests
100 mm, and theloading
at different flatnessrates:
of the endσ1face
load , σ2, is controlled
and to 0.05
σ3 to 40 MPa at mm to of
a rate reduce the
2 kN/s,
influence of friction effect on the test.
load σ1 and σ2 to 60 MPa at a rate of 2 kN/s while σ3 remains unchanged, and load σ1 to 80
MPa at a rate of 2 kN/s while σ3 and σ2 remains unchanged. After maintaining the stress
3. Test Program
state (i.e., after loading and unloading starting point), unload σ3 at a constant 1 kN/s on
To study
one side, the mechanical
σ2 remains unchanged,properties and deformation
and increase characteristics
σ1 at different loading rates of sandstone
(displacementunder
different
control mode) until sandstone sample failure. The experiment group is named grouptests
loading and unloading conditions, we conducted true triaxial mechanical G,
at
asvarying
shown in loading
Table 1. and unloading rates. The stress path is illustrated in Figure 2, and the
direction of loading
(2) Tests and unloading
at different stressload
loading rates: is shown
σ1, σ2,inand Figure
σ3 to3.40The
MPatests
at were
a ratedivided
of 2 kN/s,into
two parts:
load σ1 and σ2 to 60 MPa at a rate of 2 kN/s while σ3 remains unchanged, and load σ1 to 80
(1)
MPa Tests at different
at a rate of 2 kN/s loading
while σrates:
3 andload σ1 , σ2 , and
σ2 remains σ3 to 40 After
unchanged. MPa at a rate of 2 kN/s,
maintaining load
the stress
1 and
state σ(i.e., after
σ 2 to 60 MPa
loading andat a rate of
unloading 2 kN/s
startingwhilepoint),
σ 3 remains
unload unchanged,
σ3 from one and
side load
at a 1 to
con-
σ
80 MPa at a rate of 2 kN/s
stant unloading rate (force control mode),while σ and
3 remainσ 2 remains unchanged. After maintaining
σ2 unchanged, and increase σ1 at a con- the
stantstress
0.003 state
mm/s(i.e., after
until theloading
sandstoneand sample
unloading starting
failure. The point), unload
experiment σ3 at isa constant
group named
group 1 kN/s on one in
H, as shown side, σ2 remains
Table 1. unchanged, and increase σ1 at different loading rates
(displacement control mode) until sandstone sample failure. The experiment group is
named group G, as shown in Table 1.
(2) Tests at different loading rates: load σ1 , σ2 , and σ3 to 40 MPa at a rate of 2 kN/s, load
σ1 and σ2 to 60 MPa at a rate of 2 kN/s while σ3 remains unchanged, and load σ1 to
80 MPa at a rate of 2 kN/s while σ3 and σ2 remains unchanged. After maintaining the
stress state (i.e., after loading and unloading starting point), unload σ3 from one side
at a constant unloading rate (force control mode), remain σ2 unchanged, and increase
σ1 at a constant 0.003 mm/s until the sandstone sample failure. The experiment group
is named group H, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Loading and unloading rates were tested in each group.

Specimen Loading Rate/ Unloading Rate/ Specimen Loading Rate/ Unloading Rate/
Number (mm/s) (kN/s) Number (mm/s) (kN/s)
H1 0.003 0.2 G1 0.001 1
H2 0.003 1 G2 0.003 1
H3 0.003 2.5 G3 0.005 1
H4 0.003 3 G4 0.008 1
H5 0.003 5 G5 0.012 1
Sustainability 2022,15,
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22
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Figure2.
Figure 2. Loading
Loading and
and unloading
unloading stress
stresspath.
path.
Figure 2. Loading and unloading stress path.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of loading and unloading direction.

Figure3.3.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagramofofloading
loadingand
andunloading
unloadingdirection.
direction.
4. Experimental Results and Analysis
4.4.Experimental
ExperimentalResults Resultsand andAnalysis
Analysis
4.1. Mechanical Properties of Sandstone under True Triaxial Loading Rates
4.1.
4.1. Mechanical Properties of Sandstoneunder
Mechanical Properties of Sandstone underTrueTrueTriaxial
TriaxialLoading
Loading Rates
Rates
The stress-strain curves of sandstone under different loading conditions follow a con-
The stress-strain curves of sandstone under different loading conditions follow a
sistentThe stress-strain
pattern. In this curves
study, we of sandstone
focused on under different loading
the stress-strain curvesconditions follow
after the loading a and
con-
consistent pattern.
sistent pattern. In
In this this study,
study, we focused
we focused on the stress-strain curves after the loading
unloading starting points to investigate theonmechanical
the stress-strain curves
properties andafter the loading
deformation and
char-
and unloading
unloading starting
starting points
points to to investigate
investigate the the mechanical
mechanical properties
properties and and deformation
deformation char-
acteristics of sandstone under various loading rates. We observed that the pore fissures of
characteristics
acteristics were of sandstone
of sandstone under
under various
various loading rates. We observed that the porefissures
fissuresof
sandstone compacted during the loading
initial stagerates. ofWe observed
loading, butthat
this the pore
compaction stage
ofsandstone
sandstonewere werecompacted
compactedduring during the
the initial
initial stage
stage of loading,
ofunloading. but
loading, but this compaction
this compaction stage
stage
was
was not
not as pronounced
asaspronounced in
inin the
thethe stress-strain
stress-strain curve
curve after
after unloading. Additionally,
Additionally, as
as shownshown in
was not
in Figure 4a,pronounced
we found that the stress-strain
peak maximum curve after
principal unloading.
stress Additionally,
increased with as shown
the loading
Figure 4a,
in Figure we found
4a, we that the peak maximum principal stress increased with the loading rate.
rate.
In In Figure
Figure 4b,found
4b, it can it
be can
seen
that
bethatthe peak
seen that maximum
sandstonesandstone
specimen
principal
specimen stress increased
G1 started
G1 started to
with the
to expand
expand at loading
the be-
at the beginning
rate.
ginning In Figure
of 4b,
loading, it can
while be
the seen that
starting sandstone
points of specimen
expansion G1
for started
specimens to expand
G2, G3, at
G4,theand
be-
ofginning
loading,ofwhile the starting
loading, while thepoints of expansion
starting points for specimens
of expansionpoint G2, G3,
for specimens G4, and G5 shifted
G2, G3,loading
G4, and
G5 shiftedand
backward backward
approached and the approached the yield
yield strength pointstrength
with increasing with increasing
loading rates. loading
G5
rates.shifted backward and approached the yield strength point with increasing
rates.
 Specimen Loading Rate/ Unloading Rate/ Specimen Loading Rate/ Unloading Rate/
Number (mm/s) (kN/s) Number (mm/s) (kN/s)
H1 0.003 0.2 G1 0.001 1
H2 0.003 1 G2 0.003 1
H3 0.003 2.5 G3 0.005 1
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H4 0.003 3 G4 0.008 1
H5 0.003 5 G5 0.012 1

Figure 4. Stress-strain
Figure 4. Stress-strain characteristics curve under different loading conditions:
conditions: (a)
(a) curves
curves of
of maxi-
max-
mum principal
imum principal stress and maximum principal strain (b) curves
curves of
of maximum
maximum primary
primary stress
stress and
and
volumetric strain.
volumetric strain.

The
Thestress-strain
stress-straincurves
curvespresented
presented ininFigure
Figure 4b 4bdemonstrate
demonstrate thatthat
sandstone
sandstoneundergoes
under-
volume expansion before macroscopic failure. Prior to
goes volume expansion before macroscopic failure. Prior to the volume expansion, the volume expansion, the lateral
the
strain rate of sandstone was equivalent to the axial strain rate during
lateral strain rate of sandstone was equivalent to the axial strain rate during a time period, a time period, known
as the equal
known as thevelocity deformation
equal velocity stage ofstage
deformation ε1 + of ε2ε1 + +ε3ε2= +0.ε3The= 0.length of theofblack
The length line
the black
segment
line segmentin Figure 4b indicates
in Figure the duration
4b indicates of the constant
the duration of the velocity
constantdeformation stage. The
velocity deformation
equal
stage. velocity
The equal deformation stage timestage
velocity deformation for specimens
time for specimensG5, G4, G3, G5, and G2 are
G4, G3, and7.2 G2s,are187.2s,
46.8 s, and 124.8 s, respectively. The length of the line segment decreases
s, 18 s, 46.8 s, and 124.8 s, respectively. The length of the line segment decreases with an with an increase in
loading
increaserate, indicating
in loading rate,a indicating
shorter isokinetic
a shorter deformation stage before the
isokinetic deformation onset
stage of expansion
before the onset
and
of expansion and a quicker response time to the origin of expansion. For line
a quicker response time to the origin of expansion. For instance, the black segment
instance, the
in
black line segment in the stress-strain curve of sandstone specimen G5 is relativelya short,
the stress-strain curve of sandstone specimen G5 is relatively short, implying swift
entry
implyinginto the dilatancy
a swift entry stage.
into the Conversely,
dilatancy the black
stage. line segment
Conversely, theinblack
the sandstone
line segment specimen
in the
G2 is longer, which means it takes more time to reach the
sandstone specimen G2 is longer, which means it takes more time to reach the dilatancydilatancy stage.
stage.The mechanical properties of rock are significantly affected by the development and
evolution of cracks inside
The mechanical the rock.
properties In this
of rock arestudy, it was found
significantly affected that
bythethepore cracks of and
development the
sandstone specimen were compressed and closed during the loading
evolution of cracks inside the rock. In this study, it was found that the pore cracks of the process. Building on
the work of Martin and Chandler on the failure process
sandstone specimen were compressed and closed during the loading process. Building on of rocks, the stress-strain curve
under true triaxial loading can be divided into three stages [49], as illustrated in Figure 5:
the work of Martin and Chandler on the failure process of rocks, the stress-strain curve
(1)
under Elastic deformation
true triaxial loading stage:
can the sandstone
be divided intorapidly
three stagesbegins[49],
the elastic deformation
as illustrated in Figurestage 5:
with the loading of
(1) Elastic deformation σ and unloading
1 stage: the sandstone of σ 3 . rapidly begins the elastic deformation
(2)
stageThe withstage of steadyofcrack
the loading σ1 and growth: with of
unloading theσ3loading
. time increase, σ1 reaches the crack
initiation
(2) The stage of steady crack growth: with the loadingand
stress σ ci , and the crack increases gradually enters
time the stage
increase, of steady
σ1 reaches the
crack growth.
crack initiation stress σci, and the crack increases gradually and enters the stage of steady
(3)
crackThe stage of fracture unstable propagation: with continuous loading of σ1 and un-
growth.
loading of σ3 , the crack expands rapidly, and the volume expands. In this case, the
corresponding axial stress is the damage stress σcd , which is the long-term strength of
the rock.
Fracture initiation stress σci and damage stress σcd are crucial mechanical parameters
for characterizing rock behavior. In this study, the strain measurement method is adopted
to determine σcd and σci . Specifically, σcd is defined as the stress at the inflection point of
the rock volume curve, where compression turns into expansion. On the other hand, σci
is identified as the stress value at the endpoint of the horizontal section of the axial strain
stiffness curve.
 sponding axial stress is the damage stress σcd, which is the long-term strength of the rock.
Fracture initiation stress σci and damage stress σcd are crucial mechanical parameters
for characterizing rock behavior. In this study, the strain measurement method is adopted
to determine σcd and σci. Specifically, σcd is defined as the stress at the inflection point of
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105
the rock volume curve, where compression turns into expansion. On the other hand,7 of σci21is
identified as the stress value at the endpoint of the horizontal section of the axial strain
stiffness curve.

Figure5.5.Stress-strain
Figure Stress-straincharacteristics
characteristicscurve
curveand
andcharacteristic
characteristicpoints.
points.

The
Thefailure
failureofofrocks
rocksisisprimarily
primarily caused
caused byby
fracture
fracture propagation
propagation andandstructural damage
structural dam-
due
age to
dueincreased deviatoric
to increased stress.
deviatoric In this
stress. study,
In this we define
study, σcip as
we define σcipthe deviatoric
as the stress
deviatoric at
stress
crack initiation,
at crack σcdpσas
initiation, cdp the deviatoric
as the stress
deviatoric at damage
stress at damage onset, and and
onset, σfp asσfpthe
as peak deviatoric
the peak devia-
stress. Deviatoric
toric stress. stress stress
Deviatoric is represented by σ1 −
is represented byσσ31,-σ
and the deviatoric
3, and the deviatoricstress-strain curve
stress-strain for
curve
the sandstone specimen G5 is shown in Figure 5, which also highlights
for the sandstone specimen G5 is shown in Figure 5, which also highlights the location of the location of each
characteristic point. point.
each characteristic
Table
Table 2 presentsthe
2 presents thedeviatoric
deviatoricstress
stressatateach
eachcharacteristic
characteristicpoint
pointforfordifferent
differentloading
loading
and
and unloading rates. As G1 experiences expansion at both loading and unloadingstarting
unloading rates. As G1 experiences expansion at both loading and unloading starting
points,
points,the
thedeviatoric
deviatoricstress
stressatateach
eachfeature
featurepoint
pointcannot
cannotbe becalculated.
calculated.The Thetable
tableshows
shows
that
that increasing the loading rate has little effect on the damage deviatoric stressand
increasing the loading rate has little effect on the damage deviatoric stress andpeak
peak
deviatoric
deviatoricstress
stressofofthe
therock.
rock.InIncontrast,
contrast,thethecrack
crackinitiation
initiationdeviatoric
deviatoricstress
stressincreases
increaseswith
with
the
theloading
loadingrate,
rate,and
andthis
thisincrease
increaseisismore
moreuniform.
uniform.To Tobetter
betterunderstand
understandthe theinfluence
influenceof of
the increasing loading rate on deformation in the three stages, we propose a deviatoric
the increasing loading rate on deformation in the three stages, we propose a deviatoric
stress deformation compliance ∆q.
stress deformation compliance Δq.
∆ε k
∆q = Δεk (1)
Δq = k ∆σ (1)
Δσ k
Among them, the deviant stress deformation compliance ∆q is a physical quantity
that reflects
Amongthe ratethe
them, of change
deviantofstress
the rock deformation
deformation increment
compliance Δq corresponding to the
is a physical quantity
increase
that reflects the rate of change of the rock deformation increment corresponding tointo
in deviant stress in each stage under loading conditions. It provides insights the
the response
increase rate of stress
in deviant rock deformation
in each stagetounder
deviant stressconditions.
loading in each stage. ∆σk represents
It provides insights the
into
difference in deviational
the response rate of rockstress at each stage,
deformation to deviant ∆εk represents
while stress the sum
in each stage. Δσkofrepresents
the absolute
the
strain values
difference inof the rock instress
deviational each at
direction.
each stage, while Δεk represents the sum of the absolute
strain values of the rock in each direction.
Table 2. Eigenvalues of each pinpoint under loading conditions.

Crack Initiation Deviatoric Stress Damage Deviatoric Stress Peak Deviating Stress
Specimen Number
/σ cip /σ cdp /σ fp
G2 41.11 MPa 113.22 MPa 136.17 MPa
G3 48.84 MPa 106.55 MPa 132.09 MPa
G4 53.75 MPa 119.42 MPa 140.94 MPa
G5 60.30 MPa 120.84 MPa 140.48 MPa

The Figure 6a shows that the deviatoric stress deformation compliance of sandstone
increases with loading rate, with an inflection point in the unstable propagation stage of
crack growth. At the stage of steady crack growth and fracture unstable propagation, the
response of specimen G3 to deviatoric stress is weak, and the deviatoric stress deformation
 G3 48.84 MPa 106.55 MPa 132.09 MPa
G4 53.75 MPa 119.42 MPa 140.94 MPa
G5 60.30 MPa 120.84 MPa 140.48 MPa

The Figure 6a shows that the deviatoric stress deformation compliance of sandstone
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 increases with loading rate, with an inflection point in the unstable propagation stage 8 of of
21
crack growth. At the stage of steady crack growth and fracture unstable propagation, the
response of specimen G3 to deviatoric stress is weak, and the deviatoric stress defor-
mation
compliancecompliance
increasesincreases
evenly. evenly.
G2 has G2 has a higher
a higher deviatoric
deviatoric stress deformation
stress deformation com-
compliance
pliance
than G3than dueG3to due to its loading
its lower lower loading rate, which
rate, which inhibits
inhibits rock deformation.
rock deformation. Forand
For G4 G4 andG5,
G5, the increase
the increase rate rate
of theof deviatoric
the deviatoric stress
stress deformation
deformation compliance
compliance is greater
is greater thanthan G2any
G2 at at
stage,
any indicating
stage, that the
indicating thatresponse rate of
the response rock
rate of deformation
rock deformationon deviatoric stress stress
on deviatoric increases
in-
with
creasesloading rate. The
with loading increase
rate. in loading
The increase rate has
in loading little
rate haseffect
littleon rock
effect ondeformation at the
rock deformation
at the stages of elastic deformation and steady crack growth, while the high loading little
stages of elastic deformation and steady crack growth, while the high loading rate has rate
effect
has on rock
little effectdeformation at the stage
on rock deformation at of
thefracture
stage ofunstable
fracturepropagation. The fittingThe
unstable propagation. results
fit-
of sandstone
ting results ofspecimens
sandstone G2, G4, andG2,
specimens G5G4,are and
in good agreement
G5 are with exponential
in good agreement growth,
with exponen-
while G3 is not.
tial growth, while G3 is not.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Deformation
Deformationcompliance
complianceofofdeviational stress
deviational at at
stress each
eachstage of the
stage stress-strain
of the curve:
stress-strain (a)
curve:
variation law of deviatoric stress deformation compliance, (b) fitting curve of deviatoric stress
(a) variation law of deviatoric stress deformation compliance, (b) fitting curve of deviatoric stress de-
formation compliance index.
deformation compliance index.

4.2. Mechanical Properties of Sandstone under True True Triaxial

TriaxialConditions
Conditionswith
withDifferent
Different
Unloading Rates
The stress-strain characteristics
characteristics of
of rock under different true triaxial unloading rates
exhibit a consistent trend, as depicted in Figure 7. Notably, the stress-strain curve during
unloading exhibits
unloading exhibits aa similar
similar evolution
evolution toto that
that during
during loading,
loading, with
with pore
pore cracks
cracks compacted
compacted
during the
during the loading
loading stage.
stage. Conversely,
Conversely, the
the post-peak
post-peak stress-strain
stress-strain curve
curve falls
falls rapidly
rapidly under
under
different unloading rates, while the rock shows excellent plastic deformation
different unloading rates, while the rock shows excellent plastic deformation under true under true
triaxial loading conditions. The elastic modulus and peak stress of the
triaxial loading conditions. The elastic modulus and peak stress of the rock during un- rock during un-
loading decrease as the unloading rate increases, as the load-carrying capacity
loading decrease as the unloading rate increases, as the load-carrying capacity of the rock of the rock
decreases as
decreases as σσ33 reduces.
reduces. To
To better
betterstudy
studythethemechanical
mechanicalproperties
propertiesofof
rock
rockunder
underunloading
unload-
conditions, the stress-strain curve after unloading is analyzed based on
ing conditions, the stress-strain curve after unloading is analyzed based on the unloading the unloading
start point as the strained base point. The damage stress corresponds to the stress value at
the inflection point of rock volume strain, as shown in the deviatoric stress-volume strain
characteristics curve in Figure 8. When the unloading rate reaches 1 kN/s, the rock expands
at the loading and unloading starting point, leading to rapid development of cracks. The
variation in the curves in Figures 8 and 9 is similar since the volumetric expansion is
dominated by the strain in the direction of σ3 . In addition, the strain in the direction of the
minimum principal stress increases gradually, indicating that the increase in the unloading
rate promotes inflation in this direction. Furthermore, Figure 10 shows that when the peak
stress is reached, the intermediate principal stress direction experiences compression, with
H3 and H5 exhibiting violent brittle failures.
 pands at the loading and unloading starting point, leading to rapid development of
cracks. The variation in the curves in Figures 8 and 9 is similar since the volumetric ex-
pansion is dominated by the strain in the direction of σ3. In addition, the strain in the
direction of the minimum principal stress increases gradually, indicating that the increase
in the unloading rate promotes inflation in this direction. Furthermore, Figure 10 shows
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 9 of 21
that when the peak stress is reached, the intermediate principal stress direction experi-
ences compression, with H3 and H5 exhibiting violent brittle failures.

Sustainability 2022,
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14, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 10 of
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22

Figure7.7.Stress-strain
Figure Stress-straincharacteristics
characteristicscurve
curveunder
underunloading
unloadingcondition.
condition.

Brittleness of rock refers to its tendency to fail under minimal plastic deformation. A
thorough investigation of the impact of unloading rate on rock brittleness can provide
valuable insights into the mechanical behavior of sandstone under unloading conditions.
In their study, Zhou et al. [50] proposed a quantitative approach to assess rock brittleness
by considering the relative magnitude and absolute rate of post-peak stress drop in simple
and complex stress states. They introduced a new brittleness index, B1, which was defined
as follows:

σ p −σr
B1 = (2)
σp
B1 is the relative value of the post-peak stress drop, ranging from 0 to 1, σp is the peak
stress, and σr is the residual stress. We redefine B2 based on the research of Zhou et al.
(2014):

Figure8.8.Deviatoric
Figure Deviatoricstress-volume
stress-volumestrain B2 = K ac ( AC
straincharacteristics
characteristicscurve.
curve.
) (3)

In the formula, B2 is the absolute rate of post-peak stress drop. According to the cal-
culation of Kac(AC) by Zhou Hui et al., this paper should use Kac to calculate, and Kac is the
absolute numerical value of the slope of the line between the peak strength point and
residual strength point. Figure 11 is a calculation diagram of Kac(AC).

Figure9.9.Deviatoric
Figure Deviatoricstress-minimum
stress-minimumprincipal
principalstrain
straincharacteristics
characteristicscurve.
curve.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 10 of 21

Figure 9. Deviatoric stress-minimum principal strain characteristics curve.

Figure10.
Figure 10. Deviatoric
Deviatoricstress-intermediate
stress-intermediateprincipal
principalstrain
straincharacteristics
characteristicscurve.
curve.

Brittleness of rock refers to its tendency to fail under minimal plastic deformation.
A thorough investigation of the impact of unloading rate on rock brittleness can provide
valuable insights into the mechanical behavior of sandstone under unloading conditions.
In their study, Zhou et al. [50] proposed a quantitative approach to assess rock brittleness
by considering the relative magnitude and absolute rate of post-peak stress drop in simple
and complex stress states. They introduced a new brittleness index, B1 , which was defined
as follows:
σp − σr
B1 = (2)
σp
B1 is the relative value of the post-peak stress drop, ranging from 0 to 1, σp is the peak
stress, and σr is the residual stress. We redefine B2 based on the research of Zhou et al. (2014):

B2 = Kac( AC) (3)

In the formula, B2 is the absolute rate of post-peak stress drop. According to the
calculation of Kac(AC) by Zhou Hui et al., this paper should use Kac to calculate, and Kac is
the absolute numerical value of the slope of the line between the peak strength point and
residual strength point. Figure 11 is a calculation diagram of Kac(AC) .
Thus, the calculation formula Bd for the brittleness index is obtained.
σp − σr
Bd = B1 B2 = Kac( AC) (4)
σp

In the formula, Bd represents the brittleness index, and a higher Bd value indicates
a higher degree of brittleness. The variations of residual stress, peak strain, peak stress,
and residual strain at different unloading rates are shown in Table 3, along with the
corresponding brittleness indexes.

Table 3. Residual stress-strain and peak stress-strain of rock Brittleness index of rock.

Specimen Number B1 B2 Bd σ r /100 MPa σ p /100 MPa εr εp

H1 0.1322 0.4709 0.0623 1.090 1.256 0.8757 0.5232
H2 0.2372 1.4062 0.3336 1.039 1.362 0.6653 0.4356
H3 0.4941 1.2838 0.6343 0.564 1.115 0.6454 0.2162
H4 0.2850 0.9918 0.2826 0.735 1.028 0.4081 0.1638
H5 0.3639 1.4051 0.5113 0.582 0.915 0.3186 0.0816
Sustainability
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21

Figure11.
Figure 11.Slope Kac(AC)
SlopeKac (AC)selection
selectiondiagram
diagramofofaaline
linefrom
fromthe
theyield
yieldstarting
startingpoint
pointto
tothe
theresidual
residual
starting point.
starting point.

As shown
Thus, in Table 3,formula
the calculation the residual stress
Bd for the and strain
brittleness indexdecrease as the unloading rate
is obtained.
increases. However, the brittleness index initially increases and then decreases, with the
highest value observed for H3. Moreover, H3 σ pand
− σ H5
r exhibit high brittleness coefficients
B d = B 1 B2 = K ac ( AC ) stress direction. When (4)
and significant compression in the intermediate σ p principal the
brittleness coefficient is low, the rock’s brittle failure is less severe, and the displacement in
the intermediate
In the formula, principal stress direction
Bd represents is not compressed.
the brittleness index, and aThese higherresults suggest
Bd value that the
indicates a
brittle degree
higher failure of brittleness.
rocks underThe unloading
variationsconditions is closely
of residual stress, related to thepeak
peak strain, compression
stress, andof
strain after
residual theatpeak
strain of theunloading
different deviatoric rates
stress-intermediate
are shown in Table principal strainwith
3, along characteristics
the corre-
curve. The displacement
sponding brittleness indexes. in the direction of the intermediate principal stress after the peaks
of H4Asand H1 did
shown not compress,
in Table indicating
3, the residual thatand
stress there was decrease
strain no severeas brittle failure afterrate
the unloading the
peak stress, and the brittleness index was relatively low.
increases. However, the brittleness index initially increases and then decreases, with the
highestTherefore, the brittle
value observed forfailure of rocks under
H3. Moreover, H3 and different
H5 exhibitunloading rates is closely
high brittleness related
coefficients
to the intermediate principal strain, while there is no correlation between
and significant compression in the intermediate principal stress direction. When the brit- the unloading
rate and
tleness the brittleisfailure
coefficient low, theof the rock.
rock’s brittle failure is less severe, and the displacement in
the intermediate principal stress direction is not compressed. These results suggest that
4.3. Dilatancy Characteristics and Deformation Anisotropy of Rock under Different True Triaxial
the brittleand
Loading failure of rocks
Unloading under unloading conditions is closely related to the compression
Conditions
of strain after the peak of
4.3.1. Deformation Anisotropic the deviatoric stress-intermediate
Characteristics of Rocks principal strain characteristics
curve. The displacement in the direction of the intermediate principal stress after the
The phenomenon of anisotropy in rocks refers to the variation in physical and me-
peaks of H4 and H1 did not compress, indicating that there was no severe brittle failure
chanical properties of the rock in different directions. In the case of sandstone under true
after the peak stress, and the brittleness index was relatively low.
triaxial loading and unloading conditions, the lateral strain difference (ε2 -ε3 ) is defined as a
Therefore, the brittle failure of rocks under different unloading rates is closely related
parameter to analyze the mechanical properties of the rock [51]. Figures 12 and 13 illustrate
to the intermediate principal strain, while there is no correlation between the unloading
the difference between deviating stress and lateral strain under true triaxial loading and
rate and the brittle failure of the rock.
unloading conditions, respectively. These figures provide insights into the characteristic law
of deformation anisotropy of sandstone under different loading and unloading conditions.
Table 3. Residual stress-strain and peak stress-strain of rock Brittleness index of rock.
Figure 12 shows that as the loading rate increases, the deformation anisotropy of
Specimen sandstone weakens. Specifically, in specimens with low loading rates such as G1, the
B1 B2 Bd σr/100 MPa σp/100 MPa εr εp
Number increase in deviatoric stress significantly affects the deformation characteristics of sandstone.
H1 0.1322 However,0.4709in specimens with high loading1.090
0.0623 rates such as 1.256
G2, G3, G4, and G5, the increase
0.8757 0.5232 in
H2 0.2372 deviatoric stress
1.4062 has a lesser impact
0.3336 on the deformation
1.039 anisotropy
1.362 of sandstone.
0.6653 Moreover,
0.4356
H3 0.4941 the distance between
1.2838 anisotropic
0.6343 characteristic
0.564 curves of sandstone
1.115 deformation
0.6454 does not
0.2162
change significantly as the deviatoric stress increases gradually.
H4 0.2850 0.9918 0.2826 0.735 1.028 0.4081 0.1638
 stone also weakens. For instance, in sandstone specimen H1 with low unloading rate, the
increase in deviatoric stress has a minimal influence on the deformation characteristics of
sandstone. Additionally, as the deviatoric stress gradually increases, the distance between
anisotropic characteristic curves of sandstone deformation also increases gradually with
the increase in unloading rate. In general, the increase in deviatoric stress enhances the
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 12 of 21
deformation anisotropy of sandstone, but different loading and unloading rates have a
more significant impact on the deformation anisotropy.

Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Anisotropy
Anisotropy characteristics
characteristics of
of rock
rockunder
under different
differentloading
loadingrates.
rates.

Figure 13. Anisotropy

Figure13. Anisotropycharacteristics
characteristicsof
ofrock
rockunder
underdifferent
differentunloading
unloadingrates.
rates.

4.3.2.Figure 13 demonstrates
Dilatancy Characteristics that as the unloading rate decreases, the anisotropy of sand-
stone also weakens. For instance, in sandstone specimen H1 with low unloading rate, the
During the unstable propagation stage of fracture, sandstone undergoes rapid lateral
increase in deviatoric stress has a minimal influence on the deformation characteristics of
deformation, which results in an expansion of its volume. This change in volume causes
sandstone. Additionally, as the deviatoric stress gradually increases, the distance between
the rock’s volumetric strain state to shift from compression to tension. This transition is
anisotropic characteristic curves of sandstone deformation also increases gradually with
indicated by an inflection point in the axial strain-volumetric strain characteristics curves,
the increase in unloading rate. In general, the increase in deviatoric stress enhances the
which can be seen in Figure 5. This inflection point marks the beginning of the volumetric
deformation anisotropy of sandstone, but different loading and unloading rates have a
expansion stage of sandstone.
more significant impact on the deformation anisotropy.
To further investigate the impact of loading and unloading rates on the mechanical
properties
4.3.2. of sandstone
Dilatancy during the dilatation stage, a fitting analysis was conducted to
Characteristics
determine the relationship between volumetric
During the unstable propagation strain and
stage of fracture, time from
sandstone the startrapid
undergoes of dilatation
lateral
deformation, which results in an expansion of its volume. This change in volumeofcauses
to the peak stress point. This analysis provides valuable insight into the behavior sand-
stone during this critical stage of deformation, allowing for a more comprehensive
the rock’s volumetric strain state to shift from compression to tension. This transition is under-
standing of
indicated byits
anmechanical properties.
inflection point in the axial strain-volumetric strain characteristics curves,
which can be seen in Figure 5. This curve
Figure 14a displays the fitted of volumetric
inflection point marksstrain
the and time under
beginning of theloading con-
volumetric
ditions. Here, εv − εvi represents the difference between the volumetric strain at each mo-
expansion stage of sandstone.
mentToand the volumetric
further investigatestrain at the starting
the impact point
of loading andofunloading
expansion,ratesand on
t − tthe
i represents
mechanicalthe
difference between the time at each moment and the time at the starting
properties of sandstone during the dilatation stage, a fitting analysis was conducted to point of expan-
sion. Here,the
determine εvirelationship
and ti represent
between the volumetric
volumetricstrain
strainand
andtime
time at the
from thestarting point of ex-
start of dilatation to
pansion.
the As shown
peak stress point. in theanalysis
This figure,provides
the relationship
valuable between
insight intovolume and time
the behavior under the
of sandstone
condition of loading is a quadratic polynomial, namely:

εv −εvi = a(t − ti )2 + b(t − ti ) + c (5)

In Equation (5), a, b and c are fitting coefficients. By taking the derivative of Equation
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 13 of 21

during this critical stage of deformation, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding
of its mechanical properties.
Figure 14a displays the fitted curve of volumetric strain and time under loading
nability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22
conditions. Here, εv − εvi represents the difference between the volumetric strain at each
moment and the volumetric strain at the starting point of expansion, and t − ti represents
the difference between the time at each moment and the time at the starting point of
expansion.
C-D section increases withHere,
increasing ti represent
εvi and loading rate,the volumetric
indicating thatstrain and still
the rock timehas
at the starting point of
a cer-
expansion. As shown in the figure, the relationship between volume and time under the
tain bearing capacity.
condition
Furthermore, ofdifferent
under loading isloading
a quadratic
rates,polynomial,
the expansionnamely:
stage duration weakens.
Stage A–B is completed instantly, while stage B–C takes the least time, and stage C–D
2
occupies the entire expansion process. ε v − ε vi = a(t − ti ) + b(t − ti ) + c (5)

Figure 14. (a) fitting

Figurecurve
14. (a)offitting
volumetric
curvestrain and timestrain
of volumetric underand
loading condition;
time under (b) volumetric
loading condition; (b) volumetric
strain rate changes with
strain ratetime in dilatancy
changes stage
with time under loading
in dilatancy stage condition.
under loading condition.

In Equation (5), a, b and c are fitting coefficients. By taking the derivative of Equation (5),
−0.000004
the relationship between the x2 −volumetric − 0.0133
0.00011xstrain rate of rock and time can be obtained:
MG1 =
−0.000157x2 + 0.28195
dε v − εxvi+ 0.23972
= 2a(t − ti ) + b (6)
dt
2
−0.00001x − 0.00027x − 0.0042
MG2 on
Based = Equation (6),2 Figure 14b illustrates the relationship between the volumetric
strain rate and−time
0.00169 x +the
during 0.45942 x −stage
dilatancy 1.08203
under true triaxial loading conditions. As
observed in Figure 14b, the volumetric strain rate of the rock during dilatancy increases
−0.000029 x2 −leading
with time under loading conditions. Moreover, as the loading rate increases, the expansion
0.0000074 x − 0.0047
MG3 =
time of sandstone decreases,
2
to an accelerated growth rate of the volumetric strain
−0.00385
rate and an increase + 0.69496numerical
x maximum
in its x − 0.5298value. This is attributed to the fact that
an increase in loading rate reduces the bearing capacity of the rock at a faster rate, which
−0.000076
ultimately results in a fasterx2expansion
+ 0.00012ofxthe− 0.001
rock.
MG4 = sandstone subjected
However, to low loading rates exhibit low and roughly equal ini-
−0.01015
tial volume strain x2 + 0.96739
rates. Conversely, x − 0.0999
sandstone specimen G5 experiences an initial volume
strain rate that is higher than the initial volume strain rates of the remaining sandstone
specimens by a factor of 10–20,2 and even higher than that of sandstone specimen G3, which
− 0.000071 x − 0.00247 x −that
0.00149
MG5 =
experiences an initial volume strain rate
2
is 333 times lower. This behavior can be
−0.02339x +1.41658x − 0.37939
attributed to the rapid expansion of the crack of sandstone during the initial stages of
loading. Additionally, the limitation of σ2 and σ3 on lateral strain is restricted, and the
lateral volume expansion, caused by the instantaneous increase in stress in the σ1 direction,
surpasses the limitations of σ2 and σ3 on lateral volume expansion. Simultaneously, the
mechanical properties of sandstone deteriorate rapidly with increasing time, further con-
tributing to the rapid increase in the volume expansion rate of sandstone G5, and leading
to the appearance of macro damage at a faster rate. Moreover, before the expansion phase,
sandstone subjected to high loading rates generates more cracks. Consequently, when the
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 14 of 21

bearing capacity of the sandstone decreases to a certain extent, the cracks begin to expand
rapidly, leading to a larger volumetric strain rate at the starting point of expansion.
To better comprehend the impact of loading and unloading rates on rock dilatancy, we
propose the dilatancy characteristic relation:

ε v − ε vi
M= (7)
σv − σvi

where M is the rock expansion capacity induced by unit deviatoric stress at each moment
of the expansion stage. In addition, M is a variable used to reflect the dilatancy change law
of sandstone under deviatoric stress in the dilatancy stage, which can reflect the dilatancy
of rock under the action of deviatoric stress at every moment.
σv − σvi is the difference between the deviatoric stress at each time, the deviatoric
stress at the starting point of expansion, and σvi is the deviatoric stress at the starting point
of expansion. Figure 15 shows the relation curve between deviatoric stress and time in the
expansion stage. It can be found from Figure 15 that the relation between deviator stress
difference and time is a quadratic polynomial, namely:

σv − σvi = a1 (t − ti )2 + b1 (t − ti ) + c1 (8)

where a1 , b1 and c1 are fitting coefficients. According to the fitting results in Figures 14a and 15,
the relationship between the expansion characteristic index and time under different
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22
loading rates can be obtained from the characteristic relation Equation (7). According to
the relationship between M and t, Figure 16 is drawn.

Figure15.
Figure 15.Deviatoric
Deviatoricstress-time
stress-timecurve
curveunder
underdifferent
differentloading
loadingrates
ratesduring
duringexpansion.
expansion.

Figure 16 reveals the relationship between rock dilation and deviatoric stress, showing
the expansion capacity of rock at different times during the expansion stage and the
corresponding evolution pattern. At the onset of expansion, the M value drops sharply
and then starts to increase at a constant rate. The entire expansion stage of rock under true
triaxial loading can be divided into three stages, as illustrated by sandstone specimen G3:
Stage A–B represents the instant crack propagation stage: Prior to expansion, the rock
accumulated multiple micro-cracks that rapidly expanded at the moment of expansion,
resulting in a significantly higher M value at point A compared to the rest of the expansion
stage. Over time, the M value drops rapidly because of the transient growth of micro-cracks.
At this stage, the M value decreases with increasing loading rate.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 15 of 21

Stage B–C represents the weakened expansion ability stage: As time passes, after the
micro-cracks have expanded, the M value begins to decrease slowly, and the expansion
capacity slowly decreases until it reaches the lowest point at C. At this lowest point, the M
value decreases with increasing loading rate.
Stage C–D represents the enhanced expansion ability stage: Once the M value drops to
the lowest point, it starts to rebound and increase over time. Notably, the slope of the C–D
section increases with increasing loading rate, indicating that the rock still has a certain
Figure 15. Deviatoric stress-time curve under different loading rates during expansion.
bearing capacity.

Figure 16.
Figure Deviatoric stress-induced
16. Deviatoric stress-induced dilatability-time
dilatability-time relation curve under different loading rates.

Furthermore,
Figure under the
17a mapped different
volumeloading
strainrates,
underthe expansion
unloading stage duration
conditions weakens.
and the fitting
Stage A–B is completed instantly, while stage B–C takes the least time, and stage
curve of time, from which it can be seen that the relationship between time and volume C–D
occupies the entire expansion process.
strain of the expansion stage under unloading conditions conforms to the quadratic term
of change. Therefore, using the same way under unloading conditions, the expansion
−0.000004x2 −0.00011x −0.0133
M G1 =
phase of the volumetric strain rate is−calculated.
0.000157x2 +0.28195x +0.23972
− 0.00001x2 −0.00027x −0.0042
MG2 = −0.00169x 2 +0.45942x −1.08203

MG3 =−0.000029x2 −0.0000074x −0.0047

−0.00385x2 +0.69496x −0.5298
MG4 = −−0.000076x2 +0.00012x −0.001
0.01015x2 +0.96739x −0.0999
− 0.000071x2 −0.00247x −0.00149
MG5 = −0.02339x2 +1.41658x−0.37939

Figure 17a mapped the volume strain under unloading conditions and the fitting
curve of time, from which it can be seen that the relationship between time and volume
strain of the expansion stage under unloading conditions conforms to the quadratic term of
change. Therefore, using the same way under unloading conditions, the expansion phase
of the volumetric strain rate is calculated.
In Figure 17b, it can be observed that when the unloading rate is 0.2 kN/s, the
volumetric strain rate remains constant during the expansion process. This is because the
lateral volume expansion caused by σ1 is not significant, and the slow unloading in the
direction of σ3 enhances the bearing capacity of the sandstone. Even though there is some
lateral volume expansion, the bearing capacity of the sandstone can still restrict the lateral
volume expansion when the unloading rate is not sufficiently high. However, as time
progresses, the volumetric strain rate increases, and with the increase in the unloading rate,
the expansion time of the sandstone first increases and then decreases, and the volumetric
strain growth rate accelerates. Sandstone H5 shows a more pronounced effect during
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 16 of 21

the expansion stage, and rapid unloading decreases the carrying capacity of the rock.
Consequently, the lateral volume expansion rate of the rock reaches a very high numerical
value during a short period, leading to macro damage that occurs faster than in H2, H3,
nability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW and H4. The results indicate that the expansion of rock can still be inhibited
17 of 22by the loading
capacity of the rock at a lower unloading rate. However, it can only be promoted when the
unloading rate increases to a certain value.

Figure 17. (a) fitting

Figurecurve offitting
17. (a) volumetric
curvestrain and timestrain
of volumetric underand
unloading condition
time under (b) volumetric
unloading condition (b) volumetric
strain rate changes with time during dilatation under unloading condition.
strain rate changes with time during dilatation under unloading condition.

In Figure 17b,Figure
it can 18
beshows
observed that when
the relation thebetween
curve unloading rate is 0.2
deviatoric kN/s,
stress andthe volu-
time in the expansion
metric strain rate remains constant during the expansion process. This is because
stage. It can be seen from Figure 18 that the relation between deviator stress the lat-difference and
eral volume expansion caused by
time is a quadratic σ1 is not significant,
polynomial, namely: and the slow unloading in the di-
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER
rection of σ3 REVIEW
enhances the bearing capacity of the sandstone. Even though there is some 18 of 22
2
σv − σviof=the
lateral volume expansion, the bearing capacity t − ti ) + bcan
a1 (sandstone 1 (t −
still
ti )restrict
+ c1 the lateral (9)
volume expansion when the unloading rate is not sufficiently high. However, as time pro-
gresses, the volumetric strain rate increases, and with the increase in the unloading rate,
the expansion time of the sandstone first increases and then decreases, and the volumetric
strain growth rate accelerates. Sandstone H5 shows a more pronounced effect during the
expansion stage, and rapid unloading decreases the carrying capacity of the rock. Conse-
quently, the lateral volume expansion rate of the rock reaches a very high numerical value
during a short period, leading to macro damage that occurs faster than in H2, H3, and H4.
The results indicate that the expansion of rock can still be inhibited by the loading capacity
of the rock at a lower unloading rate. However, it can only be promoted when the unload-
ing rate increases to a certain value.
Figure 18 shows the relation curve between deviatoric stress and time in the expan-
sion stage. It can be seen from Figure 18 that the relation between deviator stress differ-
ence and time is a quadratic polynomial, namely:

σv −σvi = a1(t − ti )2 + b1(t − ti ) + c1 (9)

According to the relationship between M and t, Figure 19 is drawn.

−0.000016x2 − 0.00024x − 0.0024
M H1 =
−0.00327x2 + 0.93843x − 2.96424
−0.000008
Figure 18. Deviatoric x2 −curve
stress-time 0.0003 x −different
under 0.0026unloading
different unloading rates
rates during
during expansion.
expansion.
MH 2 = 2
−0.000622
From Figure + 0.65237
19, it isxevident − 3.34441
that xthe expansion capacity of rock at different times
2
−0.000017
during the expansion x as+ 0.00019
stage, well as thex −change
0.0104in this capacity with time, is affected by
deviatoric =
MH 3 stress. Based on our 2 analysis, the entire expansion stage of rock under varying
−0.0008995
rates of loading + 0.63059
in the truextriaxial x −1.06549
condition can be divided into three smaller stages, tak-
2
−0.000019x − 0.00014x − 0.0101
ing H5 as an example:
The 4 = stage (A–B) is
MHfirst 2 characterized by instant crack propagation. At the initiation
− 0.00105 x + 0.42593x − 0.6753
point A, the M value reaches its maximum and is significantly higher than in the other
2
−0.000017
two stages. Additionally, asxthe− 0.0015
unloadingx − rate
0.021increases, the M value at point A also in-
H5 =
MSandstone
creases. H5 exhibits
2 greater deformation compared to other specimens during
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 17 of 21

According to the relationship between M and t, Figure 19 is drawn.

M H1 = −0.000016x2 −0.00024x −0.0024

−0.00327x2 +0.93843x −2.96424
0.000008x2 −0.0003x −0.0026
M H2 = −−0.000622x 2 +0.65237x −3.34441

− 0.000017x2 +0.00019x −0.0104

M H3 = −0.0008995x2 +0.63059x−1.06549
2 −0.00014x −0.0101
M H4 = −−0.000019x
0.00105x2 +0.42593x −0.6753
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 22
0.000017x2 −0.0015x −0.021
M H5 = −−0.00175x 2 +0.18843x −0.02694

Figure 19.
Figure Deviatoricstress-induced
19. Deviatoric stress-induced dilatability-time
dilatability-time relation
relation curve
curve under
under different
different unloading
unloading rates.
rates.

From Figure
Under different 19, unloading
it is evident thatinthe
rates theexpansion
true triaxial,capacity
a lowof rock at different
unloading rate hastimes
little
during the expansion stage, as well as the change in this capacity
effect on sandstone expansion during the whole stage. However, when the unloading rate with time, is affected by
deviatoric stress. Based on our analysis, the entire expansion stage of
increases to 5 kN/s, there is a big difference, and the curve at this time is more similar to rock under varying
rates
the of loading
curve underin thethe true triaxial
loading rate. condition can be divided into three smaller stages, taking
H5 as an example:
The first stage (A–B) is characterized by instant crack propagation. At the initiation
5. Discussion
point A, the M value reaches its maximum and is significantly higher than in the other two
Under
stages. true triaxial
Additionally, loading
as the and unloading
unloading rate increases, conditions,
the M value an increase
at point A inalso
compressive
increases.
stress enhances the deformation anisotropy of sandstone, but
Sandstone H5 exhibits greater deformation compared to other specimens during this the loading and unloading
rates
moment haveofaexpansion.
more significantAt thisimpact onbearing
time, the the deformation
capacity ofanisotropy.
sandstone Specifically, as the
H5 is considerably
loading rate increases, the deformation
lower than that of other sandstone specimens. anisotropy weakens, while a decrease in the un-
loading rate also weakens the anisotropy of sandstone.
The second stage (B–C) is the stage where expansion ability weakens. As time pro-
Theand
gresses behavior of sandstone
microcracks expand, during
the Mthe dilatancy
value stagedecreases,
gradually is significantly influenced
resulting by
in a slow
loading rates. As the loading rate increases, the expansion time
reduction in the expansion capacity until the lowest point C. At this point, the M valueof sandstone decreases,
leading
increasestowith
an accelerated
the unloading growth
rate.rate of the volumetric strain rate and an increase in its
maximum numerical value. Sandstone
In the third stage (C–D), the expansion subjected to low
ability loading
is related ratesunloading
to the exhibits low rate.and
In
roughly equal initial volume strain rates, while sandstone subjected
contrast to the loading condition, where the unloading rate is low, the M value remains to high loading rates
generates
constant withmore cracks
time. and has ainlarger
As depicted volumetric
the figure, strain rate
the unloading rate at thenot
does starting
affect point
the M of ex-
value,
pansion.
and specimens H1, H2 and H3 exhibit similar behavior during this stage. However, the M
valueOverall, these with
will increase mechanisms
time onlyhelpwhen usthebetter understand
unloading and predict
rate exceeds the threshold.
a certain mechanical
properties
Underand behavior
different of sandstone
unloading rates under
in the different loading
true triaxial, a lowand unloading
unloading rateconditions.
has little
This
effecthas
on important implications
sandstone expansion for understanding
during the whole stage. and predicting
However, the the
when behavior
unloadingof rocks
rate
in geological and engineering applications.

6. Conclusions
The mechanical properties of sandstone under true triaxial conditions are influenced
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 18 of 21

increases to 5 kN/s, there is a big difference, and the curve at this time is more similar to
the curve under the loading rate.

5. Discussion
Under true triaxial loading and unloading conditions, an increase in compressive stress
enhances the deformation anisotropy of sandstone, but the loading and unloading rates
have a more significant impact on the deformation anisotropy. Specifically, as the loading
rate increases, the deformation anisotropy weakens, while a decrease in the unloading rate
also weakens the anisotropy of sandstone.
The behavior of sandstone during the dilatancy stage is significantly influenced by
loading rates. As the loading rate increases, the expansion time of sandstone decreases,
leading to an accelerated growth rate of the volumetric strain rate and an increase in
its maximum numerical value. Sandstone subjected to low loading rates exhibits low
and roughly equal initial volume strain rates, while sandstone subjected to high loading
rates generates more cracks and has a larger volumetric strain rate at the starting point
of expansion.
Overall, these mechanisms help us better understand and predict the mechanical
properties and behavior of sandstone under different loading and unloading conditions.
This has important implications for understanding and predicting the behavior of rocks in
geological and engineering applications.

6. Conclusions
The mechanical properties of sandstone under true triaxial conditions are influenced
by various loading and unloading rates. In this study, we conducted true triaxial me-
chanical tests on sandstone using a fluid-structure coupling test system. Our test results
revealed the following effects of different loading and unloading rates on sandstone’s
mechanical properties:
Firstly, under different loading rates, crack initiation stress σci decreases with the
loading rate, while damage stress σcd and peak stress σf remain unchanged. Furthermore,
the constant velocity deformation stage before expansion is shortened. We also analyzed
the introduction of deviatoric stress deformation of the true triaxial unloading compliance
during the deformation process. Overall, the deviatoric stress deformation compliance rises
with an increase in loading rate, with a significant difference appearing only at the stage
of fracture unstable propagation. Additionally, the mechanical properties of sandstone
deteriorate rapidly with time, leading to faster volume expansion rates and macro damage
for sandstone G5.
Secondly, under different unloading rates, sandstone’s curve falls rapidly after the
peak, indicating strong brittleness. Residual stress and residual strain decrease with an
increase in the unloading rate, and brittleness is related to the principal intermediate strain
when rock is broken. Furthermore, the brittleness index increases with an increase in the
principal intermediate strain. At lower unloading rates, rock dilatation can still be inhibited
by the loading capacity of rock, but it can be promoted only when the unloading rate
increases to a certain value.
Thirdly, the anisotropy of rock deformation weakens with an increase in loading time,
causing expansion time to decrease and volumetric strain rate to accelerate. Conversely,
the anisotropy of rock deformation strengthens with an increase in unloading rate, causing
expansion time to first increase and then decrease, and volumetric strain rate to accelerate.
Lastly, rock dilatation under true triaxial conditions can be divided into three stages,
with different dilatation laws under different loading and unloading rates. The ability to
expand under loading conditions increases with time, whereas under unloading conditions,
the capacity expansion remains unchanged when the unloading rate is low and is related
to the unloading rate when it is high.
In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into the effects of different loading
and unloading rates on sandstone’s mechanical properties under true triaxial conditions.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 5105 19 of 21

Author Contributions: Investigation, Y.W.; Writing—original draft, W.D.; Writing—review & edit-
ing, B.Y.; Funding acquisition, D.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: The National Natural Science Foundation of China (51874053, 52064016) and the Scientific
Research Foundation of the State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control
(2011DA105287-zd201804).
Data Availability Statement: The experimental data supporting the conclusions are available from
the corresponding author on request.
Acknowledgments: This study was financially supported by the National Natural Science Founda-
tion of China (51874053, 52064016) and the Scientific Research Foundation of the State Key Laboratory
of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control (2011DA105287-zd201804).
Conflicts of Interest: No, I declare that the authors have no competing interest as defined by
Sustainability, or other interest that might be perceived to influence the results and/or discussion
reported in this paper.

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