1.34. QUANTUM ERROR CORRECTION CHAPTER 1.
BASICS
1.34 Quantum Error Correction
Quantum error correction (QEC) is a framework that protects quantum informa-
tion from errors caused by decoherence, noise, or imperfect operations. Unlike
classical error correction, QEC must account for the fragility of quantum states
and their inability to be directly copied due to the no-cloning theorem.
Key Concepts in Quantum Error Correction
1. Qubits and Errors:
Quantum systems are susceptible to various types of errors, such as bit-flip
errors (X), phase-flip errors (Z), or combined errors (Y ). These errors can
affect individual qubits or multiple qubits simultaneously.
2. Redundancy Through Encoding:
Quantum error correction relies on encoding logical qubits into entangled
states of multiple physical qubits. This redundancy allows errors to be
detected and corrected without directly measuring the quantum information.
3. Syndrome Measurement:
Special measurements, known as syndrome measurements, are performed to
detect errors without collapsing the quantum state. These measurements
yield classical information about the presence and type of error while pre-
serving the encoded quantum information.
4. Error Correction:
Based on the syndrome measurement outcomes, specific corrective operations
are applied to restore the quantum state to its original encoded form.
Quantum Error Correction Codes
• Shor Code:
The first quantum error-correcting code, the Shor code, encodes a single
logical qubit into nine physical qubits. It protects against both bit-flip and
phase-flip errors.
• Steane Code:
The Steane code is a 7-qubit code that encodes one logical qubit into seven
physical qubits and corrects single-qubit errors.
• Surface Codes:
Surface codes are a family of topological codes that provide robust protection
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CHAPTER 1. BASICS 1.34. QUANTUM ERROR CORRECTION
against errors using a lattice of qubits. They are particularly promising for
fault-tolerant quantum computing.
Importance of Quantum Error Correction
QEC is a cornerstone of fault-tolerant quantum computing. By suppressing
errors, it enables quantum computers to perform long computations reliably,
paving the way for practical applications in areas like cryptography, optimization,
and material science.
Bit-Flip Code (3-Qubit Code)
The bit-flip code is one of the simplest quantum error correction codes. It encodes
a logical qubit into three physical qubits to protect against bit-flip errors.
Encoding
We encode the logical states |0⟩L and |1⟩L as follows:
|0⟩L = |000⟩, |1⟩L = |111⟩
This means the logical |0⟩L is stored in three qubits as |000⟩, and the logical |1⟩L
is stored as |111⟩.
Error Model
The primary error that this code can correct is a bit-flip error, represented by
the operator X, which flips the state of a qubit.
Error Scenario
Let’s say we have the state |0⟩L = |000⟩. If a bit-flip occurs on the second qubit,
the state becomes |010⟩.
Syndrome Measurement
To detect this error, we can perform a majority vote on the three qubits. The
state |010⟩ will indicate that the second qubit has been flipped since two qubits
are in the state |0⟩ and one is in |1⟩.
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1.34. QUANTUM ERROR CORRECTION CHAPTER 1. BASICS
Correction
Once we identify that the second qubit was flipped, we apply the X-operation
(bit-flip) to the second qubit, thus restoring the state to |000⟩.
Shor Code (9-Qubit Code)
The Shor Code is a more sophisticated error correction code, which protects
against both bit-flip and phase-flip errors. It encodes a single logical qubit into
nine physical qubits.
Encoding
The logical states are encoded as follows:
|0⟩L = |000⟩|000⟩|000⟩, |1⟩L = |111⟩|111⟩|111⟩
Thus, the logical |0⟩L is represented by three blocks of three qubits in the state
|000⟩, and |1⟩L is represented by three blocks of |111⟩.
Error Model
The Shor Code can correct bit-flip errors (X) and phase-flip errors (Z) on any of
the nine physical qubits.
Error Scenario
Let’s assume we start with |0⟩L = |000⟩|000⟩|000⟩, and a phase-flip error occurs
on the first qubit of the second block:
|ψ⟩ = |000⟩|010⟩|000⟩
Here, a Z-error has affected the second qubit of the second block.
Syndrome Measurement
We perform syndrome measurements to detect the error. These measurements
reveal which qubits have been flipped without collapsing the quantum state.
After measuring the syndrome, we find that the first qubit of the second block is
different from the corresponding qubits in the other blocks.
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