JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

Bsc Electrical & Electronics Engineering

PROJECT PROPOSAL

PROJECT TITLE:

INVESTIGATING THE IMPACT OF SOLAR PV PENETRATION LEVEL ON THE

SMALL SIGNAL STABITLITY OF POWER SYSTEM

Submitted by:

MWITHALII DOUGLAS KANIRU - EN271-3876/2015

PROJECT SUPERVISOR

PROF. KABERERE

A Final Year Project Proposal submitted to the Department of Electrical and

Electronic Engineering in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of a

Bachelor of Science Degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering.

JUNE 2022

1|Page
DECLARATION

This project proposal is my original work, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text,
and to the best of my knowledge has not been previously submitted to Jomo Kenyatta University
of Agriculture and Technology or any other institution for the Award of a degree or diploma.

SIGNATURE………………………………………… DATE ………………………………

NAME: MWITHALII DOUGLAS KANIRU REG No.: EN271-3876/2015

TITLE OF PROJECT:

Analysis Of The Impact Of Solar PV Penetration Levels On The

Power System’s Small Signal Stability

SUPERVISOR CONFIRMATION:

This project proposal has been submitted to the Department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, with my approval as the
University supervisor:

NAME OF SUPERVISOR: PROF. KABERERE

SIGNATURE: ……………………………… DATE: ……………………………………….

2|Page
ABSTRACT

The increase in penetration of large-scale renewable generation significantly affects power system
characteristics. Solar photovoltaic (PV) power generating systems are fundamentally different
from conventional synchronous generators. They do not have inertia and their dynamic behavior
is dominated by the characteristics and controls of the power electronic inverters. Thus, it is
necessary to assess the steady state and dynamic performance of a power system for different
installing scenarios of solar PV power plant. This project primarily focuses on the small signal
analysis of a power system integrated with solar photovoltaics (PV). The test system is the two-
area four generator system. The small signal stability analysis of this test system are investigated
in terms of the eigenvalue analysis, damped frequency, damping ratio and participation factor for
increased solar PV penetration into the grid.

3|Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ 2

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ 4

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ 6

LIST OF TABLE ............................................................................................................................ 7

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................... 8

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 9

1.1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ..................................................................................... 9

1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................ 10

1.3. PROJECT JUSTIFICATION ............................................................................................. 10

1.4. OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................... 11

1.4.1. Main Objectives ........................................................................................................... 11

1.4.2. Specific Objectives ...................................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... 12

2.1 POWER SYSTEM STABILITY ........................................................................................ 12

2.1.1 Voltage stability ...................................................................................................... 12

2.1.2 Rotor Angle stability ............................................................................................... 13

2.1.3. State-space Representation .......................................................................................... 17

2.2 EXCITATION SYSTEMS .................................................................................................. 27

2.2.1 Exciter Model ............................................................................................................... 27

2.3 OPERATION OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS ........................................ 28

2.4 TYPES OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS .................................................. 29

4|Page
 2.4.2 Generator type Automatic Voltage Regulator .............................................................. 30

2.5 OPERATION OF A POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER .................................................... 30

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 33

3.1 SUMMARY OF STUDY SYSTEM ....................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.2 REPRESENTATION OF NETWORK ELEMENTS IN A POWER SYSTEM ......... Error!

Bookmark not defined.

3.3 SIMULATION PROCESS...................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER FOUR: EXPECTED RESULTS ................................................................................ 34

BUDGET ...................................................................................................................................... 35

TIMEPLAN .................................................................................................................................. 35

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 36

5|Page
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF POWER SYSTEMS STABILITY .................................... 12

FIGURE 2 STANDARD REPRESENTATION OF A DYNAMIC SYSTEMError! Bookmark

not defined.

FIGURE 3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A STATE SPACE REPRESENTATIONError! Bookmark

not defined.

FIGURE 4 A SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR EXCITATION CONTROL SYSTEM ........... 28

FIGURE 5 SUPPLY TYPE AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR .................................... 29

FIGURE 6 GENERATOR TYPE AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORError! Bookmark

not defined.

FIGURE 7 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR PSS ........................ 32

FIGURE 8 THE TWO-AREA-FOUR-GENERATOR SYSTEM ……………………………….

6|Page
S

LIST OF TABLE

TABLE 1 BUDGET ..................................................................................................................... 35

TABLE 2 TIMEPLAN ................................................................................................................. 35

7|Page
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator

FACTS Flexible AC Transmission Systems

PV Photovoltaic

PCC Point of Common Connection

PSS Power System Stabilizer

PV Photovoltaic

RES Renewable Energy Sources

SVC Static VAr Compensator

TCSC Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor

8|Page
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Over the recent years, renewable energy has gained huge importance among all forms of energy
resources and is being given emphasis and thrust across the world. This development has been
greatly influenced by the two challenges facing the world, that is, climate change due to global
warming and the depletion of fossil fuel reserves. The need of the hour is to cut down on the usage
of fossil fuel resources and reduce its dependency to secure energy for future. Therefore, switching
to renewable energy is seen as a promising solution for the present crisis.

The high cost of renewable energy electric conversion systems has been a main hindrance to its
development till now. But in order to promote the renewable energy installations, the policies and
regulations are being modified in its favour in all major countries. Also, due to the recent
advancements in technology and research, the cost of renewable energy electric conversion
systems has been continually decreasing with the most significant price drop being observed in
solar, which is 80% over the last seven years [1, 2].

Solar PV energy and wind energy are two major sources among the renewable energy resources
which have been commercially well-established and are proven technologies for clean electricity
generation. The Bloomberg New Energy Finance (NEF) reports indicated that in 2021 alone,
photovoltaic systems with a combined capacity of 183GW were installed worldwide – almost
40GW more than in the year 2020 [3]. The world is entering the Solar Terawatt Age. The
advancements in the field of PV panel manufacturing and the inherent advantages of solar PV over
other sources and technologies have paved way for such a tremendous growth. The statistical
projections indicate that the global solar PV installations will grow at even faster pace in the
coming years.

The situation is same in Kenya where the Kenyan Government has played a big role in
advancement of the use of solar energy. It has removed import duty and zero-rated Value Added
Tax (VAT) for renewable energy equipment and accessories. Further, its aim is to keep on
increasing the factors of production. A study done by EPRA (formerly ERC) in 2015, estimated
the total megawatts (MW) produced in the solar sector to be over 20 with an expected growth of
15% annually [4]. The Kenya Government aim is to have the sector produce 600 MWp by 2030.

9|Page
To attain this goal, the Kenyan government in partnership with a number of IPPs, has launched
several projects across the country some of which have been completed and are now operational.

They include:

Garissa Solar Project – 55 MW Radiant – 50MW

Malindi Solar Plant – 52 MW Rumuruti Solar Project- 40 MW

Alten Keesses (1) – 52 MW Nakuru (Migitiyo) – 40 MW

Kopere Solar Project – 50 MW WITU – 40 MW

Eldosol Solar Plant – 48 MW Makindu Solar Plant- 33 MW

In addition to the above initiatives the EPRA has produced a standardized power purchase
agreement (“PPA”) and Feed-in-Tariffs for IPPs below 50 MW. All these and many other factors
have played a big role in the growth of solar sector in the country.

1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

Power systems that are dominated by synchronous generators are highly nonlinear and may
experience a change in its dynamic and performance characteristics when connected to renewable
energy sources. Thus, the renewable energy resources when implemented in large scale without
any specialized controls may impact the integrity, reliability and stability of the power system grid.
Solar penetration level is on continuous rise and plants of order of hundreds of Megawatts are
coming up at global level. With such an extensive growth in deployment of the solar PV, power
system operators are expected to deal with a new set of issues due to the different nature of
generation. Hence it is important to study and analyze the impact of the large-scale penetration of
solar PV into the grid.

1.3. PROJECT JUSTIFICATION

Electro-mechanical oscillations between interconnected synchronous generators are phenomena

inherent to power systems. Stability of these oscillations is of vital concern and is a pre-requite for
secure system operation. For many years, the oscillations observed to be troublesome in power
systems, were associated with a single generator, or a very closely connected group of units at a
generating plant. Some low frequency oscillations have also been observed when large systems

10 | P a g e
are connected by relatively weak tie lines. These low oscillations are found to involve groups of
generators, or generating plants, on one side of the tie line oscillating against groups of generators
on the other side of the tie line. Oscillations associated with a single generator or single plants are
called local modes. The characteristic of these local modes are well understood. They may be
studied adequately, and satisfactory solutions to stability problems developed, from a system
which has detailed representation only in the vicinity of the plant. Oscillations associated with
groups of generators, or groups of interconnected generating plants are called inter-area modes.
The characteristics of the oscillations, and the factors influencing them, are not fully understood.
They are far more complex to study and control. In recent times, many instances of unstable
oscillations, involving inter-area modes in large power systems, have been observed both in studies
and in practice. Such oscillations are increasingly becoming a cause of concern. This, therefore,
has led to a renewed interest in the nature of these modes, methods for systematically studying
them and control methods by which they can be stabilized.

1.4. OBJECTIVES
1.4.1. Main Objectives

To investigate the impact of different penetration levels of solar PV on the small signal stability
of a power system.

1.4.2. Specific Objectives

1. To model and perform modal analysis of the two-area four generators power system with
solar PV and without solar PV as base cases to study the small signal stability of the system.
2. To model automatic voltage regulators (AVR) in the system, perform a modal analysis and
analyze the small signal stability in the two-area four generator power system with solar
PV and without solar PV
3. To model power system stabilizers in the system, perform a modal analysis and analyze
the small signal stability in the two-area four generator power system with solar PV and
without solar PV.

11 | P a g e
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Stability of power system stability may be defined as that property of a power system that enables
it to remain in a state of operating equilibrium under normal operating conditions and to regain an
acceptable state of equilibrium after being subjected to a disturbance. Power System stability can
be broadly classified as shown in the figure below [7]:

FIGURE 1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF POWER SYSTEMS STABILITY

2.1.1 Voltage stability

This is the ability of a power system to maintain steady acceptable voltages at all buses in the
system under normal operating conditions and after being subjected to a disturbance. The main
factor causing instability is the inability of the power system to meet the demand for the reactive
power.

12 | P a g e
2.1.2 Rotor Angle stability

This is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines of a power system to remain in

synchronism. A fundamental factor in this problem is the manners in which the power outputs of
synchronous machines vary as their rotor oscillate. It is further categorized into:

2.1.2.1. Transient Stability

It is defined as the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism when subjected to large
or severe disturbance such as short circuits, loss of a tie-line between two generators or loss of
large loads or generation. Transient stability depends on the initial operating conditions of the
system as well as the type, severity and location of the disturbance.

Due to a large disturbance, the machine load angle changes as a result of sudden acceleration of
the rotor shaft. The objective of the transient stability study is to ascertain whether the load angle
returns to a steady value following the clearance of the disturbance during the critical clearing
time.

2.1.2.2. Small-signal Stability

This is defined as the ability of a power system to maintain synchronism under continuous small
variations or disturbances. These small disturbances occur due to random fluctuations in loads and
generation levels. In an interconnected power system, these random variations can lead to
catastrophic failure as this may force the rotor angle to increase steadily.

A disturbance is considered small if equations describing the dynamics of the power system can
be linearized for analysis purpose. The small disturbances are those changes occurring in the
system for which rotor angle presents an almost linear variation. This allows for linearization of
the system equations around the equilibrium points without encountering errors.

The process following the disturbance occurrence depends on factors such as:

 The initial operating conditions,

 The transmission system strength,
 The type of generator excitation controls used.

The instabilities that may result from small disturbances can be of two forms:

13 | P a g e
 i. Steady or constant increase in rotor angle
This is caused by insufficient synchronizing torque
ii. Growing magnitude/amplitude of rotor oscillations
This results from insufficient damping torque.

Rotor angle oscillations may appear in the power system because of:

 Weak electrical connection between generators or between generators and loads due to
long distances (large reactance)
 Uncoordinated fast voltage regulators or other types of controls

Small signal stability is mainly an issue due to inadequate damping of the system in modern
practical power system. Small signal stability is obtained on the basis of a linearized system around
its equilibrium operating points. If the oscillations of the power system caused by small
perturbations/disturbances can be suppressed sot that system state variable deviations remain small
for a long time, then the power system is stable. If the oscillation magnitude increases or persists
indefinitely, the power system is unstable.

In large inter-connected systems, local generators may swing together or oscillate against other
groups of generators. For a generator connected radially to a large power system, in absence of
AVR (i.e. with constant field voltage) the instability is due to lack of sufficient synchronizing
torque.

Of particular importance in the analysis of small signal stability is the determination of the
electromechanical modes of oscillation (EMO). The electromechanical modes involve the rotors
of individual generators oscillating or swinging against each other and they can be subdivided into:

 Inter-area modes
 Local-area (or intra-station) modes.

The following types of oscillation are of concern:

Local modes or machine-system modes

These are associated with the oscillation of units at a generating station with respect to the rest of
the power system. The term local is used because the oscillations are localized at one station or a
small part of the power system.

14 | P a g e
Inter area modes

These are associated with the swinging of many machines in one part of the system against
machines in other parts. They are caused by two or more groups of closely coupled machines being
interconnected by weak tie-lines.

Control modes

These are associated with generating units and other controls. Poorly tuned exciters, speed
governors, HVDC converters and static VAR compensators are the usual cause of instability of
this mode.

Torsional modes

These are associated with the turbine-generator shaft system rotational components. Instability of
torsional modes may be caused by interaction with excitation controls, excitation controls, speed
governors, HVDC controls, and series-capacitor-compensated lines.

The stability of a linear system is entirely independent of the input, and the state of a stable system
with zero input will always return to the origin of the state space, independent of the finite initial
state. In contrast, the stability of a nonlinear system depends on the type and magnitude of input,
and the initial state. These factors have to be taken into account in defining the stability of a
nonlinear system.

In control system theory, it is common practice to classify the stability of a nonlinear system into
the following categories, depending on the region of state space in which the state vector ranges:

 Local stability or stability in the small

 Finite stability
 Global stability or stability in the large

Local stability

Local stability is said to occur when a system, subjected to small perturbations, remains within a
small region surrounding the equilibrium point. It does not require that the state return to the
original state and, therefore, includes small limit cycles. Local stability conditions can be studied
by linearizing the nonlinear system equations about the equilibrium point in question.

15 | P a g e
Finite stability

If the state of a system remains within a finite region R, it is said to be stable within R. If the state
of the system returns to the original equilibrium point from any point within R, it is asymptotically
stable within the finite region R.

16 | P a g e
Global stability

The system is said to be globally stable if R includes the entire finite space.

2.1.3. State-space Representation

Power system is dynamic. The behaviour of a dynamic system, such as a power system, may
be described by a set of n first order non-linear ordinary differential equations of the form:
ẋ =fi (x1,x2….xn ; u1,u2…ur; t) (2.1)
Where,

n : number of state variables(the order of the system)

r : the number of inputs.

xi : state variable.

It may be physical quantities such as speed, angle, voltage or any abstract

mathematical variable associated with the differential equation

ẋ : derivative of the state variable x with respect to time

If fi is linear then the system is linear. This can be written in the following form by using
vector-matrix notations shown below:

17 | P a g e
 ẋ= fi(x,u,t) (2.2)

Where,
x: State vector. The state vector represents the complete information of the system,
such that if we know the state at time to it is possible to compute the state all future time
without reference to the input before to
u : external input(control) vector that influences the performance of the system.
t : time
If the derivatives of the state variables are not explicit functions of time, the system is said to
be autonomous. In this case, equation 2.2 is simplified to-:
ẋ= f(x,u) (2.3)

The output of the system may be expressed in terms of state variables and input variables as :
y = g(x,u) (2.4)

𝑦1 𝑔1
𝑦2 𝑔2
y=[ . ] and g=[ . ]
. .
𝑦𝑚 𝑔𝑚
The column vector y is the vector of outputs, and g is a vector of non-linear functions relating
state and input variables to output variables.
2.1.3.2. Linearization
For the purpose of SSS analysis, we can linearize the equations describing a system’s dynamic
behavior around the equilibrium points without encountering errors. The equilibrium points are
those points where all the derivatives ẋ1 , ẋ2, ẋ3…ẋn are simultaneously zero; they define the points
on the trajectory with zero velocity. The system is accordingly at rest since all the variables are
constant and do not vary with time. The equilibrium or singular point must therefore satisfy the
equation:

f(x0)=0 (2.5)

x0 : state vector x at the equilibrium point.

Linearization of equation 2.1 of a dynamic system is described below.

18 | P a g e
Let x0 be the initial state vector and u0 be the initial input vector corresponding to the equilibrium
point about which the small signal stability is to be studied. Since x0 and u0 satisfy equation 2.3,
we have-:

ẋ0= fi(x0,u0) =0 (2.6)

Let us disturb the system above by letting

x =x0 +∆x
u=u0 + ∆u

Where ∆ denotes a small deviation. The new state must satisfy equation 2.3, hence:

ẋ =ẋ0 + ∆x (2.7)
ẋ0= fi(x0+∆x, u0 +∆u)

The perturbations are assumed to be small therefore the non-linear function f(x,u) can be
expressed in terms of Taylor’s series expansion. The linearized forms of equation 2.4 and
equation 2.5 are then obtained as below-:

∆ẋ = A∆x + B∆u (2.8)

∆y =C∆x + D∆u (2.9)

Where,

𝜕𝑓1 𝜕𝑓1 𝜕𝑓1 𝜕𝑓1

. . . .
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢𝑟

A= [ . . ] B= [ . . ]
. . . .
𝜕𝑓𝑛 𝜕𝑓𝑛 𝜕𝑓𝑛 𝜕𝑓𝑛
. . . .
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢𝑟

(2.10)

𝜕𝑔1 𝜕𝑔1 𝜕𝑔1 𝜕𝑔1

. . . .
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑢𝑟
. .
C= [ . . ] D=[ ]
. . . .
𝜕𝑔𝑚 𝜕𝑔𝑚 𝜕𝑔𝑚 𝜕𝑔𝑚
. . . .
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝜕𝑢1 𝜕𝑔𝑚

19 | P a g e
In the equations 2.8 and 2.9 above;

∆x – is the state vector of dimension n

∆y – is the output vector of dimension m

∆u –is the input vector of dimension r

A–is the state or plant matrix of size

u–is the control or input matrix of size
C –is the output matrix of size
D –is the feed-ward matrix of size. It defines the properties of input which appears directly in
the output

By taking the Laplace transform of the above equations, we obtain the state equations in the
frequency domain:

s∆x(s) + ∆x(0) =A∆x(s) + B∆u(s) (2.11)

∆y(s) =C∆x(s) +D∆u(s) (2.12)

The block diagram of the state-space representation described by equations (2.11) and (2.12)
above can be drawn as shown below-:

Figure 2.2: Block Diagram of State Space Representation

Figure 2.2 shows the block diagram of the state space representation. Since we are the transfer
function of the system, the initial conditions ∆x(0) are assumed to be zero. A formal solution
of the state equations can be obtained by solving for ∆x(s) and evaluating ∆y(s) as follows:
20 | P a g e
 (sI-A) ∆x(s) = ∆x(0) + B∆u(s)

Hence, ∆x(s) = (sI-A)-1 [ ∆x(0) + B∆u(s) ]

adj(𝑠𝐼−𝐴)
= det(𝑠𝐼−𝐴) [ ∆x(0) + B∆u(s) ] (2.13)

Correspondingly, we have ;

adj(𝑠𝐼−𝐴)
∆y(s) = C 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝑠𝐼−𝐴) [ ∆x(0) + B∆u(s) ] + D∆u(s) (2.14)

From the result, it can be seen that the Laplace transforms of ∆x and ∆y are seen to have two
components, one dependent on the initial conditions and the other on the inputs. These are the
Laplace transforms of the free and zero-state components of the state and output vectors .

The poles of ∆x(s) and ∆y(s) are the roots of the equation:
det(sI −A) = 0 (2.15)

The values of s which satisfy the above are known as eigenvalues of matrix A, and the above
equation is referred to as characteristic equation of matrix A.

2.1.3.3. Analysis of stability

There are two main methods for analyzing power system small signal stability, and are described
below as follow [12, 13]:

• Frequency domain analysis method based on the transfer function

matrix
The frequency domain model of power systems described by the transfer
function matrix, i.e it can be obtained by appropriately choosing the input and
output variables,

𝑌(𝑠)
G(s)=𝑈(𝑠)

Where; Y(s) - output vector

G(s)-Transfer function matrix
U(s)-Input vector
The system is stable under small disturbance, which is equivalent in the negative real part of
all poles of G(s) and can be examined by multivariable nyquist stability criteria.

21 | P a g e
• Eigen value analysis method based on the state space model

Eigen value analysis method, which is based on the linear system theory and Lyapunov stability
theory, has been recognized as one of the broadest methods to analyze small signal stability. In
this method the complex power system can be linearized around a stable operating point which
can give a close approximation to the system to be studied. And then, stability analysis is done by
computing Eigen values as well as the left and right Eigen vectors of its state matrix, hence the
judgment information for system stability, such as oscillation frequency, the attenuation factor, the
impact factor and the strongly correlated state variables can be obtained by. Modal analysis
method, which involves Eigenvalue analysis will be used in this project because it proves superior
compared to other methods, as it provides additional information to identify the critical generators
that may be used to determine the location of eventually needed stabilizing devices in order to
influence the system damping efficiently [14].

2.1.3.4. Eigenvalues
Eigenvalues of a matrix are given by the scalar parameter λ for which there exists non-trivial
solutions (i.e. other than Ф = 0) to the equation:

AФ = λФ (2.17)

Where -:

A – is the n×n matrix (real for physical systems such as power systems)

Ф – is n×1 vector.

To find the eigenvalues equation, equation 2.17 may be written in the form:

(A−λI )Ф =0 (2.18)

For anon-trivial solution:

det(A− λI ) =0 (2.19)

Expansion of the determinant gives the characteristic equation. The roots of

the characteristic equation give the eigenvalues of the state matrix A
λ = 1, 2, …n are the eigenvalues of A.

22 | P a g e
2.1.3.4. Eigenvectors
Eigenvectors are obtained by plugging the eigenvalues λi, each one at a time, into the equation
2.17 and solving for Ф. For any eigenvalue λi , the n-column vector Ф which satisfies the
equation 2.17 is called the right eigenvector of A associated with the eigenvalue λi.

Therefore, we have:

AФi = λi Фi Where i = 1,2,3…. (2.20)

The eigenvector has the form:
Ф1i
Ф2i
Фi = [ . ]
.
Фni

Since equation 2.18 is homogenous kФi (where k is a scalar) is also a solution. Thus the
eigenvectors are determined only to within a scalar multiplier.
Similarly, the n-row vector ѱi which satisfies the equation 2.18 is called left eigenvector of A
associated with the eigenvalue and we have-:
Aѱi = λi ѱi (2.21)
If we consider two different eigenvalues λi and λj . The left and right eigenvectors corresponding
to the two different eigenvalues are orthogonal. That is, if λi is not equal to λj then we have:
ѰjФi = 0 (2.22)
However, in the case of eigenvectors corresponding to the same eigenvalue:
ѰiФi = Ci (2.23)
Where Ci is a non-zero constant.
Since eigenvalues are determined only to within a scalar multiplier, it is common practice to
normalize these vectors so that
ѱ i Фi = 1 (2.24)
The right eigenvector gives the observability information whereas the left eigenvectors gives
the controllability information.

2.1.3.4. Modal Matrices

In order to express eigenproperties of A succinctly, we introduce the following matrices:

23 | P a g e
 Ф = [Ф𝟏 Ф𝐢 … … . Ф𝐧] (2.25)

ѱi = [ Ѱ𝐢 ѱ𝟐 … … ѱ𝐧. ]T (2.26)

Each of the above matrices is nxn.

From ∆ẋ = A∆x + B∆u, free motion with zero input ( ∆u =0) , we get;

∆ẋ = A∆x (2.27)

A set of equations of the above form derived from physical considerations, is often not the best
means of analytical studies of motion. The problem is that the rate of change of the state variable
is a linear combination of all the state variables. The state variables are cross-coupled. This cross-
coupling makes it difficult to isolate those parameters that influence the motion in a significant
way. In order to eliminate the cross-coupling, we consider a new state vector z related to the
original state vector ∆x by the transformation:

∆x = Фz (2.28)

Where Ф is the modal matrix of A described by equation 2.25.

Substituting equation 2.28 for ∆x into equation 2.27;

Фż = AФz (2.29)

The new state equation can be written as;

ż = Ф-1AФz (2.3)

ż = Λz (2.31)

where Λ= Ф-1AФ

The difference between 2.27 and 2.31 is that Λ is a diagonal matrix whereas A is a non-diagonal
matrix. The diagonal elements of matrix Λ are the eigenvalues of matrix A. Equation 2.31 represent
n uncoupled first order(scalar) equations:

żi = λi zi i=1,2,3….n (2.32)

The effect of transformation is, therefore, to uncouple the state equations. That is, eliminate the
cross-coupling of the state variables.

24 | P a g e
Equation 2.32 is a first-order differential equation whose solution with respect to time is given by;

żi = zi (0)℮λit (2.33)

Where zi (0) is the initial value of zi .

From ∆x(t) = Фz(t);

z(t)= Ф-1 ∆x(t)

= ѱ∆x(t) (2.34)

zi (t)= ѱi∆x(t)

zi (0)= ѱi∆x(0) (2.35)

∆x(t) = Фz(t)

z1(t)
z2(t)
= [Ф𝟏 Ф𝟐 … … . Ф𝐧] [ . ] (2.36)
.
zn (t)

∆x(t) =∑𝑛𝑖=1 ФiZi (0)𝒆𝛌i𝐭 (2.37)

Substituting equation 2.35 for zi (0) in equation 2.36 we have;

∆x(t) =∑𝑛𝑖=1 Фi ѱi∆x(0) 𝒆𝛌i𝐭 (2.38)

=∑𝑛𝑖=1 Фi Ci 𝒆𝛌i𝐭 (2.39)

In other words, the time-response of the ith state variable is given by;

∆x(t)= Ф1C1 𝒆𝛌1𝐭 + Ф2C2 𝒆𝛌2𝐭 +………. + ФnCn 𝒆𝛌n𝐭 (2.4)

This equation gives the expression for the free motion time response of the system in terms of the
eigenvalues, and left and right eigenvectors. Thus, the free (or initial condition) response of a
system is given by a linear combination of n dynamic modes corresponding to the n eigenvectors
of the state matrix.

The scalar Ci = ѱi∆x(0) represents the magnitude of the excitation of the ith mode resulting from
the initial conditions.

25 | P a g e
If the initial conditions lie along the jth eigenvector, the scalar products ѱi∆x(0) for all i≠j are
identically zero. Therefore, only the jth mode is excited.

If the vector representing the initial condition is not an eigenvector, it can be represented by a
linear combination of the n-eigenvectors. The response of the system will be the sum of the n
responses. If a component along an eigenvector of the initial condition is zero, the corresponding
mode will not be excited.

2.1.3.4. Eigenvalue and stability

The time dependent characteristic of a mode corresponding to an eigenvalue is given by ℮λit
. Therefore, the stability of the system is determined by the eigenvalues as follow:

a A real eigenvalue normally corresponds to a non-oscillatory mode. A negative real

eigenvalue represents a decaying mode (damped oscillation). The larger the
magnitude, the faster the decay. A positive real eigenvalue represents aperiodic
instability (oscillation of increasing amplitude).
The values of C’s and the eigenvectors associated with real eigenvalues are also real.
b Complex eigenvalues occur in conjugate pairs, and each pair corresponds to an
oscillatory mode. The real value of the eigenvalue gives the damping, and the
imaginary component gives the frequency of the oscillation.
The associated C’s and eigenvectors will have appropriate complex values so as to
make the entries of x(t) real at every instant of time.
For a complex pair of eigenvalues;
λ=𝜎±jw (2.41)
The frequency of oscillation is given by ;
𝑤
f = 2𝜋 (2.42)

This represents the actual or damped frequency. The damping ratio is given by;
−σ
ζ =√σ2 (2.43)
+𝑤 2

26 | P a g e
The damping ratio ζ determines the rate of decay of the amplitude of the oscillation. It is obvious
that higher damping ratio and lower oscillation frequency generate better damping effects to
enhance the stability of the power system.

2.1.3.5. Small signal Analysis using Lyapunov’s first method

The stability in the small of a nonlinear system is given by the roots of the characteristic
equation of the system i.e. by eigenvalues of A.

• When the Eigen values have negative real parts, the original system is
asymptotically stable.
• When at least one of the Eigen values has positive real part, the original
system is unstable.
• When the Eigen values have real parts equal to zero, it is not possible on the
basis of first approximation to say anything in general.

2.1.3.6. Participation factor

One problem in using right and left eigenvectors individually for identifying the relationship
between the states and the modes is that the elements of the eigenvectors are dependent on
units and scaling associated with the state variables. As a solution to this problem, a matrix
called participation matrix (P), which combines the right and left eigenvectors as follows is
used as a measure of association between the state variables and the modes: Participation
factors are generally indicative of the relative participation of the respective states in the
corresponding modes. They give a good indication of the general system dynamic oscillation
pattern. These values can be used to determine the location of stabilizing devices in a system
for damping power system oscillations.

2.2 EXCITATION SYSTEMS

2.2.1 Exciter Model

The basic function of an excitation system is to provide direct current to the synchronous machine
field winding. In addition, the excitation system performs control and protective functions essential
to the satisfactory performance of the power system by controlling the field voltage and thereby
the field current.

27 | P a g e
The control functions include the control of voltage and reactive power flow, and the enhancement
of system stability. The protective functions ensure that the capability limits of the synchronous
machine, excitation system, and other equipment are not exceeded [17].

FIGURE 2 A SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR EXCITATION CONTROL SYSTEM

Types of excitation systems:

 DC excitation systems: used on dc generators

 AC excitation systems: on ac machines
 Static excitation systems: on static systems i.e. non stationary systems

2.3 OPERATION OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS

It is necessary to provide constancy of the alternator terminal voltage during normal small and
slow changes in the load. For this purpose the alternators are provided with an Automatic Voltage
Regulator. It is used primarily for testing and start up, and to cater for situations where the ac
regulator is faulty. It is also necessary to develop the control system o the machine hence the AVR
is used in electrical power field to obtain the stability and good regulation of the electric system.
The AVR maintains a constant voltage up to a certain level of load current independently of
generator speed and load.

The AVR loop must regulate the terminal voltage to within the static accuracy limit, have sufficient
speed of response and be stable. Mathematically the time response depends upon the Eigen values
or closed loop poles, which are obtained from the characteristic equation. The location of the Eigen

28 | P a g e
values in the s plane depends upon the upon loop gain K and the time constants and of these only
the gain is adjustable.

In modern large inter connected system, annual regulation is not feasible and therefore automatic
generation and automatic and voltage regulation equipment is installed on each generator. The
AVR may be discontinuous or continuous type. The discontinuous type is simpler than the
continuous type but it has a dead zone where no single is given, therefore its response time is
longer and less accurate.

Modern Static continuous type automatic voltage regulator has the advantage of providing
extremely fast response times and high field ceiling voltages for forcing rapid changes in the
governor terminal voltage during system faults. Response time variation can cause the AVR to
degrade the system stability.

2.4 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS

An Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) is used to maintain the systems bus voltages within
the reference/nominal values.
To design an AVR, it is necessary to know certain factors about the input and the required
accuracy of the output voltage together with certain information of the load.

FIGURE 3 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

29 | P a g e
AVR is used to maintain the bus voltage at the nominal/reference value. The output voltage of the
generator is compared to the reference through a comparator. A low bus voltage results from an
increase in the reactive power demand in the system. To restore the bus voltage to the nominal
values, the excitation control is triggered to allow more current to flow through the field windings
of the generator. The maximum output current must be known and also the variation of the output
current over which the regulator is to operate.

The following factors are connected with the output voltage:

Response time:

All regulators take a finite time to effect a change in the supply voltage or load. This time is referred
to as time constant of the regulator or the response time. In most cases the response time is
dependent on magnitude of the change of the output voltage, but the rate of change remains
constant. The maximum allowable response time depends upon the type of application and it is
desirable to make the response time as small as possible to reduce the transients in the output
voltage.

Waveform Distortion:

It is important in AC voltage regulators and the ripple voltage in DC voltage regulators. Care
should be taken to reduce distortion as much as possible.

Generator type Automatic Voltage Regulator

It is a control device which automatically regulates the voltage at the exciter of an alternator, to
hold the output voltage constant within specified limits. The performance can be expressed in
terms of the whole equipment as this is determined by the characteristics of the generator. The
short period accuracy of the output voltage is usually specified as the percentage change of load,
speed and power factor. The long period accuracy may not be so important.

2.5 OPERATION OF A POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER

A Power System Stabilizer (PSS) is a damping controller. Its basic function is to add damping to
the generator rotor oscillations by controlling its excitation using auxiliary stabilizing signals [15].
When a disturbance occurs, the generator speed and power will vary according to the swing

30 | P a g e
equation about the steady state operating point. Based on the automatic voltage regulator and using
speed deviation, power deviation or frequency deviation as additional control signals, PSS is
designed to introduce an additional torque coaxial with the rotational speed deviation, so that it
can increase low-frequency oscillation damping and enhance the dynamic stability of power
system [16]. The figure below shows the structure diagram of power system stabilizer.

Figure 6: The structure diagram of power system stabilizer

The action of the PSS is to extend the angular stable limits of a power system by providing
supplemental damping to the oscillation of synchronous machine rotors through the generator
excitation. To provide damping, the stabilizer must produce a component of electrical torque in
phase with the rotor speed deviations. PSS enhance the damping of power system during low
frequency oscillation. For the potential power oscillation problem in the interconnected power
networks, the power system stabilizers solution is usually selected as the relative practical method,
which can provide the additional oscillations damping enhancement through excitation control of
the synchronous machines [17]. The supplementary control is very beneficial during line outages
and large power transfers.

However, power system instabilities can arise in certain circumstances due to negative damping
effects on the rotor. This is because the PSS’s are tuned around steady state operating point; their
damping effect is only valid for small excursions around this operating point. During severe
disturbances, a PSS may actually cause the generator under its control to lose synchronism in an
attempt to control excitation field.

31 | P a g e
 FIGURE 4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR PSS

In the Figure above, T1, T2, T3 and T4 are the time constant of phase shift link. The figure shows
the general power system stabilizer model with a single input, and from which, it can be seen that
as for the additional damping control of the excitation system of the synchronous machines,
basically the general input signal is the rotor speed deviation. The damping amount is mostly
determined by the gain KSTAB, and the following sub-block has the high-pass filtering function
to ensure the stabilizer has the relative better response effect on the speed deviation. There are also
two first-order lead-lag transfer functions to compensate the phase lag between the excitation
model and the synchronous machine.

32 | P a g e
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

In this project, a two-area-four-generator system is considered and PV is penetrated as one of the

source. Further the penetration of the PV is enhanced and its effect on oscillation damping is
observed.

Test System Description

A two area, 11 bus system is considered here consisting of four generators, G1 to G4 as given in
figure below [1]. The areas are connected by a weak tie line. Each area consists of two coupled
units, each having a rating of 900MVA and 20KV. The generator parameters are in p.u on the rated
MVA and KV base.

FIGURE 8: The two-area-four generator system

Photovoltaic (PV) system converts sunlight into electrical energy. The PV can be explained as a
diode. Its p-n junction is exposed to sunlight. When sunlight falls on the p-n junction photons are
absorbed and generates free carriers at the junction, and results in an electric current.

The base case of this study is a system with no PV or FACTS device. In other cases, the generator
is replaced by a PV source of equal requirement and its penetration is changed. Case 2 is the system
with PV, case 3 is the system with PV and AVR, case 4 is system with PSS.

The penetration level is given as:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝑃𝑉_𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
PV_penetration(%)= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

33 | P a g e
PV is penetrated at 25% and 45% which is followed by gradually decreasing the output power
from other generators to maintain power supply and demand balance. The PV penetration is limited
to 45% to maintain any violation in steady state voltage in steady state voltage of the buses.

The active power flow can be observed between two buses with various FACTS devices. However,
this doesn’t clearly tell about the voltage stability of the system. FACTS device consists of two
types; shunt device and series device. SVC is connected in parallel. TCSC is connected in series
in any network. Shunt devices help in bus voltage regulation. Series devices are used to control
the amount of power flow through a line.

CHAPTER FOUR: EXPECTED RESULTS

By the end of this project the expectations are:

To develop the two-area four generator power system model with solar PV and without solar PV
and study the small signal stability of both systems.

Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) model is to be developed and perform a model analysis of
the small signal stability of a two-area four generator power system with and without a solar PV.

A power system stabilizer model is to be developed and analyzed for small signal stability in line
with two-area four generator power system with and without a solar PV.

34 | P a g e
BUDGET

TABLE 1 BUDGET

Item Description Quantity Rate Amount

1 Internet & Research 3000

2 Printing, Photocopy & Binding 2500

3 Simulation Software Installation 3000

(MATLAB/DigSILENT)

4 Miscellaneous Expenses 1500

TOTAL 9000

TIMEPLAN
TABLE 2 TIMEPLAN

ACTIVITIES MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC

Proposal writing

Proposal presentation

Proposal Presentation

Documentation

35
 Final Project Presentation

REFERENCES

[1]. P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA, 1994.

[2]. P. Kundur, edited by N.J. Balu, and M.G. Lauby, Power system stability and control, McGraw-
Hill Professional, 1994.

[3]. G. Rogers, Power System Oscillation, Kluwer Academic, Norwell, USA, 2000.

[4]. F. R. Schleif and J. H. White, Damping for the northwest-southwest tie line oscillations, 1966.

[5]. P.M. Anderson and A. A. Fouad ,Power System Control and Stability, Manhattan, USA,
second edition, 2003.

[6]. P. Kundur, J. Paserba, V. Ajjarapu, G. Andersson, A. Bose, C. Canizares, N. Hatziargyriou,

D. Hill, A. Stankovic, C. Taylor, T. Van Cutsem, and V. Vittal, “Definition and

classificationof power system stability IEEE/CIGRE joint task force on stability terms and
definitions,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 19, 2004.

[7]. D. Glover and M.S. Sarma, Power System Analysis and Design, Brooks/Cole, 2001.

36
[8]. K. Padiyar, Power System Dynamics Stability and Control, BS Publications, Hyderabad, 2nd
edition, 2008.

[9]. L. L. Grigsby, The electric power engineering handbook, CRC Press LLC, Alabama, 2001.

[10]. K. Mwirichia Eng et al, “Updated Least Cost Power Development Plan study period:
2013-2033”, Kenya, 2013.
[11]. CICGRE Task Force 38.01.07 on Power System Oscillations, “Analysis and control of
power system oscillations,” CIGRE Technical Bronchure, no. 111, Dec 1996.

[12]. P. Rouche, Habets and M. Laloy, Stability theory by Liapunov’s Direct method, Newyork,
1977.

[13]. V. I. Vorotnikov, Partial stability and control, Cambridge, Birkhauser, 1998.

[14]. IEEE PES Working Group on System Oscillations, “Power system Oscillations,” IEEE

Special Publication 95-tp-101, 1995.

[15]. G. Gurrala and I. Sen, “Power system stabilizers design for interconnected power
systems,” IEEE transactions on Power Systems, 2010.
[16]. M. Klein, G. J. Rogers, S. Moorty, and P. Kundur, “Analytical investigation of factors
influencing power system stabilizer performance,” IEEE Transactions on Energy

Conversions, 1992.

37
[17]. J. Turunen, M. Larsson, J, Jyrinsalo and L. Haarla, “Experiences and future plans
in monitoring the inter-area power oscillation damping,” pp1-8, 2008.

38