Module 7
Optoelectronic Devices
1. How does light interact with matter
❑ Absorbed
❑ Reflected
❑ Transmitted
2. How can we create devices that manipulate light
❑ LASERS
❑ LEDS
QM- EM-
circuits- devices
physics- optics – Optoelectronics
electronics
Optoelectronic Devices
• Optoelectronic Devices is an electronic technology in which optical radiation is
emitted, modified, or converted.
• Photodetectors (Incident photons are converted into electrons), Light Emitting
diodes and lasers (Converts electrical energy into light energy) are examples for
optoelectronic devices. In all the applications, by semiconductor structures are
used.
Energy Bands in Solids
• As isolated atoms are brought together to form a
solid various interactions occur between
neighboring atoms.
• When atoms are isolated, as in a gas, there is no
interaction of the electron wavefunctions: each
atom can have its electrons in identical energy
levels.
• As the interatomic spacing decreases electron
wavefunctions begin to overlap and, to avoid
violating the Pauli principle, there is a splitting of
the discrete energy levels.
• In a solid many atoms are brought together so that
the split energy levels form a set of bands of very The two highest energy bands, called the valence and conduction
closely spaced levels with forbidden energy gaps bands, are of crucial importance in this respect, as is the forbidden
between them. energy region between them which is referred to as the energy gap.
Energy Bands in Solids
• Valence Band - The electrons in the outermost shell are known as valence
electrons. These valence electrons contain a series of energy levels and form an
energy band known as the valence band. The valence band has the highest
occupied energy.
• Conduction Band - The valence electrons are not tightly held to the nucleus due
to which a few of these valence electrons leave the outermost orbit even at room
temperature and become free electrons. The free electrons conduct current in
conductors and are therefore known as conduction electrons. The conduction band
is one that contains conduction electrons and has the lowest occupied energy
levels.
• Forbidden Energy Gap - The gap between the valence band and the conduction
band is referred to as the forbidden gap. Insulators, semiconductors and conductors
are formed based on the size of the forbidden gap
• In conductors, the uppermost occupied band (valance band) is only partially filled or there is band overlap between
valance band and conduction band. So, electrons can gain energy from an external field quite easily, resulting in
high conductivity.
• In insulators, the upper occupied band (valence band), is completely filled with electrons. The nearest empty states
are in the conduction band. But the valence band and conduction band are separated by a large energy gap.
• In intrinsic semiconductors at low temperatures the valence band is full and the conduction band is empty.
However, the energy gap is sufficiently small (about 1 eV) that some electrons are excited across it at higher
temperatures. The electrons excited into the conduction band can contribute to current flow.
• At any temperature above absolute zero some electrons will be excited from that valence band to the conduction
band as a result of their thermal energy. When electrons make such transitions, empty states are left in the valence
band and created the electron-hole pairs.
Semi-Conductors
• A semiconductor material is one whose electrical
properties lie in between those of insulators and good
conductors.
• Examples are: germanium and silicon.
• In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be
defined as those materials which have almost an
empty conduction band and almost filled valence
band with a very narrow energy gap (of the order of
1 eV).
Semiconductor
Intrinsic SC Extrinsic SC
(Pure for of SC) (doped SC)
N type SC P type SC
• Pentavalent impurity (electron donor • Trivalent impurity (electron acceptor
atoms) atoms)
• Maj CC – electron • Maj CC – Holes
• Min CC – Holes • Min CC – electrons
• Dopant: Phosphorus and Arsenic • Dopant: Boron or Gallium.
N and P-type Semiconductor
P Acceptor ion Donor ion N
- - - + + + +
-
- + + + +
- - -
- + + +
- -
Minority electron Majority holes Majority electrons Minority hole
N-type P-type
• Pentavalent impurities • Trivalent impurities are
are added. added.
• Majority carriers are • Majority carriers are
electrons. holes.
• Minority carriers are • Minority carriers are
electrons.
holes.
• Fermi level is near the
• Fermi level is near the
valence band.
conduction band.
P-N Junction
A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types, namely the p-type
and the n-type. The P-N junction is created by the method of doping. The p-side, or the positive side of the
semiconductor, has an excess of holes, and the n-side, or the negative side, has an excess of electrons
• Diffusion of carriers across junction
• Electrons move from N-side to P-side
• Holes move from P-side to N-side
PN Junction: Potential Barrier and Depletion Region
➡Barrier is build near the junction which
prevents the further movement of electrons
and holes (VB)
➡ Silicon: VB = 0.7 V & Ge, VB = 0.3 eV
Depletion Region
• The region near the junction where flow of charges carriers are decreased over a given time and
finally results in empty charge carriers or full of immobile charge carriers is called depletion region.
• The depletion region is also called as depletion zone, depletion layer, space charge region, or space
charge layer.
• The depletion region acts like a wall between p-type and n-type semiconductor and prevents further
flow of free electrons and holes
PN Junction:Forward Bias
The process by which a p-n junction diode allows the electric current in the presence of applied
voltage is called forward biased p-n junction diode. In forward biased p-n junction diode, the
positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor material, and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor material.
PN Junction: Reverse Bias
In a reverse-biased p-n junction diode, the battery's negative terminal is connected to the p-type
semiconductor material, and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type
semiconductor material.
Energy Band in PN Junctions
I-V Characteristics in PN junction
Classification of Semiconductor by Bandgap
Classification of s/c (depends on how the electron
recombining in the s/c)
Direct Indirect
Bandgap s/c Bandgap s/c
Graph……E-k Diagram
E-K diagram ?
Direct and Indirect bandgap Semiconductor
Difference
