UNI

T1:
TRANSDUCERS

1.
0Int
roduct
ion
At
ransduceri
sanydev
icet
hatconv
ert
sener
gyf
rom onef
ormt
oanot
her
.Int
hisuni
t,
y
ouar
egoi
ngt
ocov
ert
hef
oll
owi
ngi
nputt
ransducer
s:l
i
ghtdependentr
esi
stor(
LDR)
,
t
her
mist
orand st
rai
n gauge as wel
las t
he f
oll
owi
ng out
putt
r sl
ansducer i
ght
emi
tt
ingdi
ode(
LED)
,buzzerandr
elay
.

Lear
ningObj
ect
ives
Af
terst
udy
ingt
hisuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:
 descr
ibet
hechangei
nresi
stanceofanLDRwi
thl
i
ghti
ntensi
ty;
 sket
cht
het
emper
atur
echar
act
eri
sti
csofanegat
ivet
emper
atur
ecoef
fi
cient
t
her
mist
or;
 descr
ibet
hest
ruct
ureofamet
alwi
rest
rai
ngauge;
 r
elat
eext
ensi
onofast
rai
ngauget
ochangei
nresi
stanceoft
hegauge;
 cal
cul
atet
heout
putf
rom sensi
ngdev
icesusi
ngt
hev
olt
agedi
vi
derr
ule;
 expl
aint
heuseofLEDsasdev
icest
hati
ndi
cat
ethest
ateoft
heout
putof
el
ect
roni
cci
rcui
ts;
and
 descr
ibet
heuseofbuzzer
sandr
elay
sinel
ect
roni
cci
rcui
ts.

1.
1Inputt
ransducer
s:Thel
i
ghtdependentr
esi
stor(
LDR)
,ther
mist
orandst
rai
n
gauge.

1.
1.1The(
LDR)
YoucanmakeanLDRbysandwi
chi
ngaf
il
m ofphot
osensi
ti
vemat
eri
alsuchas
cadmi
um sul
phi
debet
weent
womet
alel
ect
rodes.I
thasawi
ndowwhi
chal
l
owsl
i
ght
t
oreacht
hephot
osensi
ti
vemat
eri
al.AnLDRi
ssensi
ti
vet
ochangesi
nli
ghti
ntensi
ty.
Ty
pical
l
y,i
ncompl
etedar
kness,i
tsr
esi
stancei
sabout ,i
nmoonl
i
ght
,it
s
r
esi
stancei
sabout andi
nbr
ightsunl
i
ght
,about .Youshoul
dal
sot
ake
not
ethataconst
antl
i
ghti
ntensi
tygi
vesaconst
antLDRr
esi
stance.TheLDRsy
mbol
i
sshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
1(a)
.

Page1of1
 Fi
gur
e1.
1(a)
:TheLDRsy
mbol
.

TheLDR’
sresi
stancef
all
swi
thi
ncr
easi
ngl
i
ghti
ntensi
tyasi
l
lust
rat
edi
nFi
gur
e1.
1
(
b).

Fi
gur
e1.
1(b)
:Thev
ari
ati
onofr
esi
stancewi
thi
l
lumi
nat
ion(
i.
e.)
,ther
elat
ionshi
p
bet
weenl
i
ghtf
all
i
ngont
heLDR(
inci
dentl
i
ght
)andt
heLDR’
sresi
stance.

1.
1.2Thet
her
mist
or
You can manuf
act
ureat
her
mist
ori
nvar
ious shapes and si
zes usi
ng semi
-
conduct
iveoxi
desofdi
ff
erentmet
alssuchasni
ckeloxi
deorcobal
toxi
desot
hata
smal
lchangei
ntemper
atur
epr
oducesasi
gni
fi
cantchangei
nresi
stance.I
nthi
s
r
espect
,ther
mist
orsar
eal
soknownast
emper
atur
e– dependentr
esi
stor
s.The
sy
mbol
forat
her
mist
ori
sshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
2.

Fi
gur
e1.
2:Thet
her
mist
orsy
mbol
.

Negat
ivet
emper
atur
e coef
fi
cient(
NTC)t
her
mist
ors hav
eresi
stances t
hatv
ary
i
nver
sel
y wi
th t
emper
atur
e(i
.e.
),t
hei
rresi
stance becomes smal
l
er as t
he
t
emper
atur
eincr
eases.Thi
sisi
l
lust
rat
edi
nFi
gur
e1.
3.

Page2of2
Fi
gur
e1.
3:Thev
ari
ati
onofr
esi
stancewi
tht
emper
atur
eforanNTCt
her
mist
or.
1.
1.3Thest
rai
ngauge
Youcanmakeast
rai
ngaugebyseal
i
ngal
engt
hofv
eryf
inewi
rei
nasmal
lrect
angl
e
oft
hinpl
ast
ic,
asshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
4(a)
.

Page3of3
 Fi
gur
e1.
4(a)
:Themet
alwi
rest
rai
ngauge.

I
fyoust
ret
cht
hepl
ast
ic,t
hepl
ast
icexper
iencesast
rai
n,andt
hewi
rewi
l
lal
sobe
st
ret
ched.Thi
shasef
fect
sofi
ncr
easi
ngt
hewi
re’
slengt
handdecr
easi
ngi
tscr
oss-
sect
ionalar
ea sl
i
ght
ly.Bot
htheseef
fect
scauset
her
esi
stanceoft
hewi
ret
o
i
ncr
ease.Thi
sisi
l
lust
rat
edi
nFi
gur
e1.
4(b)
.Ify
ouwantt
omoni
tort
hest
rai
nina
mat
eri
al,y
oushoul
dgl
uet
hest
rai
ngaugev
erysecur
elyt
othemat
eri
alt
hati
stobe
putunderst
ress.

Fi
gur
e1.
4(b)
:Thev
ari
ati
onofr
esi
stancewi
thst
rai
n.

Page4of4
Exampl
e1.
1
Consi
derawi
rewi
thauni
for
m cr
osssect
ionalar
ea.Show t
hatt
hest
rai
nwhi
chi
s
pr
opor
ti
onalt
oit
sext
ensi
on wi
l
lal
sobepr
opor
ti
onalt
othechangei
nresi
stance
.

Sol
uti
on
Youshoul
drecal
lthatt
her
esi
stanceRofawi
reofl hLandofuni
engt for
m cr
oss-
sect
ional
areaAi
sgi
venby
:

…(
i)

wher
eρi
sther
esi
sti
vi
tyoft
hemat
eri
aloft
hewi
re.

I
fyouassumet
hatt
her
eisanegl
i
gibl
echangei
nthear
eaofcr
osssect
ionwhent
he
wi
reext
endsbyasmal
lamount ,
thennewr
esi
stancewi
l
lbe:

…(
ii
)

wher
e i
sthechangei
nther
esi
stance.

Youcansubt
ractequat
ion(
i)f
rom (
ii
)toget
:

or α .

Thus,i
fyouassumet
hatt
hear
eaofcr
osssect
ioni
sconst
ant
,thest
rai
nwhi
chi
s
pr
opor
ti
onalt
otheext
ensi
on wi
l
lal
sobepr
opor
ti
onalt
othechangei
nresi
stance
.

1.
2Usi
ngLDRs,
ther
mist
orsandst
rai
ngaugesi
npot
ent
ial
div
iderci
rcui
ts
I
nputt
ransducer
s(sensi
ngdev
ices)ar
eusual
l
yconnect
edt
oanel
ect
ri
calci
rcui
t
whi
chi
sdesi
gnedt
opr
ovi
deav
olt
aget
hatwi
l
lcont
rol
anout
putt
ransducer
.Youcan

Page5of5
consi
deran exampl
e ofan i
nputt
ransducerwhi
ch gi
ves r
ise t
o a change i
n
r
esi
stanceR,
sayat
her
mist
ori
nFi
gur
e1.
5.Apot
ent
ialdi
vi
derl
i
ket
heoneshowni
n
Fi
gur
e1.
5canbeusedt
oconv
ertt
hischangei
nRi
ntoachangei
nvol
tage,
V0.

Fi
gur
e1.
5:Pot
ent
ial
div
iderci
rcui
t.

I
fyouconnectasuppl
yofemf andnegl
i
gibl
eint
ernalr
esi
stancei
nser
ieswi
tha

f
ixedr
esi
storofr
esi
stance andasensi
ngdev
iceofr
esi
stanceR,t
heout
put

v
olt
age wi
l
lbe:

Al
ter
nat
ivel
y,y
oucandi
vi
debot
hthenumer
atoranddenomi
nat
oroft
heabov
e

equat
ionbyR.Thi
sgi
vesy
ou:

.
Thi
sal
ter
nat
iveexpr
essi
onpr
ovi
desaneasi
erwayofobser
vingt
hedependenceof
t
heout
putv
olt
agewi
tht
hechangesi
nthev
olt
agedi
vi
der
’sr
esi
stances.

Sel
fAssessmentQuest
ion1.
1
I
nFi
gur
e1.
5,t
hesensi
ngdev
icei
sanegat
ivet
emper
atur
ecoef
fi
cientt
her
mist
or.

Page6of6
(
a)Whathappenst
othet
her
mist
or’
sresi
stanceandev
ent
ual
l
y,t
heout
putv
olt
age
as:

(
i)t
het
her
mist
orcool
s?and
(
ii
)thet
her
mist
orbecomeshot
?
(
b)Gi
veanyr
eal
li
feappl
i
cat
ionoft
heci
rcui
tshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
5.

Exampl
e1.
2
Abat
ter
yofemf6.
0Vandnegl
i
gibl
eint
ernalr
esi
stancei
sconnect
edi
nser
ieswi
tha
f
ixed
r
esi
storofr
esi
stance1kΩandast
rai
ngaugeofr
esi
stance2kΩasshowni
nFi
gur
e
1.
6.

Fi
gur
e1.
6:Pot
ent
ial
div
ider
.

Fi
ndt
het
hepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
encebet
weent
het
ermi
nal
soft
hest
rai
ngauge.

Sol
uti
on

Pot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enceacr
osst
hest
rai
ngauge

Exampl
e1.
3

Page7of7
At
emper
atur
esensori
nputsubsy
stem i
sshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
7.

Fi
gur
e1.
7:Temper
atur
esensori
nputsubsy
stem.

Thet
her
mist
orshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
7hasar
esi
stanceof40kΩat00C,
15kΩat250C,
and
1kΩat1000C.Cal
cul
atet
heout
putv
olageV0atXatat
t emper
at eof250C.
ur

Sol
uti
on
Youcanobser
vet
hatatat
emper
at eof250C,
ur thet
her
mist
orhasar
esi
stanceRof
20kΩ.Ther
efor
e,i
fyouappl
ythepot
ent
ial
div
isi
onf
ormul
a,y
ouget
:

Sel
fAssessmentQuest
ion1.
2
TheLDRshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
8hasar
esi
stanceof i
nbr
ightl
i
ght
.Whati
sthe
v
alueoft
heout
putv
olt
age .

Page8of8
 Fi
gur
e1.
8:Pot
ent
ial
div
ider
.

1.
3Out
putt
ransducer
s:Thel
i
ght–emi
tt
ingdi
ode(
LED)
,buzzerandr
elay

1.
3.1TheLED
AnLEDi
sadi
odet
hatemi
tsl
i
ghtonl
ywheni
tisf
orwar
dbi
ased.Thesy
mbolf
oran
LEDi
sshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
9.

Fi
gur
e1.
9:TheLEDsy
mbol
.

LEDscanemi
tdi
ff
erentcol
our
sofl
i
ghtsuchasr
ed,gr
een,y
ell
ow,bl
ue,whi
teand
amber(
etc.
),dependi
ngont
hemat
eri
alusedi
nthei
rmanuf
act
uri
ng.Thei
rlowpower
consumpt
ion makes t
hem sui
tabl
eforuse as i
ndi
cat
ors.LEDs ar
e sol
i
d-st
ate
dev
ices,sot
heyar
emuchmor
erobustt
hanf
il
amentl
amps.Ar
esi
stori
sfr
equent
ly
connect
edi
nser
ieswi
thanLED,
sot
hatwhent
heLEDi
sfor
war
dbi
ased(
thedi
odei
s
conduct
ing)
,thecur
renti
snotsol
argeast
odamaget
heLED.

Sel
fAssessmentQuest
ion1.
3
TheLEDi
nFi
gur
e1.
10needsacur
rentof5mAandaf
orwar
dvol
tagedr
opof1V
acr
ossi
ttomakei
tli
ghtcor
rect
ly.

Page9of9
 Fi
gur
e1.
10:
LEDi
nser
ieswi
thar
esi
storR.

(
a)Cal
cul
atet
heamountofpowerusedbyt
heLED.

(
b)Gi
vent
hatt
heLEDi
son:
(
i)whati
sthecur
rentt
hroughr
esi
storR?
(
ii
)cal
cul
atet
hev
olt
ageacr
ossr
esi
storR.

Exampl
e1.
4
AnLEDi
susedast
heout
putdev
icei
nadi
git
alsy
stem t
hatgi
vesanout
putv
olt
age
of
0Vor12Vasi
l
lust
rat
edi
nFi
gur
e1.
11.

(
a)Showi
nFi
gur
e1.
11howt
heLEDandanot
hercomponentshoul
dbeconnect
ed
t
othesy
stem t
oli
ghtwhent
heout
puti
shi
gh.

Page10of10
 Fi
gur
e1.
11:
Digi
tal
syst
em.

(
b)(
i)TheLEDhasaf
orwar
dvol
tagedr
opof2Vwheni
tisconduct
ingt
her
equi
red
25mA
cur
rent
.Cal
cul
atet
hev
alueoft
hecomponenty
ouhav
echoseni
npar
t(a)
.
(
ii
)Fi
ndt
hepowerdi
ssi
pat
edbyt
hiscomponent
.
(
ii
i)I
f25mA i
sthemaxi
mum al
l
owabl
ecur
rentt
hrought
heLED.Choosean
appr
opr
iat
e
pr
efer
redv
aluef
ort
hiscomponent
.
(
iv)Whati
sthecol
ourcodef
ort
hechosenv
aluei
npar
t(b)
(i
ii
)ifi
thasat
oler
ance
of5%?

Sol
uti
on
(
a)

Page11of11
 Fi
gur
e1.
12:
Digi
tal
syst
em.

(
b)(
i)

(
ii
) .

(
ii
i)430Ω(
all
ow470Ω)
.

(
iv)Yel
l
ow,
orange,
brownandgol
d.

Sel
fAssessmentQuest
ion1.
4
Expl
aint
heuseofLEDsasdev
icest
oindi
cat
ethest
ateoft
heout
putofel
ect
roni
c
ci
rcui
ts.

1.
3.2 Buzzer
Abuzzeri
sanel
ect
roni
cosci
l
lat
orci
rcui
tconnect
edt
oasol
i
d-st
atesounderwhi
ch
i
swi
redandseal
edi
nsi
deasmal
lpl
ast
iccase.Thel
eadswhi
chemer
gef
rom t
he
casemustbeconnect
edt
oapowersuppl
yfort
hebuzzert
osound.

Sel
fAssessmentQuest
ion1.
5
Dr
awt
heel
ect
roni
csy
mbol
forabuzzer
.

Page12of12
1.
3.3Ther
elay
Ar
elayi
sanel
ect
romagnet
icswi
tcht
hatusesasmal
lcur
rentt
oswi
tchonorof
fa
l
argercur
rent
.Thesmal
lcur
rentener
gisesanel
ect
romagnett
hatoper
atescont
act
s,
swi
tchi
ngonorof
fthel
argercur
rent
.Thesy
mbol
forar
elayi
sshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
13.

Fi
gur
e1.
13:
Ther
elaysy
mbol
.

Ar
elayhasnor
mal
l
ycl
osedcont
act
s(n.
c.)whi
chopenornor
mal
l
yopencont
act
s
(
n.o.
)whi
chcl
osei
fyouener
gisei
t.

Sel
fAssessmentQuest
ion1.
6
Li
stanyt
woi
nputandt
woout
putt
ransducer
s.

1.
4Uni
t1Summar
y
 LDRs,t
her
mist
ors and st
rai
n gauges ar
einputt
ransducer
s whi
l
e LEDs,
buzzer
sandr
elay
sar
eout
putt
ransducer
s.
 I
nputt
ransducer
sar
e usual
l
yconnect
ed t
o an el
ect
ri
calci
rcui
twhi
ch i
s
desi
gnedt
opr
ovi
deav
olt
aget
hatwi
l
lcont
rol
out
putt
ransducer
s.
 Thev
olt
agedi
vi
derr
ulecanbeusedt
ocal
cul
atet
heout
putv
olt
agef
rom
sensi
ngdev
ices.

1.
5Uni
t1Quest
ions

1.Whati
sat
ransducer
?

2.Descr
ibe and expl
aint
he use of LDRs,negat
ivet
emper
atur
e coef
fi
cient
t
her
mist
orsand
met
alwi
rest
rai
ngaugesi
nav
olt
agedi
vi
derci
rcui
ttopr
ovi
deanal
oguesi
gnal
s.
3.Youcanr
epl
aceRi
nFi
gur
e1.
5wi
thanLDRsucht
hat r
espondst
ochangesi
n

Page13of13
l
i
ght
i
ntensi
ty.
(
a)Whathappenst
otheLDR’
sresi
stanceandev
ent
ual
l
y,t
heout
putv
olt
age as:

(
i)dar
knessf
all
sont
heLDR?
,and
(
ii
)li
ghtf
all
sont
heLDR.
?
(
b)Gi
veanyr
eall
i
feappl
i
cat
ionoft
heci
rcui
tshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
5wi
thRst
il
l
r
epl
acedby
anLDR.

4.Sket
cht
het
emper
atur
echar
act
eri
sti
csofanegat
ivet
emper
atur
ecoef
fi
cient
t
her
mist
or.

5.Dr
aw t
heel
ect
roni
csy
mbolf
orar
elayandbr
ief
lydescr
ibei
tsusei
nel
ect
roni
c
ci
rcui
ts.

6.Wr
it
eouti
nful
lthemeani
ngoft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
elaycont
actl
abel
s.
(
a)NC,
and
(
b)NO.

7.Wi
tht
heai
dofacl
ear
lyl
abel
l
eddi
agr
am,
bri
efl
ydescr
ibet
hest
ruct
ureofamet
al
wi
re
st
rai
ngaugeandhenceshow t
hat ,wher
e i
sthechangei
n
r
esi
stanceand
i
sthechangei
nlengt
hoft
hewi
re.

8.At
emper
atur
esensori
nputsubsy
stem i
sshownFi
gur
e1.
14.

Page14of14
 Fi
gur
e1.
14:
Temper
atur
esensori
nputsubsy
stem.

Thet
her
mist
orshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
14hasar
esi
stanceof45kΩat00C,20kΩat250C,
and1kΩ at1000C.
(
a)Atwhatt
emper
atur
egi
venabov
ewi
l
lthecur
rentt
hrought
heci
rcui
tbemaxi
mum?
(
b)Whydoesmaxi
mum cur
rentf
lowatt
hist
emper
atur
e?
(
c)Det
ermi
net
hev
alueoft
hiscur
rent
.
(
d)Whati
stheout
putv
olt
ageatPatt
hist
emper
atur
e?

9.Fi
gur
e1.
15showsal
i
ghtsensorci
rcui
tandanLDR’
sdat
asheet
.

Fi
gur
e1.
15:
Lightsensorci
rcui
tandt
heLDRdat
asheet
.

(
a)Supposey
ouf
indt
hatt
hel
owestr
esi
stanceoft
heLDRi
nbr
ightsunl
i
ghti
s100Ω.

Page15of15
The
LDRmaxi
mum powerdi
ssi
pat
ioni
s100mW.Cal
cul
ate:
(
i)t
hemaxi
mum cur
rentt
hatcanf
lowsaf
elyt
hrought
heLDRi
nbr
ightsunl
i
ght
.
(
ii
)thet
otal
resi
stanceoft
heLDRandf
ixedr
esi
storR,
thatwoul
dli
mitt
hecur
rent
t
hrought
heLDRt
othev
aluef
oundi
npar
t(i
).
(
ii
i)t
hemi
nimum r
esi
stancet
hatcoul
dsaf
elybeusedf
orR,andt
henchooset
he
l
owest
appr
opr
iat
eval
uef
rom t
heE24ser
ies.
(
b)Det
ermi
net
heout
putv
olt
ageoft
heci
rcui
tatpoi
ntXwhent
hel
i
ghtl
evel
is:
(
i)10l
ux.
(
ii
)0l
ux.
(
c)St
atewhyt
hev
alueofr
esi
stancechoseni
npar
t(a)(
ii
i)i
sapoorchoi
cef
or
measur
ing
l
owl
i
ghtl
evel
s.
(
d)Howwoul
dyouchanget
hev
alueofRcal
cul
atedi
npar
t(a)(
ii
i)t
oimpr
ovet
he
si
tuat
ion
atl
owl
i
ghtl
evel
s?
(
e)Theci
rcui
tispower
edf
rom a12Vbat
ter
yofl
ow capaci
ty. St
ateoneot
her
adv
ant
age
ofchangi
ngt
hev
alueofR.

10.A st
udentbui
l
dsaqui
z-scor
ingci
rcui
tthathasf
iveLEDsasi
tsout
put
.The
st
udent
connect
seachoft
hef
iveout
put
soft
heci
rcui
ttot
heLEDsv
iaf
ivei
dent
ical
r
esi
stor
sas
showni
nFi
gur
e1.
16.

Page16of16
 Fi
gur
e1.
16:
Qui
z-scor
ingci
rcui
t.

(
a)EachLEDhasaf
orwar
dvol
tagedr
opof1.
7Vatt
hemaxi
mum f
orwar
dcur
rentof
20mAandt
heci
rcui
tpr
oducesa9Vout
putsi
gnalwhent
hecor
respondi
ngLED
i
s
swi
tchedon.
(
i)Cal
cul
atet
hev
olt
ageacr
ossar
esi
storRwheni
tsLEDi
sswi
tchedon.
(
ii
)Cal
cul
atet
hev
alueoft
her
esi
storRneeded.
(
ii
i)Sel
ectt
hemostsui
tabl
epr
efer
redv
aluef
rom t
heE24ser
iesf
orR i
fthe
maxi
mum
cur
rentf
ort
heLEDi
snott
obeexceeded.
(
iv)Cal
cul
atet
heact
ualcur
rentt
hrought
heLED whent
hepr
efer
redv
alueof
r
esi
stori
n
par
t(a)
(i
ii
)isused;
assumet
heLEDf
orwar
dvol
tagedr
opr
emai
nsat1.
7V.
(
v)Wi
thnoLEDsswi
tchedon,
thequi
z-scor
ingci
rcui
tal
onedr
aws30mAf
rom t
he
9V
powersuppl
y.Cal
cul
atet
hecur
rentconsumpt
ionoft
hisci
rcui
twi
thal
ltheLEDs
swi
tchedon.
(
vi)Commentont
hesui
tabi
l
ityofasmal
l
,low capaci
ty9Vbat
ter
ytopowert
his
sy
stem.(
b)Thest
udentdeci
dest
oeconomi
seonr
esi
stor
sbyconnect
ingal
ltheLED
anodes
di
rect
lyt
otheout
put
soft
heci
rcui
t,andusi
ngasi
ngl
eresi
storoft
hepr
efer
red
Page17of17
v
alue
choseni
npar
t(a)
(i
ii
)toconnectal
lLEDcat
hodest
o0V.
(
i)Est
imat
ethecur
rentt
hrougheachact
iveLEDwhent
hreeoft
hem ar
eswi
tched
onat
t
hesamet
ime.
(
ii
)Descr
ibet
heappear
anceoft
heLEDsasdi
ff
erentnumber
soft
hem ar
e
swi
tchedon.
Commentont
hedesi
rabi
l
ityofusi
ngasi
ngl
eresi
stor
.

11.Abat
ter
yofemf6.
0Vandnegl
i
gibl
eint
ernalr
esi
stancei
sconnect
edi
nser
ies
wi
tha
f
ixedr
esi
storofr
esi
stance0.
5kΩandat
her
mist
orasshowni
nFi
gur
e1.
17.

Fi
gur
e1.
17:
Pot
ent
ial
div
ider
.

Atr
oom t
emper
atur
e,t
het
her
mist
or’
sresi
stance,RTH i
s2.
5kΩ.Cal
cul
atet
he
pot
ent
ial
di
ff
erenceacr
osst
het
her
mist
oratr
oom t
emper
atur
e.

Page18of18
UNI
T2:
OPERATI
ONALAMPLI
FIERS

2.
0Int
roduct
ion
Anoper
ati
onalampl
i
fier(
op-
amp)i
sani
ntegr
atedci
rcui
tofaboutt
went
ytr
ansi
stor
s
t
oget
herwi
thaf
ew r
esi
stor
sandcapaci
tor
s,al
lfor
medonat
inysi
l
iconsl
i
ceand
seal
edi
napackagef
rom whi
chdi
ff
erentconnect
ionst
otheext
ernalci
rcui
temer
ge.
I
nthi
suni
t,y
ouwi
l ert
lcov hepr
oper
ti
esofop-
amps,char
act
eri
sti
csofop-
amps,
f
eedbackandbasi
cappl
i
cat
ionci
rcui
ts.

Lear
ningObj
ect
ives
Af
terst
udy
ingt
hisuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:
 l
i
stt
hepr
oper
ti
esofi
deal
andr
eal
op-
amps;
 deduce,f
rom t
hepr
oper
ti
esofani
dealop-
amp,t
heuseofanop-
ampasa
compar
ator
;
 expl
aint
hepr
inci
plesofposi
ti
veandnegat
ivef
eedback;
 r
ecal
lthe ci
rcui
tdi
agr
ams f
orbot
hthe i
nver
ti
ng and t
he non-
inv
ert
ing
ampl
i
fierf
orsi
ngl
esi
gnal
input
;
 uset
hev
irt
ualear
thappr
oxi
mat
iont
oder
iveanexpr
essi
onf
ort
hegai
nof
i
nver
ti
ngampl
i
fier
s;
 r
ecal
landuseexpr
essi
onsf
ort
hev
olt
agegai
nofi
nver
ti
ngandofnon-
i
nver
ti
ngampl
i
fier
s;
 descr
ibet
heuseofanop-
ampasasummeri
nthei
nver
ti
ngmode;

Page19of19
  i
dent
if
yandexpl
aint
heuseofanop-
ampasav
olt
agef
oll
ower
;
 descr
ibet
heuseofanop-
ampasanon-
inv
ert
ingSchmi
dtt
ri
ggerwi
thposi
ti
ve
f
eedbackpr
ovi
dedbyapot
ent
ial
div
ider
.

2.
1Pr
oper
ti
esofanop-
amp
Anop-
amphast
woi
nputt
ermi
nal
sandoneout
putt
ermi
nal
.Theposi
ti
vei
nputi
s
r
efer
redt
oast
henon-
inv
ert
ingi
nputwhi
l
ethenegat
ivei
nputi
sref
err
edt
oast
he
i
nver
ti
ngi
nput
.Thesy
mbolf
oranop-
ampi
sshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
1.Thegr
ound(
i.
e.)
,0
Vi
susedast
her
efer
encepoi
ntf
orbot
hinputandout
putv
olt
agesasi
l
lust
rat
edi
n
Fi
gur
e2.
1(a)
.Usual
l
y,t
hepowersuppl
yter
minal
sar
eomi
tt
edandt
heop-
amp
sy
mbol
isdr
awnasshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
1(b)
.

(
a) (
b)
Fi
gur
e2.
1:Op-
ampsy
mbol
.

I
nFi
gur
e2.
1(a)
,supposet
hev
olt
agesacr
osst
hei
nver
ti
ngandnon-
inv
ert
ingi
nput
s
eV– andV+ r
ar espect
ivel
y,wher hV– andV+ ar
ebot egr
eat
ert
hanzer
o.Anop-
amp
connect
edi
nthi
swayoper
atesasadi
ff
erent
ialampl
i
fierbecausei
tampl
i
fiest
he
di
ff
erencebet
weent
het
woi
nputv
olagesV– andV+.Theout
t putv
olt
ageV0 i
s
pr
opor
ti
onalt
othedi
ff
er weenV– andV+ (
encebet i.
e.)
,ify
ouconnectanop-
ampt
o
appr
opr
iat
epowersuppl
i
es,
itgi
vesanout
putv
olt
age

wher
eA0i
stheopen-
loopgai
noft
heop-
amp.

Sel
fAssessmentQuest
ion2.
1
Whati
smeantbyopen–l
oopgai
n?

Page20of20
Ani
dealop-
amphast
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
oper
ti
es:
(
i)i
nfi
nit
einputi
mpedance,
(i.
e.)
,nocur
rentf
lowsi
ntoei
theroft
het
woi
nput
s;
(
ii
)inf
ini
teopen– l
oopgai
n(i
.e.
),asl
i
ghtdi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
woi
nput
v
olt
ages,
sat
urat
est
heout
put
;
(
ii
i)
zer
oout
puti
mpedance(
i.
e.)
,thewhol
eoft
heout
putv
olt
agei
spr
ovi
ded
acr
osst
heout
putl
oad;
(
iv)
inf
ini
tebandwi
dth(
i.
e.)
,itampl
i
fiesal
lfr
equenci
esbyt
hesamef
act
or;
(
v)i
nfi
nit
esl
ew r
ate(
i.
e.)
,asuddenchangei
nthei
nputr
esul
tsi
nasudden
changei
nthe
out
put
,wi
thoutanyt
imedel
ay;

Howev
erar
, ealop-
amphas:
(
i)v
eryhi
ghi
nputi
mpedance, ween106Ωand1012Ω;
bet
(
ii
)ver
yhi
ghopen–l
oopgai
n, about105f
A0, ordcsi
gnal
s;
(
ii
i)v
eryl
owout
puti
mpedance,
ofabout100Ω;
(
iv)l
i
mit
edbandwi
dth;
(
v)l
i
mit
edsl
ewr
ate;

2.
2Theuseofanop-
ampasacompar
ator
I
fyouwantt
ouseanop-
ampi
naci
rcui
t,y
oushoul
dconnecti
ttoadual
,orspl
i
t
powersuppl
ymadeupoft
woset
sofbat
ter
ies,
asshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
2.Thezer
ovol
t
l
i
nef
ormst
hecommonl
i
nkoft
het
woset
sofbat
ter
iesaswel
last
her
efer
encet
o
whi
chal
li
nputandout
putv
olt
agesar
emeasur
ed.

Page21of21
 Fi
gur
e2.
2:Vol
tagecompar
ator
.

Fi
gur
e2.
2isi
ntheopenl
oopmodesi
ncenof
eedbackconnect
ioni
sputbet
weent
he
out
putandei
theroft
hei
nput
s.Ther
efor
e,y
oucanf
indt
heopenl
oopgai
nA0 as
f
oll
ows:

(
i.
e.)
,openl
oopgai
n=out
putv
olt
age t
hepdbet
weent
hei
nput
s.

Youshoul
drecal
lt s105f
hatA0i ordcv
olt
ages.

Exampl
e2.
1
Useener
gyconsi
der
ati
onst
ofi
ndt
heout
putv
olt
ageV0 i
nthecompar
atorci
rcui
t
showni
nFi
gur
e2.
2,i
f:
 posi
ti
vesuppl
yli
ne=+9.
0V,
 negat
ivesuppl
yli
ne=–9.
0V,
 ,
and

 .

Sol
uti
on
Youcanf
indt
heout
putv
olt
ageV0asf
oll
ows:

Page22of22
 .

Obv
iousl
y,t
hiscannotbepossi
blebecausef
rom ener
gyconsi
der
ati
ons,t
heout
put
v
olt
agecannev
erexceedi
tsownpowersuppl
yvol
tage.Hence,t
heout
putv
olt
age
wi
l
lbe+9.
0Vandt
heop-
ampi
ssai
dtobesat
urat
ed.

Exampl
e2.
2
Fi
ndt
heout
putv
olt
ageV0i
nthecompar
atorci
rcui
tshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
2,i
f:
 posi
ti
vesuppl
yli
ne=+6.
0V,
 negat
ivesuppl
yli
ne=–6.
0V,
 ,
and

 .

Sol
uti
on
Youcanf
indt
heout
putv
olt
ageV0asf
oll
ows:

Agai
n,t
hiscannotbepossi
blebecausef
rom ener
gyconsi
der
ati
ons,t
heout
put
v
olt
agecannev
erexceedi
tsownpowersuppl
yvol
tage.Hence,t
heout
putv
olt
age
wi
l
lbe–6.
0Vandt
heop-
ampi
ssai
dtobesat
urat
ed.

Ther
efor
e,y
oushoul
dtakenot
ethat
,unl
esst
het
woi
nputv
olt
agesar
eal
most
i
dent
ical
,theop-
ampi
ssat
urat
ed.Al
so,
theout
put
’spol
ari
tydependsonwhi
chi
nput
i
sthel
arger
.Forexampl
e,i
f ,
theout
puti
sposi
ti
ve.

Theci
rcui
tincor
por
ati
ngt
heop-
ampcompar
est
het
woi
nput
sandgi
vesanout
put
whi
ch dependson whet
her , or and i
sknown asa
compar
ator
.
Apot
ent
ialdi
vi
deri
susual
l
yconnect
edt
oeachoft
het
woi
nput
sasshowni
nFi
gur
e
2.
3.Onepot
ent
ialdi
vi
derpr
ovi
desaf
ixedv
olt
ageatonei
nputwhi
l
etheot
her

Page23of23
pot
ent
ialdi
vi
derpr
ovi
desav
olt
agedependentuponsomephy
sicalpr
oper
ty(
e.g.
),
l
i
ghti
ntensi
tysucht
haty
ouwi
l
lhav
eacompar
atorf
orusewi
thanLDRl
i
ket
heone
showni
nFi
gur
e2.
3.

Fi
gur
e2.
3:Compar
atorf
orusewi
thanLDR.

I
nFi
gur
e2.
3,t
her
esi
stor
sofr
esi
stanceRwi
l
lgi
ver
iset
oaf
ixedv
olt
ageof½V
att
hei
nver
ti
ngi
nput
.

TheLDR,
ofr
esi
stanceRLDR i
sconnect
edi
nser
ieswi
thaf
ixedr
esi
storofr
esi
stance
RF.
I
ftheLDRi
sindar
kness, ,
then andt
heout
putsat
urat
esposi
ti
vel
y.

I
ftheLDRi
sinday
li
ght
, ,
then andt
heout
putsat
urat
esnegat
ivel
y.

TheLDRcoul
dber
epl
acedbyot
hersensor
stopr
ovi
deal
ter
nat
ivesensi
ngdev
ices.
Forexampl
e,useofat
her
mist
orcoul
dpr
ovi
deaf
rost
-war
ningdev
iceort
emper
atur
e
cont
rol
dev
ice.

Exampl
e2.
3
Fi
gur
e2.
4showspar
tofacompar
atorci
rcui
t.

Page24of24
 Fi
gur
e2.
4:Par
tofacompar
atorci
rcui
t.

(
a)Thei
nver
ti nputV–r
ngi equi
resar
efer
encev
olt
ageof4V.
(
i)I
nFi
gur
e2.
4dr
awt
wocomponent
sandt
hei
rconnect
ionst
oshowhowt
hisi
s
achi
eved.
(
ii
)Sel
ectsui
tabl
eval
uesf
ort
hesecomponent
sandmar
kthesei
nFi
gur
e2.
4next
t
oeach
component
.
(
b)TheLDRhasamaxi
mum powerdi
ssi
pat
ionof120mW.
(
i)Cal
cul
atet
hemaxi
mum cur
rentt
hatcoul
dsaf
elyf
lowt
hrought
heLDRi
fithad
12V
acr
ossi
t.
(
ii
)Cal
cul
atet
hecombi
nedr
esi
stanceoft
heLDRandRt
hatwoul
dal
l
ow t
his
cur
rentt
o
f
low.
(
ii
i)TheLDRhasami
nimum r
esi
stanceof100Ωi
nver
ybr
ightl
i
ght
.Cal
cul
atet
he
v
alue
ofRr
equi
redi
fthecur
rentcal
cul
atedi
npar
t(b)
(i
)isnott
obeexceeded.
(
c)Gi
vent
hatt
heop-
ampusedi
nFi
gur
e2.
4isi
deal
,st
atei
tsout
putv
olt
agewhen:
(
i) .
(
ii
) .

Page25of25
Sol
uti
on
(
a)(
i)and(
ii
)
Usi
ngt
hev
olt
agedi
vi
derr
ule:

Ther
efer
encev
olt
age, ,sot
het
wor
esi
stor
sshoul
dhav
ethe

f
oll
owi
ngv
alues, and ,
respect
ivel
y,asshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
5.

Fi
gur
e2.
5:Par
tofacompar
atorci
rcui
t.

(
b)(
i)) .

(
ii
) .

(
ii
i) .
(
c)(
i)0V.
(
ii
)12V.

Sel
fAssessmentQuest
ion2.
2
Consi
dert
hecompar
atorci
rcui
tshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
6whi
chi
susedt
oli
ghtupanLED
wheni
tget
sdar
kasawar
ningt
oabusdr
ivert
oswi
tchont
heheadl
i
ght
s.The
r
esi
stor
sgi
veaconst
antv
olt
ageof6.
0Vatt
hei
nver
ti
ngi
nput
.Expl
ainwhathappens
t
otheLEDwhen(
i)dar
knessand(
ii
)li
ghtf
all
sont
heLDR?

Page26of26
 Fi
gur
e2.
6:Compar
atorci
rcui
t.

2.
3Feedback
Feedbackr
efer
stot
hepr
ocessoft
aki
ngsome,oral
l
,oft
heout
putoft
heop-
amp
andaddi
ngi
ttot
hei
nput
.Thebasi
car
rangementi
sil
l
ust
rat
edi
nFi
gur
e2.
7wher
ea
f
ract
ionβoft
heout
putv
olt
ageoft
heop-
ampi
sfedbackandaddedt
otheappl
i
ed
i
nputv
olt
age.

Fi
gur
e2.
7:Feedbackci
rcui
t.

Theop-
ampi
tsel
fampl
i
fieswhat
everv
olt
agei
spr
esentati
tsi
nputbyanamountA0,
t
heopen-
loopgai
n.Ther
efor
e,t
heout
putv
olt
agei
s (
inputt
oop-
amp)

I
fyour
ear
range,
youget

Page27of27
Hence,
theov
eral
lgai
noft
heop-
ampwi
thf
eedbacki
s:

I
fthef
ract
ionβi
sposi
ti
ve,
thent
hedenomi
nat
ori
ntheabov
eequat
ioncanbemade
t
obez
ero.Thi
spr
oducesanampl
i
fyi
ngsy
stem wi
thani
nfi
nit
egai
n(i
.e.
),anout
put
i
spr
oducedf
ornoi
nput
.
Her
e,af
ract
ionoft
heout
putv
olt
agei
sfedbackt
othenon–i
nver
ti
ngi
nput
,in
phasewi
tht
hei
nputv
olt
ageasi
l
lust
rat
edi
nFi
gur
e2.
8.

Fi
gur
e2.
8:I
ll
ust
rat
ionofposi
ti
vef
eedback.

I
fthef
ract
ionβi
snegat
ive,t
hent
hedenomi
nat
ori
ntheabov
eequat
ionmustbe
gr
eat
ert
hanuni
ty.Thi
spr
oducesanampl
i
fyi
ngsy
stem wi
thanov
eral
lgai
nthati
s
smal
l
ert
hant
heopen-
loopgai
nA0oft
heop-
ampi
tsel
f.Her
e,af
ract
ionoft
heout
put
v
olt
agei
sfedbackt
othei
nver
ti
ngi
nput
,outofphasewi
tht
hei
nputv
olt
ageas
i
l
lust
rat
edi
nFi
gur
e2.
9.

Fi
gur
e2.
9:I
ll
ust
rat
ionofnegat
ivef
eedback.

Negat
ivef
eedbackmayseem t
omaket
hepr
ocessofampl
i
ficat
ionf
rui
tl
essduet
o
r
educt
ioni
nov
eral
lgai
nbuti
thasi
tsownadv
ant
ages:
 ani
ncr
easei
nbandwi
dth(
i.
e.)
,ani
ncr
easei
nther
angeoff
requenci
esov
er
whi
cht
hegai
nisconst
ant
,
 l
essdi
stor
ti
on,
and

Page28of28
  gr
eat
eroper
ati
ngst
abi
l
ity
.

2.
4Thei
nver
ti
ngop-
amp
Thei
nputsi
gnalVin i
sappl
i
edt
othei
nputr
esi
storRin andnegat
ivef
eedbacki
s
appl
i
edv
iat
her
esi
storRfasi
l
lust
rat
edi
nFi
gur
e2.
10.

Fi
gur
e2.
10:
Inv
ert
ingop-
amp.

Ther
esi
stor
sRinandRff
orm apot
ent
ialdi
vi
derbet
weent
hei
nputandt
heout
putof
t
heop-
amp.Fort
heop-
ampnott
obesat
urat
ed,t
het
woi
nputv
olt
agesmustbe
al
mostt
hesame. Her
e,t
henon-
inv
ert
ingi
nput(
+)i
sear
thed(
i.
e.)
,connect
ed
di
rect
lyt
othezer
o-v
oltl
i
ne.Hence,t
hei
nver
ti
ngi
nput(
–)mustbev
irt
ual
l
yatt
he
samepot
ent
ialast
henon-
inv
ert
ingi
nput(
i.
e.)
,atzer
ovol
ts(
ear
th)andf
ort
his
r
eason,
thepoi
ntPi
sknownasav
irt
ual
ear
th.

Youneedt
orecal
lthatt
heop-
amp’
sinputi
mpedancei
sver
ylar
gesucht
hatno
cur
rentf
lowsi
ntoei
thert
henon-
inv
ert
ingi
nputort
hei
nver
ti
ngi
nput
.Thi
smeans
t
hatt
hecur
rentf
rom,ort
o,t
hesi
gnalsour
cemustgot
o,orcomef
rom,t
heout
put
,
asshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
11.Si
ncet
hisi
sani
nver
ti
ngop-
amp,aposi
ti
vei
nputv
olt
age
gi
vesr
iset
oanegat
iveout
putv
olt
ageandv
icev
ersa.

Page29of29
 Fi
gur
e2.
11:
Aposi
ti
vei
nputgi
vesr
iset
oanegat
iveout
putandv
icev
ersa.

I
fyour
efert
oFi
gur
e2.
10,
bear
ingi
nmi
ndt
hatt
heop-
ampdr
awsnocur
rentbecause
ofi
tshi
ghi
nputi
mpedance,y
ouwi
l
lobser
vet
hatt
hecur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hroughRin i
s
equal
tot
hecur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hroughRf(
i.
e.)
,pdacr
ossRin Rin=pdacr
ossRf Rf.

Si
ncePi
satzer
ovol
ts,

You can si
mpl
i
fyt
he abov
e equat
ion t
o gett
he gai
n oft
he i
nver
ti
ng op-
amp,

Youshoul
dobser
vet
hatf
orsi
mpl
i
cit
y,t
hepowersuppl
yli
nesar
eomi
tt
edandal
so
t
heop-
ampi
sassumedt
obenotsat
urat
ed.

Exampl
e2.
4
Cal
cul
atet
hecl
osedl
oopgai
noft
hei
nver
ti
ngop-
ampshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
10when
and .

Sol
uti
on

2.
5Thenon–i
nver
ti
ngop-
amp
Thei
nputsi
gnalVin i
sappl
i
eddi
rect
lyt
othenon-
inv
ert
ingi
nput(
+)andnegat
ive
f
eedbacki
sappl
i
edbymeansoft
hepot
ent
ialdi
vi
derconsi
sti
ngofr
esi
stor
sR1 and
Rfasshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
12.

Page30of30
 Fi
gur
e2.
12:
Non-
inv
ert
ingop-
amp.

I
fyouassumet
hatt
heop-
ampi
snotsat
urat
ed,
thent
het
woi
nputv
olt
agesmustbe
v
irt
ual
l
ythesame.Her
e, .

Youcanappl
ythepot
ent
ialdi
vi
derf
ormul
atof
indt
hei
nver
ti
ngi
nputv
olt
ageas
f
oll
ows:

Ther
efor
e,
.

I
fyour
ear
ranget
heabov
eequat
ion,y
ougett
heov
eral
lvol
tagegai
noft
henon-

i
nver
ti
ngop-
amp,
.

Thenon-
inv
ert
ingop-
ampgi
vesanout
putt
hati
sinphasewi
tht
hei
nput
.

Sel
fAssessmentQuest
ion2.
3
Consi
dert
heci
rcui
tshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
12wi
th and .Det
ermi
ne

t
hegai
noft
heop-
amp.Hence,
cal
cul
ateV0i
f

2.
6Thesummi
ngampl
i
fier

Page31of31
I
nFi
gur
e2.
13,
thenoni
nver
ti
ngi
nputi
satzer
ovol
tssopoi
ntPi
satv
irt
ual
ear
th.

Fi
gur
e2.
13:
Summi
ngop-
ampi
nthei
nver
ti
ngmode.

I
fyouappl
yKi
rchhof
f`scur
rentl
aw atj
unct
ionP(
bear
ingi
nmi
ndt
hatnocur
rent
f
lowsi
ntot
heop-
amp)
:

I
f ,
then .

Whent
hei
nput
sar
eacsour
ces,t
henegat
ivesi
gni
ndi
cat
est
hatt
heout s1800
puti
outofphasewi
tht
heact
ual
sum.

Exampl
e2.
5
Cal
cul
atet
heout
putv
olt
ageoft
hesummi
ngampl
i
fierci
rcui
tshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
13,
when , , and .

Page32of32
Sol
uti
on
,
Ther
efor
e,

2.
7Thev
olt
agef
oll
ower
Thev
olt
agef
oll
owerci
rcui
tissi
mil
art
othenon-
inv
ert
ingop-
ampci
rcui
t(seeFi
gur
e
2.
12)wi
th (
shor
tci
rcui
t)and (
openci
rcui
t)sot
hatal
ltheout
puti
sfed

backasi
l
lust
rat
edi
nFi
gur
e2.
14.

Fi
gur
e2.
14:
Vol
tagef
oll
ower
.

Theov
eral
lvol
tagegai
noft
hev
olt
agef
oll
oweri
s:

(
i.
e.)
, .Thus,what
everchangesoccurt
othei
nput

v
olt
ageal
sooccurt
otheout
putv
olt
age(
i.
e.)
,theout
putv
olt
agef
oll
owst
hei
nput
v
olt
age.Thi
sci
rcui
tisusedt
oconnecthi
ghi
mpedancesour
cest
olow i
mpedance
l
oadsandi
sknownasauni
tygai
nbuf
fer
.

Sel
fAssessmentQuest
ion2.
4

(
a)Wr
it
edownt
henamet
haty
ougi
vet
oaspeci
alcaseoft
henon-
inv
ert
ingop-
amp

t
hati
s

Page33of33
 obt
ainedwhenR1=∞ andRf=0.

(
b)Det
ermi
net
hev
olt
agegai
noft
hisop-
amp.

(
c)St
atet
heuset
hist
ypeofop-
ampconf
igur
ati
on.
2.
8TheSchmi
ttt
ri
gger
Thei
nputv
olt
ageofanon-
inv
ert
ingSchmi
ttt
ri
ggershowni
nFi
gur
e2.
15i
sobt
ained
f
rom t
hemov
eabl
econt
actofapot
ent
iomet
er.

Fi
gur
e2.
15:
Thenon-
inv
ert
ingSchmi
ttt
ri
gger
.

Youcansett
hei
nputv
olt
aget
oanyv
aluebet
weent
henegat
iveandposi
ti
vepower
suppl
yli
mit
sbysl
i
dingt
hemov
eabl
econt
actupordown.

Letussupposet
haty
oust
artwi
tht
hewi
perat (
i.
e.)
,ati
tsl
owestpoi
ntso

ast
omaket
hev
olt
ageatt
henon-
inv
ert
ingi
nputXnegat
iveandhence,
lesst
hant
he
v
olt
ageatt
hei
nver
ti
ngi
nputYwhi
chi
skeptat0V.Thi
scausest
heout
putv
olt
aget
o
sat
urat
enegat
ivel
y(i
.e.
), .

2.
8.1Sl
i
dingupwar
ds
I
fyousl
i
det
hemov
eabl
econt
actsl
i
ght
lyupwar
ds,t
henVin at
tai
nsal
essnegat
ive
v
alue.Howev
er,t
he out
putr
emai
nssat
urat
ed negat
ivel
yat– 12V because of

Page34of34
f
eedbackt
hrought
he12kΩr
esi
storwhi
chkeepsXatal
owerpot
ent
ial
thanY.

I
fyoucont
inuet
osl
i
det
hewi
perupwar
ds,i
treachesapoi
ntmi
dwayal
ongt
he
pot
ent
iomet
ersucht
hat .Youcanf
indt
hepot
ent
ialatXusi
ngt
hepot
ent
ial

di
vi
dershowni
nFi
gur
e2.
16.

Fi
gur
e2.
16:
Pot
ent
ial
div
ider
.

Thepot
ent
ial
atX .

Ther
efor
e,t
heout
putr
emai
nssat
urat
ednegat
ivel
yat–12Vsi
nceX’
spot
ent
ialwi
l
l
beagai
nlesst
hanY’
spot
ent
ial
.

I
fyoucont
inuet
osl
i
det
hewi
perf
urt
herupwar
ds,t
henVin at
tai
nsamor
eposi
ti
ve
v
alueunt
ili
tbecomesequalt
o4V.Thi
scausesadr
amat
icchangei
ntheout
put
v
olt
ageduet
oposi
ti
vef
eedback.I
not
herwor
ds,whenVin becomesappr
oxi
mat
ely
4V,t
hepot
ent
ialatX appr
oxi
mat
elybecomes0V (
i.
e.)
,itbecomesequalt
othe
pot
ent
ial
atYcausi
ngVoutt
obe0V.
Buti
f ,
X’spot
ent
ialcannotbezer
osi
ncet
hepot
ent
ialdi
vi
derwi
l
lbehav
ing

t
hepot
ent
ial
sshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
17.

Fi
gur
e2.
17:
Pot
ent
ial
div
ider
.

Thi
sresul
tsi
naposi
ti
vepot
ent
ialatX.Hence,X’
spot
ent
ialbecomesgr
eat
ert
han
Y’
spot
ent
ial
causi
ngar
api
dincr
easei
nVoutunt
ili
tsat
urat
esposi
ti
vel
yat+12V.

Thepr
ocessofswi
tchi
ngVoutf
rom –12Vt
o+12Voccur
sinst
ant
aneousl
yandi
fyou
cont
inuet
osl
i
det
hemov
eabl
econt
actupwar
ds,t
henVin at
tai
nsmor
eposi
ti
ve
v
alues.Howev
er,t
heout
putr
emai
nssat
urat
edposi
ti
vel
yat+12Vbecausef
eedback

Page35of35
t
hrought
he12kΩr
esi
storkeepsXatahi
gherpot
ent
ial
wit
hrespectt
oY.

2.
8.2Sl
i
dingdownwar
ds
I
fyou now sl
i
det
hemov
eabl
econt
actdownwar
ds,Vin becomesl
essposi
ti
ve.
Howev
er,t
heout
putr
emai
nssat
urat
edposi
ti
vel
yat+12Vsi
nceX’
spot
ent
ialwi
l
lbe
st
il
lgr
eat
ert
hanY’
spot
ent
ial
.Ev
eni
fthecont
actr
eachesmi
dwayagai
n(i
.e.
),
,
theout
putst
il
lremai
nssat
urat
edposi
ti
vel
yat+12V.

I
fyou cont
inue t
o sl
i
de t
he wi
perf
urt
herdownwar
ds,t
hen Vin becomesmor
e
negat
iveunt
ili
tbecomesequal
to–4V.Thi
scausesadr
amat
icchangei
ntheout
put
v
olt
ageduet
oposi
ti
vef
eedback.I
not
herwor
ds,whenVin becomes– 4V,t
he
pot
ent
ialatXbecomes0V(
i.
e.)
,itbecomesequalt
othepot
ent
ialatYcausi
ngVout
t
obe0V.

Agai
nif ,X’
spot
ent
ialcannotbezer
osi
ncet
hepot
ent
ialdi
vi
derwi
l
lbe

hav
ingt
hepot
ent
ial
sshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
18.

Fi
gur
e2.
18:
Pot
ent
ial
div
ider
.

Thi
sresul
tsi
nasmal
l
erpot
ent
ial
atXascompar
edt
oY(
i.
e.)
,X’
spot
ent
ial
becomes
l
esst
hanY’
spot
ent
ialcausi
ngar
api
ddecr
easei
nVoutunt
ili
tsat
urat
esposi
ti
vel
yat
–12V.

I
fyoucont
inuet
osl
i
det
hemov
eabl
econt
actdownwar
ds,t
henVin at
tai
nsmor
e
negat
ivev
alues.Howev
er,
theout
putr
emai
nssat
urat
ednegat
ivel
yat–12Vbecause
f
eedbackt
hrought
he12kΩr
esi
storkeepsXatal
owerpot
ent
ial
thanY.

YoucanuseFi
gur
e2.
19t
oil
l
ust
rat
ethev
ari
ati
onofVoutwi
thVin asy
ousl
i
det
he
mov
eabl
econt
actf
rom oneext
remev
alue(
i.
e.)
,–12Vt
otheot
her(
i.
e.)
,+12Vand
backagai
n.

Page36of36
Fi
gur
e2.
19:Var
iat
ionofVoutwi
thVinasy
ousl
i
det
hemov
eabl
econt
actf
rom –12V
t
o
+12Vandbackagai
n.

Youshoul
dnot
ethatt
heswi
tchov
erv
olt
ageoft
het
ri
ggerast
hei
nputmov
esi
none
di
rect
ion(
i.
e.)
,+4Vi
sdi
ff
erentf
rom swi
tchov
erv
olt
agei
ntheopposi
tedi
rect
ion
(
i.
e.)
,
–4V.Youcanaswel
lal
tert
heswi
tchov
erv
olt
agesbymaki
ngsui
tabl
echoi
ceof
r
esi
stor
s.

Sel
fAssessmentQuest
ion2.
5
Descr
ibewi
thai
dofcl
ear
lyl
abel
l
eddi
agr
ams,t
heuseofanop-
ampasanon-
i
nver
ti
ngSchmi
ttt
ri
ggerwi
thposi
ti
vef
eedbackpr
ovi
dedbyapot
ent
ial
div
ider
.

2.
9Uni
t2Summar
y
 Anop-
amphast
hreet
ermi
nal
s(i
.e.
),t
woi
nput
sandoneout
put
.
 Theout
putv
olt
ageofanop-
ampcannev
erexceedt
hedcsuppl
yvol
tage.
 Feedbackcanei
therbeposi
ti
veornegat
ive.
 Anop-
ampcanbeusedf
ori
nver
ti
ngandnon-
inv
ert
ingappl
i
cat
ions.
 The op-
amp can al
so be used as a summer
,vol
tage f
oll
ower
,vol
tage

Page37of37
 compar
atororSchmi
ttt
ri
gger
.

2.
10Uni
t2Quest
ions

1.Li
stt
hemaj
orpr
oper
ti
esofani
deal
op-
amp.

2.Youhav
elear
ntt
hatnegat
ivef
eedbackr
educest
hegai
noft
heop-
amp.Expl
ain
whyt
hisi
sfav
our
abl
e.

3.Der
ivet
heexpr
essi
onf
ort
hegai
nofani
nver
ti
ngop-
amp.

4.Fi
gur
e2.
20showsat
emper
atur
esensori
nputsubsy
stem.

Fi
gur
e2.
20:
Temper
atur
esensori
nputsubsy
stem.

(
a)Supposet
het
her
mist
orshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
20hasar
esi
stanceof35kΩat00C,
10kΩat
250Cand2kΩat1000C.
(
i)Whi
choneoft
heset
emper
atur
eswi
l
lresul
tinal
argestcur
rentf
lowt
hrought
he
ci
rcui
t?
(
ii
)Whydoesmaxi
mum cur
rentf
lowatt
hist
emper
atur
e?
(
ii
i)Cal
cul
atet
hev
alueoft
hiscur
rent
.
(
iv)Det
ermi
net
heout
putv
olt
ageatAatt
hist
emper
atur
e.

Page38of38
(
b)Youar
erequi
redt
oconnectt
het
emper
atur
esensorsubsy
stem t
oacompar
ator
ci
rcui
tso
ast
odet
ectwhent
hewat
eri
nanel
ect
ri
cket
tl
eboi
l
s.
(
i)Fi
ndt
her
efer
encev
olt
agewhi
cht
hecompar
atormusthav
etodet
ectboi
l
ing
wat
er.
(
ii
)Dr
awasui
tabl
eci
rcui
tfort
hecompar
atorwhi
chenabl
esi
ttopr
oduceahi
gh
out
put
whent
hewat
erboi
l
s.
Choosesui
tabl
eval
uesf
ort
her
esi
stor
siny
ourv
olt
agedi
vi
derandl
abelt
hem
on
y
ourci
rcui
tdi
agr
am.

5.Consi
dert
het
emper
atur
esensori
nputsubsy
stem showni
nFi
gur
e2.
20.
(
a)Gi
vent
hatt
het
her
mist
orhasar
esi
stanceof45kΩat00C,
20kΩat250C,
and1kΩ
at
1000C.Cal
cul
atet
heout
putv
olt
ageatAatat
emper
at eof250C.
ur
(
b)Youar
erequi
redt
oconnectt
het
emper
atur
esensorsubsy
stem t
oacompar
ator
ci
rcui
tas
showni
nFi
gur
e2.
21.

Fi
gur
e2.
21:
Compar
atorci
rcui
t.

Cal
cul
ateandchoosev
aluesofr
esi
stor
s,i
nthe1kΩt
o10kΩr
ange,f
ort
heci
rcui
t
t
hat
wi
l
lmaket
hecompar
atorswi
tchat250C.Label
theseont
hedi
agr
am.
(
c)Whatv
olt
agewoul
dyouexpectf
rom t
heout
putoft
hisci
rcui
twhen:
(
i)t
het
emper
atur
eis200C,

Page39of39
 (
ii
)thet
emper
atur
eri o300C.
sest

6.Youar
erequi
redt
odesi
gnaci
rcui
tthatcanbeusedt
ocont
rolt
hev
ent
il
ati
onof
ani
ndoor
spor
ti
ngv
enueaty
ourschool
.Whent
het
emper
atur
eri
sesabov
easetl
evel
,your
ci
rcui
t
shoul
daut
omat
ical
l
yopent
hev
ent
swhi
char
eposi
ti
onedhi
ghabov
ether
eachof
spect
ator
s.

(
a)Howcany
ouconv
ertai
rtemper
atur
eint
oanel
ect
ri
cal
signal
?
(
b)Gi
vent
haty
ourci
rcui
tshoul
dbebasedonanop-
amp.Whatt
ypeofci
rcui
tcoul
d
pr
ovi
de
aswi
tchi
ngact
ionwhent
het
emper
atur
eri
sesabov
ethesetl
evel
?
(
c)Br
ief
ly,
descr
ibet
heswi
tchi
ngoper
ati
onofy
ourci
rcui
t-choseni
npar
t(b)
,wi
th
r
efer
encet
othet
woop-
ampi
nput
sandi
tsout
put
.
(
d)Basi
ngony
ourchoi
cesabov
e,dr
awaci
rcui
tdi
agr
am t
hatcangi
veahi
ghout
put
v
olt
age
whent
het
emper
atur
eexceedst
hesetl
evel
.

7.Youar
easkedbyamusi
crecor
dingcompanyt
ohel
pint
ransf
err
ingt
hei
rmusi
c
col
l
ect
ionf
rom casset
tet
apeont
oCD.Supposey
oumeasur
etheout
putsi
gnal
f
rom t
he
casset
tepl
ayerandf
indi
ttohav
eat
ypi
cal
val
ueof0.
2V.Thesoundcar
diny
our
comput
err
equi
resat
ypi
cali
nputsi
gnalof1.
0V.Yout
hendeci
det
o usean
ampl
i
fiert
o
mat
cht
het
wosi
gnal
lev
els.
(
a)Cal
cul
atet
her
equi
redv
olt
agegai
noft
heampl
i
fier
.
(
b)Dr
awt
heci
rcui
tdi
agr
am ofanon-
inv
ert
ingampl
i
fierwhi
chusesanop-
amp.
(
c)I
fthef
eedbackr
esi
storhasav
alueof240kΩ,cal
cul
atet
hev
alueoft
heot
her
r
esi
stor
neededt
ogi
vet
her
equi
redv
olt
agegai
n.

8.Fi
gur
e2.
22showsasy
stem di
agr
am f
oragui
taref
fect
suni
t.Thewhol
esy
stem
oper
ates
Page40of40
 f
rom a±12Vsuppl
y.

Fi
gur
e2.
22:
Syst
em di
agr
am f
oragui
taref
fect
suni
t.

(
a)Theci
rcui
tdi
agr
am f
ort
hei
nputbuf
feri
sshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
23.

Fi
gur
e2.
23:
Inputbuf
fer
.

(
i)St
atet
hev
olt
agegai
noft
hisci
rcui
t.
(
ii
)St
atet
hei
nputr
esi
stanceoft
hisci
rcui
t.
(
b)Fi
gur
e2.
24showsaci
rcui
tdi
agr
am f
ort
hemi
xer
.

Page41of41
 Fi
gur
e2.
24:
Mix
er.

(
i)Whatv
olt
agegai
ndoest
hemi
xerci
rcui
tgi
vet
oef
fect1?
(
ii
)Wi
tht
het
hreeef
fect
sswi
tchedof
f,st
atet
wodi
ff
erencesbet
weent
hesi
gnalat
t
he
i
nputandt
heout
putoft
hewhol
esy
stem.

9.Fi
gur
e2.
25showst
hesensi
ngel
ementf
ort
hev
ibr
ati
onsensori
nacaral
arm
sy
stem.
Anyv
ibr
ati
onoft
hecarcausest
hemagnett
omov
erel
ati
vet
othecoi
lresul
ti
ngi
n
t
he
gener
ati
onofasmal
lvol
tagebyt
hecoi
l
.Theci
rcui
tshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
25i
susedt
o
ampl
i
fyt
hisv
olt
age.

Fi
gur
e2.
25:
Thesensi
ngel
ementf
ort
hev
ibr
ati
onsensori
nacaral
arm sy
stem.

Page42of42
(
a)Gi
veanest
imat
eoft
hev
olt
ageatt
hei
nver
ti
ngi
nputoft
heop-
ampwhent
he
out
putf
rom t
hecoi
li
szer
o.St
atear
easonf
ory
ouranswer
.
(
b)Cal
cul
atet
hev
olt
agegai
noft
heampl
i
fierci
rcui
twhenR1=10kΩandR2=2.
0MΩ.

10.Youar
erequi
redt
ouseFi
gur
e2.
26aspar
tofasy
stem t
hatdet
ect
swhent
he
t
emper
atur
e
i
nar
oom exceeds20°
C.

Fi
gur
e2.
26:
Par
tofacompar
atorci
rcui
t.

(
a)OnFi
gur
e2.
26nameandl
abel
thedev
icet
haty
oucanuseasa
(
i)t
emper
atur
esensor
,and
(
ii
)compar
ator
.
(
b)Gi
vent
hatt
hecompar
atori
nputBr
equi
resar
efer
encev
olt
ageof4V.
(
i)Dr
aw t
wocomponent
sandt
hei
rconnect
ionst
otheci
rcui
ttoshow how y
ou
can
achi
evet
his.
(
ii
)Sel
ectsui
tabl
eval
uesf
ort
hesecomponent
sandmar
ktheseont
heci
rcui
t
di
agr
am next
t
oeachcomponent
.
(
c)Thet
emper
atur
esensordat
asheetgi
vesagr
aphshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
27.

Page43of43
 Fi
gur
e2.
27:
Graphf
rom t
het
emper
atur
esensordat
asheet
.

Whati
sthev
alueofRt
hatwoul
dmaket
hecompar
atorswi
tchat20°
C?
(
d)Gi
vet
heout
putv
olt
agef
rom t
hisci
rcui
twhent
hev
olt
ageatXi
sgr
eat
ert
hant
he
v
olt
ageatYf
orani
deal
compar
ator
.

11.Descr
ibeandexpl
aint
hepr
oper
ti
esofani
dealoper
ati
onalampl
i
fierwi
thr
egar
ds
t
oinput
i
mpedance,
bandwi
dthandopenl
oopgai
n.

12.Af
ri
dgeal
arm usest
heci
rcui
tshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
28t
osoundi
fthet
emper
atur
e
becomes
t
oohi
gh.

Page44of44
 Fi
gur
e2.
28:
Fri
dgeal
arm ci
rcui
t.

(
a)Fi
ndt
hecombi
nedr
esi
stanceofR1andR2
(
b)Cal
cul
atet
hev
olt
ageatB.
(
c)St
atet
hev
olt
ageatAj
ustatt
hepoi
ntwhenVoutchanges.
(
d)Cal
cul
atet
her
esi
stanceoft
het
her
mist
orwhenVoutchanges.
(
e)Whatwi
l
lhappent
oVoutwhent
het
emper
atur
eoft
het
her
mist
orchangesf
rom
bei
ng
v
erycol
dtowar
m?

13.Whati
stheef
fectofnegat
ivef
eedbackont
hegai
nofanoper
ati
onal
ampl
i
fier
?

14.Abat
ter
ytest
erf
or9Vbat
ter
iesl
i
ght
sagr
eenLEDasagoodi
ndi
cat
ori
fthe
bat
ter
yis
mor
ethan9.
0V.Ay
ell
owLEDl
i
ght
sasasat
isf
act
oryi
ndi
cat
ori
fthebat
ter
ylev
el
i
s
mor
ethan6.
3Vbutl
esst
he9.
0V.Fi
gur
e2.
29showsav
olt
agedi
vi
deroper
ati
ng
f
rom
t
het
est
er’
s12Vsuppl
y.

(
a)Cal
cul
atet
hev
aluesofR1 andR2 sot
hatt
hev
olt
agesatpoi
ntPi
s9.
0Vandt
he
v
olt
age

Page45of45
 atpoi
ntQi
s6.
3V.

Fi
gur
e2.
29:
Avol
tagedi
vi
deroper
ati
ngf
rom t
het
est
er’
s12Vsuppl
y.

(
b)Thi
svol
tagedi
vi
deri
sconnect
edt
otwoop-
amps.Thebat
ter
ytobet
est
edi
s
connect
ed
bet
ween0Vandt
henon-
inv
ert
ingi
nputoft
hei
n-putoft
heop-
ampsasshowni
n
Fi
gur
e
2.
30.

Page46of46
 Fi
gur
e2.
30:
Avol
tagedi
vi
derconnect
edt
otwoop-
amps.

(
i)St
atet
hef
unct
ionoft
heop-
ampwhenconnect
edt
hisway
.
(
ii
)Whatnamei
sgi
vent
othei
nput
sconnect
edt
o9.
0Vand6.
3V?
(
c)Theop–ampsar
epower
edar
epower
sfr
om 0Vand12Vl
i
nes,
assumet
hatt
hey
behav
easi
dealop-amps.Copyandcompl
eteTabl
e2.
1toshowt
hev
olt
agesatt
he
op-
ampout
put
sM
andNwhent
hebat
ter
yhast
heshownv
olt
age.

Tabl
e2.
1:Vol
tagesatt
heop-
ampout
put
sM andN
Vol
tageofbat
ter
ytobet
est
ed Vol
tage at M Vol
tageatN(
V)
(
V) (
V)
Lesst
han6.
3
Bet
ween6.
3and9.
0
Mor
ethan9.
0

(
d)(
i)Copyt
hedi
agr
am i
npar
t(b)andaddanLEDl
abel
l
ed‘
green’
toshowt
hatt
he
bat
ter
ybei
ngt
est
edi
s“good’
’
,whi
chwi
l
lli
ghti
fthev
olt
agei
smor
ethan9.
0V
i
ncl
udeaser
iesr
esi
stor
.
(
ii
)Expl
ainwhyaser
iesr
esi
stori
sneeded.
(
ii
i)Cal
cul
atet
hev
alueoft
heser
iesr
esi
stancer
equi
redi
ftheLEDhasaf
orwar
d
v
olt
age

Page47of47
 of2.
0Vandi
sdesi
gnedt
ooper
atewi
thav
olt
ageof2.
0V.
(
e)Addt
othedi
agr
am i
npar
t(b)anLEDl
abel
l
ed“
yel
l
ow’
’andi
tsser
iesr
esi
stort
o
show
t
hatt
hebat
ter
ybei
ngt
est
edi
s“sat
isf
act
ory
’’
,whi
chwi
l
lonl
yli
ghti
sthebat
ter
y
v
olt
age
i
sbet
ween6.
3V and9.
0V.
15.Fi
gur
e2.
31showsanon-
inv
ert
ingampl
i
fier
.

Fi
gur
e2.
31:
Non-
inv
ert
ingampl
i
fier
.

(
a)Cal
cul
atet
hev
olt
agegai
noft
hisampl
i
fier
.
(
b)I
fthei
nputv
olt
ageVini
s2V,
cal
cul
atet
heout
putv
olt
ageVout.

16.Fi
gur
e2.
32showsanampl
i
fierci
rcui
tincor
por
ati
ngani
deal
opamp.

Page48of48
 Fi
gur
e2.
32:
Op-
ampci
rcui
t.

(
a)Whatt
ypeofop-
ampi
sshowni
nFi
gur
e2.
32.
(
b)Theop-
ampi
nFi
gur
e2.
32usesnegat
ivef
eedback.Expl
ainwhati
smeantby
negat
ive
f
eedback.
(
c)Wi
thr
efer
ence t
o Fi
gur
e 2.
32,expl
ain why t
he pot
ent
ialatpoi
ntP i
s
appr
oxi
mat
ely0V
unl
esst
heop-
ampi
ssat
urat
ed.
(
d)Der
iveanexpr
essi
onf
ort
hegai
noft
heampl
i
fierci
rcui
tint
ermsoft
hei
nput
r
esi
stance
Rinandt
hef
eedbackr
esi
stanceRf.
(
e)I
nonepar
ti
cul
arappl
i
cat
ionoft
heci
rcui
t,t
hegai
noft
heampl
i
fieri
s-10.St
ate
t
hev
alue
oft
heout
putv
olt
ageVoutwhent
hei
nputv
olt
ageVi
nis:
(
i)+0.
1V.
(
ii
)-1.
0V.
(
f)St
atet
hreedi
sadv
ant
agesofi
ncr
easedgai
ninanop-
amp.