1.

Subject – verb agreement

The basic rule of” Subject- Verb Agreement” states that “The verb must agree with its subject in number and
person’ In other words, if the subject of a sentence is singular, the verb should also be singular. On the other
hand, if the subject is plural, the verb should also be plural.

(I) When s/ es / ies is added to a noun, it becomes plural.

Examples: (a) boy (Singular) boys (Plural)
(b) Leaf (Singular) leaves (Plural)
(c) Baby (Singular) babies (Plural)

(II) But, when s/es/ies is added to a verb, it becomes singular.

Examples: (a) go (Plural) goes (Singular)
(b) Write (Plural) writes (Singular)
(c) clarify (Plural) clarifies (Singular)
Examples:
(i) The boy wish/wishes to attend the seminar.
(ii) The students of the class do/does the work on time.
(iii) It is/are impossible to do the work in such a short period.
(iv) They have/has not completed the work.

Questions
1. The monsoon have, in the past five days, retreated from most parts of the country.
(a) In the past five days
(b) Retreated from most parts
(c) The monsoon have
(d) No error Question
2. Note down my phone number in case you needs to ring me up.
(a) My phone number
(b) Note down
(c) In case you needs
(d) To ring me up
3. During hair transplantation, hair follicles is transplanted from one part of the head to another whore the
hair is thinning.
(a) Where the hair is thinning
(b) Hair follicles is transplanted
(c) From one part of the head to another
(d) During hair transplantation
4. Authorities has been regularly Issuing avalanche warnings for vulnerable areas that have witnessed heavy
snowfall.
(a) Authorities has been regularly
(b) Issuing avalanche warnings
(c) For vulnerable areas that have
(d) Witnessed heavy snowfall.
5. The avalanche of new data have been so overwhelming that many scientists who were skeptical about
Bronze Age migrations into India have changed their opinions.
(a) The avalanche of new data have been
(b) So overwhelming that many scientists
(c) Who were skeptical about Bronze Age migrations into
d. India have changed their opinions.
6. All the professor of this college are provided with flee bungalows.
(a) All professor of this college
(b) All professors of this college.
(c) No improvement
(d) All the professors of this college
7. Economic growth is sustainable only if all countries has food security.
(a) Sustainable only if
(b) Economic growth is
(c) Has food security.
(d) All countries

Rule I: Ensure that the Verb agrees with the Main Subject, and not with the Qualifier. (A qualifier is a
modifier and gives additional information about the Main subject)

Examples:
(a) The box of Nestle`s chocolates is/are missing.
(b) The boxes of Nestle’s chocolates is/are missing.
(c) The decoration of the room is/are beautiful.
(d) The decoration of the rooms is/are beautiful.
(e) The knowledge of two languages is/are necessary
(f) His experience as a teacher to boys and girls gives/give me understanding.
(g) I, as a teacher of English am/is teaching you grammar.
(h) This type of books is/are not available in the market.
(i) These types of books is/are not available in the market.
(j) These sort of men /are very harmful /for the nation. /no error
(k) A team of scientists has/have discovered new stem cells.
(l) While the war of the generals /rage on, somewhere in small-town India /wonderful things are
happening quietly and minus fanfare /no error

NOTE:
(a) One-third of the pillar has/have rotted away.
(b) One-third of the pillars has/have rotted away.
(c) Two-thirds of the pillar has/have rotted away.
(d) Two-third of the /pillar has /rotted away /no error
Examples:
(a) A third of us / feels compelled to check our phones / in the middle of the night. / no error
(b) From my hotel I could see that a flock of birds were flying over the lake.
(c) The prices of tomatoes has soared up to Rs. 65-70 per kg in many parts of the country.

Rule II: Indefinite pronouns such as Someone, Somebody, Everybody, Everything, Something, Anyone,
Anything, Nobody, Nothing are Singular. Hence they take Singular Verbs.
Examples:
(a) Everybody is /are required to clear their/his dues.
 (b) Nobody know / knows the trouble I have seen.
(c) Something is / are missing in the cupboard.
(d) Some things is / are missing in the cupboard.
(e) Question was / so difficult that / nobody were able to answer it. / No error

NOTE:
(a) Nothing but some books was / were available.
(b) This is the first / time anybody have / explored into this part of the country. / no error
(c) Anybody can answer the question if they know.

Rule III: The subjects “Each, Every, Any, Either, None, Neither always take Singular Verbs.
Examples:-
(i) Each girl is / are ready to attend the function.
(ii) Every student was / were expected to be obedient
(iii) Neither of the plans suit / suits him.
(iv) Every man, woman and child was / were happy to see the Taj Mahal.
(v) Each boy and each girl is / are expected to be present.
(vi) Each mate and every female was / were capable of doing the work.
(vii) We each have / has a duty towards our nation.
(viii) Boys and girls, each, were / was ready to work.
(ix) Ghana, Zambia and Nigena / each have a role / to play in the development of Africa /no error (4)

NOTE:
(a) He has three sons but neither of them is hard working.
(b) Neither of the five accused was present at the
(c) Vini bought two new dresses but either is suitable for the festival.

Rule IV: The subjects One of, either of, neither of, any of, each of, none of are followed by a Plural noun
and Singular Verb.
Examples:
(a) One of the reason / reasons for his demotion is/are his carelessness.
(b) Either of the student / students is / are present.
(c) The product-driven organization has / the Product as one of the most / important element in
everything it does / No error.
(d) Her sister lives / in Pune, one of the / major city in Maharashtra./ no error
(e) This is one of / the boldest economic reform that / have ever been introduced. / No error
(f) Either of the two / supervisors were supposed /to be present at the site. / no error

Note: If the above subjects any of, each of, one of, either of, neither of, none of are followed by a Relative
Pronoun (who, which, whom, whose, that etc.), the Verb will be decided according to the
antecedent/precedent
(a) Mr, Sharma is / are one of our officers.
(b) Mr. Sharma is one of our only officers who is / are always alert.
(c) Mr. Sharma is only one of our officers that is / are always alert.
(d) This is one of the books that is/are for sale.
(e) This is only one of the books that is / are for sale
 (f) This is one / of the few companies / which has done well for the past two years / No error
(g) The problem of world / hunger arises because of the / economic inequality that distort food
distribution / no error
Rule V: Two subjects (singular or plural) joined by “and” take a Plural Verb.
Examples:
(a) Ram and Mohan help/helps each other.
(b) The teachers and the students was/were ready for the work
(c) Kayal and her children feel/feels that they have been cheated.

EXCEPTION: If two subjects joined by “and” point out to the same person or thing, the verb used must be
Singular.
Examples:
(a) Slow and steady win/wins the race.
(b) Horse and carriage is/are the cheapest means of transport.
(c) The secretary and treasurer is/are not in town.
(d) The secretary and the Treasurer is/are not in town.
(e) My friend and advisor help/helps me.
(f) My friend and my advisor help/helps me.

NOTE:
(a) The principal and staff(a)/are waiting(b)/for the chief guest.(c)/no error(d)
(b) His wife and mother /were injured /in the accident./no error

NOTE: The thief and not his sons was/were arrested.

Rule VI: If two subjects are joined by “OR”, “NOR”, “Either-or”, “Neither-nor”, “Not only-but also” the verb
is according to the Second Subject. (The subject closer to the verb)
Examples:
(a) Either Ramesh or his friends is/are responsible for the loos.
(b) Not only the buyers but also the salesmen is/are in favor of the system.
(c) We insisted, but neither (1)/ Jona nor her assistant (2)/ are ready to work on Sunday(3)/ No error (4)
(d) Your success or(1)/ your failure depend on(2)/your hard work.(3)/no error(4)
(e) Neither the color /nor the size of the /clothes were good /no error.
(f) Neither the directors nor the Chairman were available to interrogation.

Rule VII: If two subjects are joined by as well as, with, along with , together with , besides , including , In
addition to , accompanied by, Unlike , Rather than , except , the verb will be according to the first subject.
Examples:
(a) The television along with the radio is/are for sale.
(b) The television and the radio is/are for sale.
Examples:
(a) The sailors together with the Captain was/were drowned.
(b) The decoration of the room, including the furniture is/are very beautiful.
(c) Mohan along with his family and friends (1)/ are visiting the Prince of Wales museum(2)/day after
tomorrow(3)/No error (4)
(d) Silver, as well (a)/ as gold, are (b)/ considered precious metals. (c)I no error
Rule VIII: The subjects Some, Some of, All, All of, Most, Most of, plenty can take Singular as well as Plural
verbs. If there is a Countable Noun after the above subjects, the verb is Plural. If there is Uncountable Noun,
the verb is singular.
Examples: Uncountable nouns: furniture, scenery,
luggage, advice, news, poetry,
(a) Most of the men was/were absent. machinery, stationery, traffic, dirt,
(b) Most of the food is/are stale. baggage, dust, information, work,
evidence, equipment, bread, fuel,
(c) Some books is/are needed. business, ethics, athletics, classics,
(d) Some money is/are needed. innings, gallows, mathematics,
economics, Money , Food, Water

Rule IX: indefinite pronouns such as all, few, several, both, many, various are Plural. Hence they take Plural
Verbs.
Examples:
(a) Both the books require/requires careful reading.
(b) Few is/are ready to work.
(c) Various departments was/were opened.
(d) All the students agree/agrees to help him.
(e) All the money has/have been stolen.

Rule X(a): The subjects Many, majority, Number, Large Numbers, always take Plural Verbs as well as Plural
Nouns or Plural Pronouns
Examples:
(a) Many student/students were/was invited to the party.
(b) Majority of them agree/agrees to vote for him.

Rule X (b): The subjects A many, A number, A large number, also take Plural Verbs and Plural Nouns.
Examples:
(a) A number of girls has/have passed.
(b) A great many boys is/are sitting there.

Rule X(c): The subjects the many, the number take Singular Verbs but Plural Nouns.
Examples:
SUBJECT NOUN VERB
(a) The number of shops is/are increasing.
Many, Number Plural Plural
(b) The number of students appearing in the
exam has/have dropped. A many, a number Plural Plural
Examples: The many, The number Plural Singular
(a) Many a girl /girls go /goes to college in Many a, many an Singular Singular
time.
(b) A good many girl/girls go/goes to college in time.
(c) Many student/ students was / were present
(d) A many student / students was / were present
(e) Many a student / students was / were present
(f) The many of the student / students was / were present
(g) The number of the student / students was / were present
Rule XI: The subject,” More than one” takes Singular Noun and Singular Verb. But the subject, more than
two/three/four takes Plural Noun and Plural Verb.
Examples:
(a) More than one room/rooms is/are vacant.
(b) More than two room/rooms is/are vacant.
(c) “More + Plural Noun + than one” takes PLURAL VERB.
(d) More rooms/room than one is/are vacant.
Note:
(a) More than one person/persons is/are present.
(b) More person/persons than one is/are present.
(c) More than two person/persons is/are present.

Rule XII: The subjects, half of, one half of, Two-thirds of, Three-fourths of, a part of, A Majority of, A
Variety of can take Singular as well as Plural Verbs. If there is a Singular Noun after the above subjects, the
Verb is singular. If the NOUN is PLURAL, the VERB is also PLURAL.

Examples:
(a) Two-thirds of the pillar was/were ready.
(b) Two-thirds of the pillars was/were ready.
(c) A part of the work has/have been completed.

Rule XIII: when a plural noun denotes some particular quantity or amount considered as a whole, it takes
Singular Verb. In other words, when a Plural Noun is preceded by a numeral or number, the Verb is Singular.
Examples:
(a) Five-hundred rupees is/are a good amount.
(b) Five-hundred rupees was/were distributed among the flood victims.
(c) Ten-miles is/are a long distance.
(d) A hundred rupee note was/were lying on the road.
(e) A hundred rupees note was lying on the road.

Rule XIV: If a subject has a positive and negative SUBJECT, the VERB should agree with the positive subject.
Examples:
(a) It is not the faculty members but the president who decide/decides this issue.
(b) The thief, and not his sons is/are responsible for the theft.
(c) The teachers but not the principal has/have decided to attend the seminar.

Rule XV: Certain uncountable nouns like take Singular Verbs.

Uncountable nouns: furniture, scenery,
Examples: luggage, advice, news, poetry,
(a) The luggage was/were laying at the station. machinery, stationery, traffic, dirt,
(b) These days news is/are travelling faster. baggage, dust, information, work,
evidence, equipment, bread, fuel,
(c) The poetry of John keats is/are very interesting. business, ethics, athletics, classics,
(d) Mathematics is/are a good subject innings, gallows, mathematics,
economics, Money , Food, Water
(e) The furniture of the room has/have been shifted.

Note: The above nouns are uncountable. We cannot make them plural by adding ‘S/ es/ ies” to them.
Examples:
 (a) He has given advices.
He has given advice.
(b) He has sold the furnitures.
He has sold the furniture.

Note: If we have to indicate that the number of news, advice, information is more than one, the example
listed can be followed.
(c) He has sold many pieces of the furniture.
(d) I have a lot of information to give you.

Rule XVI: Certain nouns like scissors, tongs, cattle, poultry, spectacles, trousers, binoculars, goods, gentry,
pants, shorts, alms, wages, artillery, police, assets, clergy, savings, bacteria, vermin, cavalry, and infantry
always take Plural Verbs.
Examples:
(a) The poultry is/are for sale.
(b) The police was/were on alert.
(c) The policeman was/were on alert.
(d) The policemen was/were on alert.
(e) The goods has/have been sold.
(f) The cattle is/are grazing in the field.
(g) l saw five police near the temple.

Note:
(a) The binoculars has/have been sold.
A pair of binoculars has/have been sold.
(b) Spectacles is/are available.
A pair of spectacles is/are available.

Rule XVII: Certain collective nouns such as jury, public, team, committee, government, audience, board,
council, army, fish, and panel can be used both as Singular as well as Plural depending on the meaning.
When the group works together as a unit, it take Singular Verb. On the other hand, when the members of
the group are acting separately, it will take Plural Verb.
Examples:
(a) The team has/have tried the uniforms.
(b) The team has / have won the match.

In the sentence (a), individual members of the team are trying their uniforms separately. So, the verb used
is plural. In sentence (b), team as a single unit, won the match. So, the Verb is Singular

(a) The jury was unanimous in opinion.

(b) The jury were divided in opinion.

In sentence (a), all the members of the jury shared the same opinion (unanimous). Hence, “jury” acts as a
Singular Unit and the Verb used is Singular. But in sentence (b), the members of the jury differ in opinion.
So, the Verb used is Plural.
Rule XVIII: If nouns like Mathematics, Politics, Physics, Economics, Civics have modifiers with them, they
become Plural and hence they take Plural Verbs. If these nouns refers to a study, science or practice, the
Verb is Singular.
Examples:
(a) Statistics is an interesting subject. (Refers to a subject)
(b) Statistics have indicated that the price of food grains is rising. (Refers to data)
(c) Politics is / are a dirty game.
(d) Gandhi’s politics is/are good. (Political views / opnions)
(e) Mathematics is/are his favorite subject.
(f) The mathematics of the tax-returns are/is flawless. (Here refers calculations)

Rule XIX: Some nouns like Measles, Mumps, Rickets, Billiards, Darts, Draughts etc end in “-S”, but represent
a single thing. Hence they take Singular Verbs.
Examples:
(a) Measles has/have side effects.
(b) Billiards is/are an interesting game.

Rule XX: Suppositional sentences starting with “I wish”, “as if”, “as though”, “suppose”, “if” and expressing
certain unfulfilled desire/wish/imagination always take Plural Verbs. In simple words, we can say that, in
such sentences, the subject (whether singular or plural) always take Plural Verb.
Examples:
(a) If I was/ were as doctor, I would help the poor.
(b) He talks to me as if he was / were the Prime Minister.

Rule XXI: Sentences starting with “THERE” can take singular as well as plural verbs. We have to identify the
subject after the word “THERE” and then choose the verb.
Examples:
(a) There isn’t/aren’t any message from him.
(b) There aren’t/isn’t messages from him.
Note:
(a) As per the RBI guidelines /a bank account in which /there is no transactions for two years is a dormant
Account /no error (4).
(b) According to the newspaper reports /there is more internet users /in small towns than in metros.
/No error.

Some important sentences

(a) All is well. (Here “all” has been used in sense of singular uncountable noun).
(b) All are welI.(All persons are well).
(c) Ninety percent of the students has/have passed.
(d) The percentage of students passed is/are ten.
(e) Other student/students has/have helped him
(f) No other student/students has/have helped him.
(g) The Himalayas is/are mighty. (Here ‘The Himalayas” is a plural subject, acting as a mountain range)
(h) Mt. Everest is/are the highest peak.
The names of certain books like The Arabian nights, Gulliver’s Travels, The Three Musketeers, Great
Expectations, Tom Jones’ take singular verbs.

Examples:
(a) “The Arabian Nights” is/are a collection of short stories.
(b) “Gulliver’s Travels is/are a good book.
(c) The wages of sin is/are death. (Wages in the sense of punishment takes singular verb)
(d) The wages of the worker is/are low. (Wages in the sense of payment takes Plural verb)
(e) No girl and no boy was/were present.
(f) The honest is/are rewarded
(g) The poor deserves/deserve the sympathy of the rich.

Here, “the honest” refers to all the honest people. Similarly, The poor” is for all the poor people. Hence the
verb is plural.

In certain sentences, the verb comes before the subject. In such sentences, the verb (singular or plural) is
decided according to the subject following it. In such sentences, the verb (singular or plural) is decided
according to the subject following it.

Examples:
(a) Just outside the hotel is/are two bars
(b) Along the northern frontier of India is/are the Himalayas.
(c) Each has/have a problem.
(d) We each has/have a problem.
(e) A variety of items at the dinner was/ were enjoyed by us.
(f) The variety of items at the dinner was/were enjoyed by us.

Note: “a variety” —plural verb “The variety” —Singular verb.

Practice Questions
1. A body of politicians have (a) / been called for an (b) / Urgent meeting because of the recent terrorist
attack on Mumbai.(c)/ No error (d)
2. Every leaf (a) / and every flower proclaim (b) / the glory of god. (c) / No error. (d)
3. In most of the states (a) / forty percent of people below thirty years (b) / is undernourished. (c)
4. Mr. Maihoira. along with (a) / his friends, were (b) / invited to dinner. (c) / No error. (d)
5. Dead men (a) / tells (b) / no tales. (c) / No error. (d)
6. My friend, philosopher (a) / and guide (b) / have come. (c) / No error. (d)
7. The jury (a) / were (b) / divided in their opinion. (c) / No error. (d)
8. Nine tenths (a) / of the pillar (b) / have rotted away (c) / No error. (d)
9. Neither Ramesh nor Rajendra (a) / has done (b) / his work properly. (c) / No error. (d)
10. She is one of the (a) / best mothers. (b) / that has ever lived. (c) / No error. (d)
11. There was too many (a) / people trying to get (b) / into the football stadium (c) / No error. (d)
12. Drinking and driving (a) / are (b) / a major cause of accidents. (c) / No error. (d)
13. The Arabian Nights (a) / are indeed (b) / an interesting book. (c) / No error. (d)
14. Neither of the two (a) / candidates have (b) / paid his subscription. (c) / No error. (d)
15. Either parmeet (a) / or jyoti (b) / have committed the crime. (c) / No error. (d)
16. The teacher as well as the students (a) / have gone on an excursion (c) / to ooty during the summer
vacation. (ç) / No error. (d)
17. Many a man were happy (a) / dancing at the victory (b) / of our cricket team in Australia. (ç)
18. The police is investigating (a) / for the recent happening (h) / in the area. (c) / No error. (d)
19. Each of these boys (a)/ play (b) / games. (c) / No error. (d)
20. The newer type of automatic machines (a) / wash (b) / the clothes faster. (c) / No error. (d)
21. He walked five miles which are really a great distance (a) / for a man like him (b) who is not only old
but also ill. (c) / No error. (d)
22. I am sure that (a) / neither the house nor its contents (b) / is for sale. (e) I. No error.
23. I am the modern age (a) / twenty miles are (b) / not a long distance to be covered. (c) / No error.
24. Some land have been purchased (a) / for the special economic zone (b) / (SEZ) by the state
government. (c) / No error.(d)
25. Many a boy (a) / have not done his (h) / homework properly. (C) / No error.
26. Neither he nor they (a) / is making any strategy (b) /for the company. (c)/ No error. (d)
27. Two miles beyond (a) / that building was seen dozens (b)/ of antisocial elements. (c) / No error.(d)
28. You and I am intimate friends from the now (a) / and our friendship will be continued (b) /in
forthcoming time as well. (c) / No error. (d)
29. The secretary and the principal of the college (a) /is attending (b) / the District Development Council
Meeting at the Collect orate. (c) / No error. (d)
30. There is (a) / only one of his novels (b) / that are interesting. (c) / No error. (d)
31. Our success or our failure (a) / largely depend (b) / upon our actions. (c) / No error. (d)
32. Fifty meters (a) / are not a great height (b) / and can be accessed easily by determination. (c)
33. A few of computers (a) / has been repaired on the (b) / urgent basis. (c) / No error. (d)
34. A rise in rents and wages (a) / have been found (b) / to go together. (c) / No error. (d)
35. No one have (a) / protested this statement (b) / in the conference. (c) / No error. (d)
36. He is one of those few post-colonial writers who believes (a) / that this talk about colonialism has
gone too far (b)/ that has turned into a cliché. (c) / No error. (d)
37. The internal and external environment we (a) / experience in our thoughts, feelings and the (b) /
world around us also has an effect. (c) / No error (d)
38. The behavior of resident spiders (a) / towards pirate spiders and their own prey (b) / are quite
different.(c) / No error (d)
39. Tickle is (a) / one of the broadest and deepest (b) / subject in science. (c) / No error (d)
40. The scientists found that (a) / leopards tend to hoist prey (b) / that are between half and one -and-a-
half times its own weight. (c) / No error (d)
41. Throughout the history. (a) / humans has existed side-by-side (b) / with bacteria and viruses. (c)
42. Men who has risen (a) / by their own exertions. (b) /are always respected. (c) / No error (d)
43. The consequences of (a) / his carelessness was (b) / that the game was lost. (c) / No error (d)
44. The government need to adopt (a) / a multi-year expenditure outlook (b) / while preparing the
budget.(c) / No error (d)
45. Modern medicines has scored significant victories (a) / against both infection and trauma (b) / the
major causes of ill health and death. (c) / No error (d)
46. Our thought have a direct impact on our body (a) / and hence they crucially affect our (b) / emotional
and physical well-being too. (c) No error (d)
47. Mr. Gupta with his wife (a) / and younger brother (b) / were present at the station. (c) / No error
48. The unique selling proposition of (a) / our products are that (b) / they are unbreakable. (c)
49. A large (a) / consignment of books (b) / are expected. (c) / No error (d)
50. Today people is ignorant (a) / of the things that (b) / arc happening around them. (c) / No error
51. Those sort of people (a) are always nice (b) / to you on your face. (c) / No error (d)
52. There are hundred of superstitions (a) / which survive in the (b) / various parts of the country. (c)
53. The burglar stole all the money (a)/ in the house but surprisingly missed (b) / the jewelries in locker.
54. No man can become a great (a) / artist unless he (b) / apply himself continually to his an. (c)
55. It has been shown that (a) / very high doses of vitamin C actually (b)/ causes cancer cells to grow.
56. It has been said (a) / that history is the essence (b)/ of innumerable biography. (c) / No error (d)
57. Grandfather along (a) / with the children (b) / have gone to Chennai. (c) / No error (d)
58. Fifty years has passed (a) / since man first ventured (b) / into outer space. (c) / No error (d)
59. Eighty-five thousand rupees (a) / is a large sum of money (b) / to earn in a month. (c) / No error
60. As a person who believes (a) /that honesty is the best policy (b) / I feel that politics are not my cup
of tea. (c) / No error (d)
61. The teacher, as well as the students. (a) / have gone on an excursion (b) / to Ooty during their summer
vacation. (c) / No error (d)
62. Outside, the rain beats down (a) / in floods and the sea gives forth (b) / a sound like an alarm bells.
63. Suddenly they saw a car coming (a) / at a break neck speed. (b) / an old man were crossing the road
at the zebra crossing. (c) / No error (d)
64. The various consequences of (a) / the decision taken by the (b) / finance ministry was not foreseen
by the bureaucrats. (c) / No error (d)
65. A few tiles on skylab (a) / were the only equipments (b) / that failed to perform well in outer space.
66. The book, being written (a) / in simple language, is suitable for children (b) / as it contains many good
advices. (c) / No error (d)
67. It was a pleasant (a) / four hours drive (b) / from Pune to Nasik. (c)/ No error (d)
68. Police reports claim that (a) / substantial seizure of cocaine have been made (b) / in the last two
months. (c) / No error (d)
69. Neither of the two children (a) / said their prayer (b)/ before going to bed. (c) / No error (d)
70. Lasers are (a) / indispensable tools (b) / for the delicate eyes surgery. (C) / No error (d)
71. The increase in consumption is directly (a) / proportional to the increase (b) / in income. (c)
72. My friend Sahib (a) /is one of the best football player (b) / in the country. (c)/ No error (d)
73. Suresh have never (a) / encouraged nor (b) / condoned violence. (c) / No error (d)
74. You should not be worried any (a) / more now, as there are only another (b)/two kilometers to walk
on foot. (c) / No error (d)
75. The following is the works of Mr. Sharma. (a) / who has been bestowed with (b) / so many prestigious
awards. (c) / No error (d)
76. The rich are getting richer and richer (a) / and honest are getting poorer and poorer (b) / with each
passing day. (c) / No error (d)
77. Since Vijay as well as his friends (a) / are going to watch a movie (b) / we cannot meet him tomorrow.
78. Only one third of the students has (a) / come to take their examination at this center (b) / which does
riot augur well for this center. (c) / No error (d)
79. Much support are required to bring about a change in (a) / this and I hope that you all will help me
put ( b) / this country on the top of the world. (c) / No error (d)
80. You must be aware of the fact that many (a)/ a problem have been left unsolved and this (b) / may
lead to the failure of the mission. (c) / No error (d)
81. I invited all residents of this apartment but to (a) / my regret very few has come (b) /to attend the
party.(c)/ No error (d)
82. No work has been done yet and perhaps you are not (a) / mindful of the fact that we have (b) /to
finish it by tomorrow. (C) / No error (d)
83. The staff of this organization are well (a) / trained and extremely experienced (b) / so you can count
on them. (c) / No error (d)
84. The scissors that you have bought from (a) / his shop is undoubtedly very costly but they are (b) /
available at cheaper rate in another shop. (e) / No error (d)
85. Many a boy (a) / have not done their (b) / homework properly. (c) / No error (d)
86. Whether she should get married (a) / or whether she should remain (b)/ single are her personal
problem(c) / No error (d)
87. Neither of them (a) / are going to attend (b) / the party on 10th October. (c) / No error (d)
88. Patience as well as perseverance (a) / are necessary (b) / for success. (c) / No error (d)
89. It is I (a)/ who is to blame (b) / for this had situation. (C) / No error (d)
90. Many a men (a) / attended the meeting (b) / last night. (C) / No error (d)
91. Either you (a) / or he (b) / are happy. (c) / No error (d)
92. Everybody (a) / it must be admitted (b) / has their ups and downs. (c) / No error (d)
93. One of my desires (a) / are to become (b) / a doctor. (C) / No error (d)
94. The tiger was not (a)/the only dangerous animal (b)/in the forest, there was hyenas too.(c)
95. Along the northern frontier (a)/of India is seen (b) / the beautiful and mighty Himalayas. (c)
96. He is (a) / one of the tallest boy (b)/ in the class. (c)/No error (d)
97. Two and two (a) / makes (b) / four. (C) / No error (d)
98. There appears (a) / a number of problems (b)/ and I really do not know how to solve them. (C)
99. Many a man (a) / have come to India from Bangladesh (b) / to live here permanently. (c) / No
100. One of the peculiarities (a) / which distinguishes the present age (b) / is the multiplication of books.
101. The whole block of flats (a) / including two shops were (b) / destroyed in fire. (c) / No error (d)
102. The strain of all (a) / the difficulties, vexations and anxieties (b) / were more than he could bear.
103. The sum and substance (a) / of his poem (b) / are as follows. (C) / No error (d)
104. The fifth and final act (a) / of Macbeth contain (b) / the sleep walking scene. (C) / No error (d)
2. Conjunction
(A conjunction joins words, phrases, clauses and sentences)
PHRASE: It is a group of words with no subject-verb combination. It doesn’t give a meaningful sense.
CLAUSE: It has a subject-verb combination. It may or may not give a meaningful sense.
(a) Independent clause gives meaningful sense.
(b) Dependent clause gives no meaningful sense.
SENTENCE: It has a subject-verb combination. It always gives meaningful sense.
Examples:
(a) I will meet you at office or at home.
(b) As he was ill, he couldn’t attend office.
(c) He said that he would come.
(d) Unless you work hard, you will not succeed.
(e) Ram and his friend were busy.

USES OF CONJUNCFION
(1) Unless / Until - (a) conjunction
(b) Negative words (NOT shouldn’t use with until /unless)
(c) Tense (simple present)
NOTE:
Unless  Conjunction
Until Conjunction/preposition
Examples:
(a) Wait here until Monday.
(b) Wait here until I come.
(c) Unless you work, you will not succeed.
NOTE: UnIess  It denotes condition. / until  It denote time.
Examples:
(a) You will not get the loan until /unless you submit all the documents on time.
(b) I will wait here until/unless he returns.
(c) Unless/until you work, you will not succeed.
(d) I will not leave the hail until / unless the exam is over.
(e) Don’t eat anything until / unless the guests arrive.
(f) Until and unless you pay the fee, you will not get the library card.
(g) Unless you don’t work, you will not succeed
(h) You will not succeed, unless you don’t work
(i) Unless you will not work, you will not succeed

(2) If/Whether/That
If  condition / doubt / uncertainty Few/Little  Negligible
Whether  Doubt / uncertainty A few/A little  At least something
the few/the little  the remaining/left
That  Certainty
(a) I don’t know if/whether he will come.
(b) I don’t know if/whether he will come or not.
(c) I know that he will not come.
(d) I have few doubts that/whether he will come.
(e) I have a few doubts that/whether he will come.
NOTE:
(a) In case if it rains. I will take an umbrella.
(b) Supposing if he is late, I will do the work.
(c) If he comes then I will attend the party.
(d) If he comes then I will go
(e) When he comes then I will go
(f) As he was busy so he wouldn’t come
(g) As you sow so shall you reap
(h) Since he was busy therefore he couldn’t come

(3) Both  followed by and (Using Or / With / Along With / as Well as is wrong)
(4) Between  followed by and (Using Or / To is wrong)
Examples:
(a) Both Ram and his friends were present.
(b) Ram as well as his friends was present.
(c) There is an understanding between you or me.
(d) For this job (a) / you will need a knowledge of (b)/ both English as well as Chinese (c) / no error(d)
(e) The laborers relax (a) / between 2 to 3 (b) / in the afternoon (c) / no error (d)
(f) The vacation is (a) / between (b) / 4th June to 5th July (c) / no error (d)

(5) Lest :- (otherwise)

(a) It takes the modal “should”
(b) Tense (Simple present tense)
(c) Negative word ( shouldn’t use “not” with “LEST”)
Examples:
(a) Work hard lest you might fail in the examination.
(b) Work hard lest you should not fail in the examination.
(c) Walk properly lest you might not fall. (a) fall (b) fell (c) should not fall
NOTE: Walk properly otherwise you will fall.

(6) Though/Although  BUT / YET / It is used in contradictory sentences

(a) Though difficult it is (a) / but I will do (b) / it at any cost (c) / no error (d)
(b) Though he worked hard but he failed.
(c) Though he worked hard, he failed.
(d) Since he did not finish the previous project properly (a) / he was entrusted with (b) / a new one

(7) As-As/ So-As

As-As  For comparison in positive as well as negative sentences.
So-As  For comparison in negative sentences.
Examples:
(a) He is as taller as his younger brother.
(b) He is not as taller as his younger brother.
(c) He is so respectful as Gandhi.
NOTE:
I. These days job opportunities are not as better as they used to be before.
2. He is as wiser as his brother. 3. He is as wise, if not wiser than his brother.
(8) As/Since/Because Positive Comparative Superlative
As/Since  (Interchangeable)
To describe To compare To compare
Examples
only one 2 noun 3 or more
(a) As he was busy, he couldn’t complete the work on time.
noun nouns
(b) He couldn’t complete the work on time because he was
Big Bigger Biggest
busy.
Cold Colder Coldest
(c) The students couldn’t attend the meeting because/as
Fast Faster Fastest
they had classes.
Happy Happier Happiest
NOTE:
Kind Kinder Kindest
(a) As he was busy so he could not come.
Large Larger Largest
(b) As you sow so shall you reap.
Rich Richer Richest
(c) Since he was busy therefore he couldn’t come.
Short Shorter Shortest
(d) Because he was busy so he couldn’t come.
Thick Thicker Thickest
NOTE: Beautiful More Most
But / although / though / while / despite / in spite of  beautiful beautiful
Contradictory sentences Good Better Best
As / since / and  Not in contradictory sentences
(a) Though he worked hard, he failed
(b) While he worked hard, he failed
(c) He worked hard but he failed
(d) Despite/In spite of working hard, he failed
(e) He got hurt while playing

(9) The Reason  Because / Due to / That

Examples:
(a) The reason why he failed was because he was too careless.
(b) The reason for his failure was due to his carelessness.
(c) The reason why (a)/ he was rejected (b)/ was because he was too young. (c)/ No error (d)

(10) Like / As
Like  it is followed by a Noun/Pronoun
As  it is followed by a Clause (sub + verb)
Examples:
(a) He sings like me.
(b) He sings as I do.
(c) She enjoys all types of music as I do.
(d) You have to do it (a)/ just like (b) / I have done it (c)/ no error (d)
(e) He likes to play cricket
(f) She disliked her boss
(g) He sings like me
(h) Ram unlike his brothers is/are smart

(11) Rather / Other / No Other  (Followed by “Than” not “But”)

(12) Else / Nothing Else  (Followed by “But” not “Than”)
Examples:
 (a) I have no other claim but his wealth.
(b) I would rather have the bat or the ball.
(c) He wants nothing else than peace.
(d) It is nothing else than your pride which makes you say such a thing.

(13) Should not use the conjunction “THAT” before interrogative words like who, where, when, which, why
etc.
Examples:
(a) We wanted to know (a)/ that what could be (b)/ done in that case (c)/ no error (d)
(b) He asked / that how long / I would be absent / no error
(c) He said that when (a)/ he was a child (b)/ he used to help his mother (c)/ no error (d)

(14) Seldom if ever

Seldom or never

Examples:
(a) Seldom or ever, he helps the poor.
(b) Seldom if never, he helps the poor.
(c) Seldom or ever (a)/ have I turned away a beggar (b) / without giving him alms (c) / no error

(15) SUCH – AS  examples

SUCH – THAT  effect / result / consequence
SO – THAT  effect / result / consequence / Purpose
Examples:
(a) She has worked in several countries such as Australia. New Zealand. Canada and so on.
(b) It was such a cold afternoon that we stopped playing.
(c) The man spoke with such a passion that all listeners were moved to tears.
(d) She is such a brilliant woman that everyone admires her.
(e) She is so brilliant that everyone admires her.
(f) This is such a complicated problem that cannot be solved by anyone.
(g) The problem is so complicated that nobody can solve it.
(h) He so clever that he can learn multiple languages at a single time.
(i) We eat so that we may live.
(j) He went to the doctor so that he may have routine check-up.

(a) Such is followed by a “Noun”

1. SUCH + A/AN + NOUN + THAT
(b) So is followed by an “Adjective” or an “Adverb”
(i) He spoke such/so clearly that everybody understood the facts. 2. SO + ADJECTIVE/ADVERB + THAT

(ii) He is so Idiot that he doesn’t know the capital of his own country.
(iii) He is so foolish that he doesn’t know the capital of his own country.

INVERSION
When VERB comes before the SUBJECT. Generally inversion takes place in interrogative sentences.
Examples:
(a) When he will come?(wrong)
(b) When will he come?(correct)
 (c) How you did complete the work? (Wrong)
(d) How did you complete the work? (Correct)

NOTE: There are certain conjunctions which take inversion Either-or / Neither-nor / Not only-but also
/ Hardly-when / Scarcely-when / No sooner-than
Examples:
(a) Neither the drought or the famine dampened their sprits.
(b) Tell me either the whole story else a part of it.
(c) Not only Ram however also his friends were present.
(d) Not only Ram but his friends were also present.
(e) Hardly had I (a) / reached the station (b) / than I learnt about the bomb explosion (c) / no error(d)
(f) No sooner I did (a)/ enter the class (b)/ than the student stood up (c)/ no error (d)
(g) Scarcely I did reach the airport,(a)/ nervous and tense, when the plane took off, (b) / leaving me
stranded in an alien place.(c)/ No error (d)
(h) No sooner had the hockey match started (a) / when it began (b) / to rain (c) / No error (d)

CONJUCTION AND PARALLELISM

Examples:
(a) Mr. Sinha not only stopped coming here but also going to other places.
(b) He not only opened a hospital but also an orphanage.
(c) He is not only known (a)/ for his wisdom (b) / but for his diligence also (c)/ No error (d)
(d) He not only believes (a)/ in hard work but also in honesty (b) / of the highest order. (c)/ No error (d)
(e) None of the diplomats at the conference (a)/ was able either to (b)/ comprehend or solve the
problem. (c)/ No error (d)
3. Verb
 It tells us about the subject.(noun / pronoun)
 It tells us what a subject does or an action performed by the subject.
 It tells us what a subject is or the state of the subject.
Examples:
(a) He gave the book to her.
(b) He was given a book by her.
(c) I have a big house.
(d) He is ill.
Based on action and non-action, verb has been divided into two types
Static Verb(state) Dynamic Verb(action)
1. He is an intelligent person 1. He goes to school on time.
2. I know him 2. He ran fast to catch the bus.
3. She has a beautiful dress 3. The monkeys are eating the
4. He likes English bananas. 4. He drove the car slowly.
5. I prefer coffee to tea. 5. I reached there on time.

Based on object verb has been divided into two parts:-

Transitive Verb (It takes an object) (noun/pro) Intransitive VERB (It doesn’t take an object.)
1. The driver stopped the train. (tr. Verb) 1. The driver stopped suddenly. (intr. Verb)
2. He presented a ring to her (tr. Verb) 2. The lion fought with the wolf. (intr. Verb)
3. He presented her a ring. (tr. Verb) 3. The sun rises in the east. (intr. Verb)
4. The lion killed the wolf. (tr. Verb)

Forms of Verbs:
V1 :- Simple present(plural) :- go / write
V2 :- Simple past :- went / wrote
V3 :- Past participle:- gone / written
V4 :- Present participle :- going / writing
V5 :- Simple present(singular) :- goes / writes

Examples:
(a) He lay/laid in the shade of the tree.
(b) He lied / lay to me yesterday.
(c) The hens have laid / lain eggs.
(d) He lay/laid the luggage aside.
(e) The water level raised/rose by two feet.
(f) He raised/rose many questions.
(g) The rivers have overflown / overflowed the banks.
(h) The clothes were hanged / hung.
(i) The prisoner was hanged / hung.
(j) He hanged / hung his face in shame.
(k) Such inequalities can be founded / found in the constitutions of other countries.
(l) The rivers have overflowed/overflown
(m) He fell/felled from the chair
(n) The hunter fell/felled the tree
 (o) He wound/wounded his watch V1 V2 V3
(p) I saw a drunk/ drunken person hide hid Hidden
(q) The man has drunk/ drunken begin began Begun
(r) The ship has sunk /sunken come came Come
(s) I saw a sunk/ sunken ship run ran Run
swim swam Swum
Note: Fly Flew Flown
(a) ADVICE: Flow Flowed Flowed
ADVISE: Cast Cast Cast
(b) PRACTICE: Broadcast Broadcast Broadcast
PRACTISE: Telecast Telecast Telecast
(c) LICENCE: Forecast Forecast Forecast
LICENSE: Slay Slew Slain
(d) EFFECT: Hang (prisoner) Hanged Hanged
AFFECT: Hang Hung Hung
(e) COMPLAINT: (cloths/photos)
COMPLAIN: Bear (birth) Bore Born
Bear (tolerate) Bore Borne
1) He advised/adviced me Lie (untruth) Lied Lied
2) He gave me advice /advise Lie (on bed) Lay Lain
3) The weather affected/ effected me Lay Laid Laid
4) The weather has a adverse effect/affect Bid (auction) Bid Bid
Bid (order) Bade Bidden
Note:- Certain verbs can act as auxiliary as well as
Hold Held Held
main verbs. Ex:- is/am/are/was/were/do/does / did
Rise Rose Risen
/has/have/had
Raise Raised Raised
(a) He has a pen. (Main verb)
Beat Beat Beat
(b) He has written. (Aux.. verb)
Bite Bit Bitten
(c) He did the work. (M.V)
Build Built Built
(d) He did not come. (A.V)
Send Sent Sent
(e) He was ill. (M.V)
Spread Spread Spread
(f) He was writing. (A.V)
Find Found Found
TO BE” Verbs (STATE + ACTION) (is, am, are, was, Found Founded Founded
were, being, been) Fall Fell Fallen
V1 :- are; V2 :- was/were; V3 :- been; V4 :- being; Fell Felled Felled
V5:-is/am Feel Felt Felt
Note:Some important points about auxiliary verbs: Shoot Shot Shot
1. The auxiliary verbs is / am / are /was /were take Wind Wound Wound
V4 (Active voice) and V3 (Passive voice) forms of Wound Wounded Wounded
verbs. Burst Burst Burst
a) He was giving a book. (Act voice) Bust Busted Busted
b) He was given a book. (Pass voice) Cost Cost Cost
c) The essay is written by him. (Pass voice) Grind Ground Ground
d) The student is writing the essay. (Act voice) Ground Grounded Grounded
Sink Sank Sunk/sunken
2. The auxiliary verbs has / have / had take V3 form Drink Drank Drunk/Drunken
of verb. Melt Melted Melted/Molten
(a) The show had began / begun on time.
(b) The teachers have took / taken the charge.
(c) He has wrote / written the essay.

3. The auxiliary verbs do / does / did take V1 form of verb.

(a) He did not go/went to school.
(b) They do not come/comes on time.

Note:-
1) Do / Does / Did as an auxiliary verb is not used in positive sentences.
2) Do / Does / Did as an auxiliary verb is used in negative as well as interrogative sentences

Examples:
Did you study yesterday?
No, I did not study. (Correct)
Yes, I did study. (Wrong)
Yes, I studied. (Correct)

Verb and Parallelism

1. The earths resources have to be protected and sustain and (a) /we need to share our resources across
species as we all are (b) / interconnected as one giant living organism. (c) / No error (d)
2. Affirmations fire the will to focus and perseverance towards (a) / goal realization and enable positive
(b) / thoughts to permeate one’s sub consciousness. (c) / No error (d)
3. A person operating at the pre-conventional level of moral reasoning (a) /considers any decision or
ethical dilemma from the point of view of avoiding (b) / personal harm, losing or seek personal gain.
(c) / No error (d)
4. Through the practice of repeated affirmations, we can make great progress on our chosen path and
Increasing our magnetism to succeed in anything.
(a) increased (b) increase (c) have increased (d) No Improvement
5. A beautiful landscape, full of green vegetation will not just attract our attention but fill us with infinite
satisfaction.
(a) will fill us (b) filled us (c) fill them (d) No improvement

a) He has been ill

b) He has been taken to the hospital
c) He didn’t write/ wrote the essay
d) He doesn’t come/ comes on time
e) He comes on time
f) I did not come
g) I did the work
h) Does he come on time?
Yes he does come on time
No he does not come on time
 i) What does agonise/agonises me is his rude behavior
j) He asked where I did live/lived
INVERSION
when verb comes before subject. Generally inversion takes place in interrogative sentences.
Examples:
a) What are you doing?
b) What you are doing?
c) When he will come ?
d) When will he come?
e) He asked me when I would come.
f) He asked me when would I come.

Questions:
1. They could not tell me why did he not eat his lunch.
(a) why had he not eaten. (b) why he did not eat. (c) why he had not ate. (d) No
Improvement
2. I asked him how could he go out If it started raining.
(a) can he go out (b) he could goes out (c) he could go out (d) No Improvement
3. I asked the traveler where is he going.
(a) where he is (b) where was he (c) where he was (d) No Improvement
4. Where did you came from?
(a) you did come (b) did you comes (c) did you come (d) No Improvement

Non - Finite Verbs

Finite Verbs
 They change according to the subject. (singular/plural)
 They change according to the Tense

NON - FINITE VERBS

 They don’t change according to the subject. (Singular/plural)
 They don’t change according to the tense.

GERUND INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE

(...ing form of verb acting as Noun) (to + V1 acting as Noun) Non-Finite (Verb acting as Adjective)
Verbs

(a) Did he tell you why hadn’t he done the work?

(b) Did he tell you why he hadn’t done the work?
(c) He likes swimming
(d) He liked swimming
(e) He will like swimming
(f) They like swimming
(g) He likes to swim
(h) He liked to swim
(i) The broken glass was repaired
(j) The broken glasses were repaired
MODAL
They express the mood of verb in a sentence / They are auxiliary verbs. / They take V1 form of verb.
1. He will do the work
2. He will be absent
3. He will have a break
4. He will have done the work
5. He will have given the book
6. He will have been reading a book
7. He will have been taken to the hospital

Will, shall, would, should, can, could, may, might, Am, is, are, was, were, do, does, did have, has, had
must

SHALL / WILL: It is used to express future tense. (Strong I normal future)

Examples:
(a) I shall attend her marriage ceremony(normal future)
(b) I will attend her marriage ceremony. (Strong future)

Note: According to traditional rule / old grammar, “SHALL” is used with 1st person. (I/WE). But “SHALL” can
also be used with 2nd and 3rd persons. (You/ he/ she/ they/ it). The only difference is with first person (I
/WE) “SHALL” expresses normal future but with 2nd and 3rd person “SHALL” expresses strong future.
Examples:
(a) He shall come on time. (Strong future)
(b) I shall come on time. (Normal future)
(c) He will come on time. (Normal future)
(d) I will come on time. (Strong future)

Note: In interrogative sentences is used with first person (I /WE) to express offer / suggestion.
Examples:
(a) Shall / will I help you?
(b) Shall / will we arrange a party at home?
(c) Shall / will he come on time?
(d) Shall / will you attend the meeting?
NOTE: In a formal / official language Shall is used.
Examples:-
(a) He shall be fined for his wrongdoings.
(b) It he is found guilty, the court shall punish him

SHOULD / WOULD
SHOULD:-
(a) It is used to express present as well as future tense.
Examples:
(1) We should help the poor. (Present)
(2) He should be present by noon. (Future)
WOULD:
(a) It is used to express past, present and future tense.
Examples
(1) He said that he would come.(past)
(2) Would you like to have tea or coffee? (Present)
(3) I would go to Pans for a holiday. (Future)

(b) It expresses various moods.

(1) Desire / willingness
Ex:-
(a) I would like to play now.
(b) I would rather stay at home than go to school.
(2) Polite request
Ex:
(a) Would you please help me in doing the work?
(b) Would you mind tending me the book for a day?

(3) Past routine or habit of the past

Ex:-
(a) When I was at university, I would study for late hours.
(b) Teachers would often scold us for our mistakes.

Note: Used to :- Past habit / Would :- Past habit

Ex:-
(a) I would play cricket in my school days.
(b) I used to play cricket in my school day.
(c) I would be a lawyer but now I am a teacher.
(d) I would like classical music but now I like rock music.

SHOULD:
(a) It is used to express present as well as future tense.
Ex:
(1) We should help the poor. (Present)
(2) He should be present by noon. (Future)

(b) It expresses various moods.

(1) Advice / suggestion
Ex:-
(a) One should keep one’s promises.
(b) We should not laugh at others.

(2) Duty / obligation

Ex:
(a) We should respect our elders.
(b) We should obey the rules of the country.
(3) Condition
Ex:
(a) Should he work, he will succeed.
(b) If he works, he will succeed.

Note: - SHOULD HAVE (Past Tense)

Ex:
(a) He should have done the work.
OUGHT TO:
(a) It is used in present tense.
(b) Duty/ moral obligation / advice / suggestion
(c) Ought to = should
Ex:
(a) We should respect our elders.
(b) We ought to respect our elders.

Had Better – Should

(a) It expresses present tense.
Ex:-
a) You had better do the work on time.
(b) You should do the work on time.

For advice / suggestion

Ex:
(1) You had better stop taking medicines which have side effects.
(2) You had better gone to school on time.
(3) You had better to stop taking medicines which have side effects.
(4)He went to school
(5)He went to play
(6)He had better done/do/did/does the work
(7)He should come, I will go
(8) Should he come, I will go
(9) If he should come/comes, I will go

CAN / COULD
CAN:
(a) It is used to express present tense.
(b) It expresses various moods.

(1) Ability / capability of the present

Ex:
(1) He can lift the box. (capability)
(2) He can speak English well. (ability)

(2) Permission / order

Ex:
(a) You can leave the hall after the exam is over.
(b) You can take my book.
(c) Can I come in? (in-formal)
(d) May I come in? (Formal)

COULD:
(a) It is used to express present as well as past tense.
(b) It expresses various moods.

(1) Ability / capability of the past

Ex:-
(a) There was such a crowd that he could not find his brother.
(b) He could swim across the river when he was young.

(2) Polite request (present tense)

Ex:-
(a) Could you lend me some money?
(b) Could you help me?

Could — past tense (past ability)

Could have — Past tense (past ability but the action didn’t take place)
Ex:
(a) He could work for late hours.
(b) He could have worked for late hours. (but he did not)

Note: CAN / COULD (Able to)

Ex:
(a) I can be able to do the work.
(b) Because of heavy rain, the students could not be able to attend the meeting.
(c)He cannot be able to do the work
(d)He is not able to do the work
(e)He said that he could do the work
(f)He said that he could not have done the work
(g)He said that he could have done the work

MAY / MIGHT
MAY:
(a) It expresses present as well as future tense.
(b)May I come in?
(c) These tablets may produce side effects.
(d) He may go to Delhi tomorrow.
(b) It expresses various moods.

(1) PossIbility
(a) It may rain tonight.
(b) He may attend the meeting.

(2) Permission
Ex:
(a) May I / sit next to you ?
(b) You may leave the table after you finish your meal.

(3) Wishes / blessings

Ex:
(a) May you achieve great success.
(b) May God give you long life.

(4) Purpose
Ex:
(a) We eat so that we may live.
(b) He often visits the doctor so that he may have routine check — up.

Note: - Using May / Might with possible /possibly / likely (Wrong)

Ex:-
(a) He may possibly attend the party.
(b) It may likely rain.

MIGHT:
(a) It expresses present, past and future.
Ex:
(a) It might rain tonight.
(b) She said that she might go there.
(c) She might leave for London tomorrow.
(b) It expresses various moods.

(1) Possibility
Ex:
(a) It may rain tonight. (strong possibility)
(b) It might rain tonight. (weak possibility)

2. Permission
EX:
(a) He might be allowed to appear in the examination.
OUGHT TO:
(a) It is used in present tense.
(b) Duty / moral obligation / advice / suggestion
(c) Ought to = should
Ex:
(a) We should respect our elders.
(b) We ought to respect our elders.
MUST— (a) It expresses present tense.
MUST HAVE— (a) It expresses past tense.
Ex:-
(a) You must work hard.
(b) You must have worked hard.

(b) It expresses various moods.

(1) Necessity / obligation
Ex:
(a) You should follow the instructions.
(b) You must follow the instructions.

(2) Inference / conclusion

Ex:
(a) He has a big house. He must be rich.
(b) The roads are wet, it must have rained.

(3) Order
Ex:- (a) You must leave the room at once.

USED TO: It expresses the habit of the past.

BE USED TO: (is/am/are/was/were + used to)
Ex:
(a) He used to go to Delhi by car. (modal)
(b) He used to help me in kitchen. (modal

Note:(a) Used to — Modal verb — V1

(b) is /am/are/was/were + used to — adj — V4
Ex:
(a) He used to get up early. (modal)
(b) He was used to get / getting up early. (adj)
(c) Are you used to get / getting up early? (adj)
(d) I am used to work / working late hours. (adj.

NEED
It acts as a MAIN VERB as well as a MODAL
Note: - NEED acts as a MODAL VERB in negative and interrogative sentence
Ex:-
(a) I need a pen
(b) I need (to work) hard.
(c) I didn’t need a pen
(d) I need not (to waste) time.
(e) He needs not waste time.
(f) He needs to work hard.
(g) I need not drive fast.
(h) Need I drive fast?
(i) I need not have drove / driven fast.

DARE: It acts as a MAIN VERB as well as a MODAL.

Note: DARE acts as a MODAL VERB in negative, and interrogative sentences.
EX:
(a) They dare to do the work.
(b) They dare not oppose their father.
(c) Dare I do the work?
(d) They did not dare to enter the room.
(e) He dares not oppose his father.
(f) He dares to oppose his father.

Modal verb practice set

1. The pedestrians should to be’ cautious while crossing the road.
a. must not b. should be c. should not d. no improvement
2. The decision “will leaving her in a peculiar predicament.
a. will left her b. will leave her c. leave d. no improvement
3. Chandra’s good gestures “will highly appreciated”.
a. will be highly appreciate b. will be high appreciative
c. will be highly appreciated b. no improvement
4. Someone must (being) killed.
a. have been b. has been c. been d. no improvement
5. The conference ‘will been a” celebration of women’s achievements
a. will be an b. would be an c. wilt be a d. no improvement
6. I absolutely must (seen) him, however painful It may be for me.
a. saw b. seeing c. see d. no improvement
7. She is not used, (to sleep) for so long.
a. to be sleeping b. to sleep c. to sleeping d. no improvement
8. Nisha probably (would have caught) up the bus by now.
a. must have caught b. will catch c. shall have caught d. no improvement
9. Would it be impolite (to be asked) why they are leaving?
a. to ask b. for asking c. for being asked d. no improvement
10. I used to have very thick hair.
a. use to have b. used to having c. use to had d. no improvement

Spotting Errors
1. Passengers (a) / may not smoke (b) / inside the plane. (c) / no error (d)
2. How dare (a) / you to face (b) / customers like them (c) / no error (d)
3. He is working (a) / hard so that he should (b)/ succeed in his mission. (c)/ no error (d)
4. He expected (a)/ that the problem will be (b)/ sorted out very soon. (c)/ no error (d)
5. He wished (a)/ that she would (b)/ prosper in life. (c)/ no error (d)
6. He did not help (a) / me with money (b) / but he could do it. (c) / no error (d)
7. By the time (a) / you arrive at the airport (b) / I will have leave for London. (c) / no error (d)
8. He suggested to (a) / me that we would go to (b) / watch a movie. (c) / no error
9. Seeing the damage (a) / I can say that a (b) / firework could not do all that. (c)/ no error (d)
10. The main idea of a (a)/ very common type of traveler is to (b)/ see as many objects of interests as he
possibly could. (c) / no error (d)
11. I still doubt (a) / if he should (b) / agree with us. (c) /no error (d)

GERUND INFINITIVE
(a) ing (V4) — MAIN VERB
(b) ing — GERUND (... ing + NOUN)
(c) ing — PRESENT PARTICIPLE (...ing + Adj)

Ex:
(a) He was smoking.
(b) Smoking is injurious to health.
(c) I saw him smoking in the cinema haIl.
(d) He is found of smoking.
(e) Corruption is a burning issue.
(f) The candle was burning.
(g) A burnt paper was found.
(h) He is parking the car.
(i) No parking.
(j) I saw him parking the car

GERUND (Verbal Noun Sub+Obj)

Uses of Gerunds:
(1) Gerunds are used as subjects in short prohibitions.
Ex:
(a) Spitting is prohibited.
(b) Eating and drinking is not allowed.

(2) The phrases with a view to” and looking forward to” take Gerunds
Note: looking forward to — expect / anticipate something positive
Ex:
(1) I come here to teach.
(2) I come here with a view to teach / teaching.
(3) I hope to meet you.
(4) I am looking forward to meet/ meeting you.
(5) I am looking forward to good results.
(6) We are looking forward (a) / to hear news (b)/ about the missing fisherman. (c)/ No error (d)
(7) With a view to avoid (a) / traffic accidents (b) / the road was blocked. (c) /No error(d)

(1) Pronouns / Nouns coming before Participles are always In Objective Case. (Me, him, them, us)
(2) Pronouns / Nouns coming before Gerunds are always in Possessive Case. (My, their, our)

Examples:
(1) I saw him / his leaving the house.
(2) He heard them/ their singing a song.
(3) My father appreciated me / my working hard. Subjective Objective Possessive
(4) He saw us / our parking the car. He Him His
They Them Their/Theirs
(3) Nouns/ Pronouns coming before Gerunds are in I Me My/ Mine
possessive case.
Examples:
(1) I don’t mind him / his staying late hours.
(2) My father appreciates me/ my working hard.
(3) Due to me (a) / being a new comer (b) / does not excuse your fault. (c) /No error (d)
(4) I don’t mind (a) / Rohan staying (b) / late hours with his friends. (c)/ No error (d)

(4) Certain VERBS PHRASES followed by prepositions take Gerunds abstain from / refrain from / desist from/
prevent from / stop from / prohibit from / debar from / insist on / keen on / bent on/ persist in / Succeed
in / interested in / fortunate in / fond of / sick of / tired of / capable of / confident of
Examples:
(a) I prohibited him to enter the room. (Wrong)
(b) She persists to do the work. (Wrong)
(c) I insisted to go there. (Wrong)
(d) I insisted that she should go there. (Correct)
(e) He is sick to do the same work. (Wrong)
(f) He is sick of Life. (Correct)
(g) The students are confident to win the race. (Wrong)
(h) He is bent to harm his friend. (Correct)
(i) They are fortunate to have good friends. (Correct)
(j) He should abstain to smoke. (Wrong)

(5) Used to / addicted to / accustomed to / habituated to/ given to / take to / prone to/ averse to / devoted
to/ It’s no use/ can’t heap
(a) He is addicted to gamble. (Wrong)
(b) They are habituated to work hard. (Wrong)
(c) They are habituated to hard work. (Correct)
(d) He is used to get up early in the morning. (Wrong)
(e) It’s no use to cry over spilt milk. (Wrong)
(f) He couldn’t stop himself to shed tears. (Wrong)

(6) There are certain verbs which take Gerunds. Enjoy / mind / remember / deny / worth / avoid / prefer /
regret / resent / detest / resist / propose
(a) He avoids to travel in the rush hours (Wrong)
(b) I remember to have met him before (Wrong)
(c) I prefer to read the dramas of Shakespeare. (Wrong)
(d) Priya doesn’t mind to disturb her. (Wrong)
(e) The book is worth to read. (Wrong)

Note:
(a) This book is worth reading.
 (b) This is a worth reading book.
Exercise
1. He has succeeded (a) / to get an appointment (b) / with the prime minister (c) / after repeated efforts.
2. I objected to him scolding me (a) / for my good (b) / especially when he said it hurt him (c)/ more
than me. (d / No error (e)
3. The students are looking forward (a) / to get (b) / good marks (c) / in the examination (d)
4. He is looking forward to (a) / secure good marks (b) / in the forthcoming (c) / examinations. (d)
5. Heavy rain (a) / prevented us (b) / to go to the cinema. (c) / No error (d)
6. She is confident (a)/ to win the gold medal (b this time. (c)I No error (d)
7. The lawyer asked (a) / if it was worth to take (b) / the matter to court. (c) / No error(d)
8. I remember (a) / to meet him (b) / five years ago. (c) / No error (d)
9. The teacher prevented (a) / the boys (b) / to go there. (c) / No error (d)

INFINITIVE (TO+V1)
1. An infinitive is the base form of a verb.
2. It acts as a Noun (sub/object) in a sentence.
Ex: -
(a) To learn a new language is difficult.
(b) To err is human and to forgive is divine.
(c) He wishes to earn money quickly.
(d) He comes to see me everyday.
(e) The train is about to enter the station.

FORMS OF INFINITIVES
ACTIVE VOICE
(a) Present: - (To + V1)  He seems to study.
(b) Present continuous: - (To + be+ ing) He seems to be studying late hours.
(c) Perfect: - (To + have + V3)  He seems to have studied for late hours.
(d) Perfect continuous:- (To + have + been + ing)-)He seems to have been studying for late hours.

PASSIVE VOICE
(a) Present: - (To + be+ V3)
Ex:
(a) Everyone wants to be admired.
(b) Perfect:- (To + have + been + V3)
Ex:
(a) The thief admitted to have been arrested last year.
(b) He is poor now but he seems to have /to have been rich.
(c) He question to discuss /to be discussed were very easy.
(d) The thief admitted to have /to have been arrested

USES OF INFINITIVES
(1) Avoid using split infinitives.
Ex :-
(a) He planned to not go to cinema.
(b) I advised him to carefully work.

(2) There are certain verbs which take infinitives DIRECTLY. Agree, hope, wish, eager, fail, accept, swear,
decide, desire, refuse, need.
 I agree to do the work on time.
 He hopes to win the race.
 He failed to complete the project

(3) There are certain verbs which don’t take infinitives directly. First they take an BJECT(NOUN/PRONOUN)
and then an infinitive. Ex: order, permit, allow, expect, command, request, ask, tell, encourage.
(a) I ordered to do the work.
(b) I was ordered to do the work.
(c) I told to attend the meeting.
(d) I was told to attend the meeting.
(e) I ____him to win the race. (a) wish (b) hope (C) expect (d) like

(4) There are certain verbs (verbs expressing manner / method) which don’t take infinitives directly. First
they take an interrogative word (what, how, when etc) and then an infinitive. Ex :- teach, know, explain,
learn, wonder, discover.
 I don’t know to read and write.
 He taught me to do the work.
 I learnt to write a perfect essay.
 I wonder to complete the work in such a short time.

(5) INFINITIVE (To + V1) BARE INFINITIVE (Infinitive without To)

Certain verbs / phrases take Bare Infinitives. Ex: make / made, Bid / Bade, See/ Saw, hear / heard, let, but,
than, except, would rather, sooner than.
 I ordered him to do the work.
 I bade him to do the work
 I was bidden to do the work.
 The cruel lady made her servant to do all the household chores.
 I was made to do all the work.
 I let him to enter the room.
 I heard him to sing.
 He likes nothing but to play
 I would rather go to school than to stay at home.
 To die with honour is better than to live with dishonour.
 I let him to do the work
 I was let to do the work(O)

CAUSATIVE VERBS
Causative verbs are used when the subject does not do the action directly. It takes the help of somebody.
Something to do the action.
Note:
Basically, there are three causative verbs.
HAVE / HAD
GET / GOT
MAKE / MADE

(MAKE / MADE)
(1) It takes infinitive WITHOUT TO (Bare infinitive)
(GET / GOT)
(1) It takes To +V1
(HAVE / HAD)
(1) It takes bare infinitive (without To)
Examples:
(a) I have a pen.
b) I have done the work.
(c) I have him do the work.
(d) I got a pen.
(e) I got her to work for me.
(f) I made a beautiful picture.
(g) I made her draw a beautiful picture.

Examples:
(1) I got him to do the work.
(2) I got the work done by him.
(3) I had the dentist remove/ removed my teeth.
(4) I had my teeth remove / removed.
(5) Get the book publish / published.

PARTICIPLE (Verbal Adjective)

PARTICIPLE: When verb (V3 I V4) acts as an adjective.
Ex:
(a) Barking dogs seldom bite.
(b) I kept waiting for a long time.
(c) I saw a burnt paper on the floor.
(d) Interested students may apply for the job.

There are two types of participles.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE
(1) When the ... .ing” (V4) form of verb acts as an adjective.
(2) It represents the action as going on or incomplete.

PAST PARTICIPLE
(1) When the V3 form of verb (ending with ed / en / t) acts as an adjective.
(2) It represents the completed action or state.
Ex:
1) The book is interesting. (6) A country respects law-abiding citizens.
(2) Interested students may attend the seminar. (7) The burning candle was extinguished.
(3) The broken glasses were repaired. (8) I saw the candle burning whole night.
(4) I saw him breaking the glasses. (9) There was a burnt paper on the table.
(5) The college has introduced job-oriented
courses.

PERFECT PARTICIPLE
Having +V3 (Active Voice)
Having + been + V3 (Passive Voice) (completed action)
Being + V3 (passive voice (Reason)

Ex:
(1) Having arrested, the police sent the thief to prison.(Correct)
(2) Having arrested, the thief was sent to prison.(Wrong)
(3) Having deserted by his wife, he committed suicide.(Wrong)
(4) Having cooked the food, he served it to the guests.(Correct)
(5) Having cooked, the food was served to the guests.(Wrong)

Note: A participle should have a subject of reference with it. (Noun/ Pronoun)

Ex:
(1) Being ill he, could not go to office.(Correct)
(2) He, being ill, could not go to office.(Correct)
(3) Being tired, he decided not to work.(Correct)
(4) Being a rainy day, we decided to cancel our trip.(Wrong)
(5) Being dark, the electrician could not find the switch board.(Wrong)
(6) Being a rainy day, it might rain. .(Correct)
(7) Running along the road, I hurt my legs. .(Correct)
(8) Two were killed and one injured
(9) Three were killed and two injured
(10) One was killed and one injured

Has/Have/Had:
Main verb — Possession
Auxiliary verb
 I have a book  He has and will be faithful to his parents
 I have written the letter  They are used for confirmation /surety /
 He has and will help the poor certainty.
 His assistants have and are still doing great job
4.QUESTION TAG
BASIC RULE
(i) If sentence is positive, tag is negative
(ii) If sentence is negative, tag is positive
Example:
(a) The students were working on the project, weren’t they?
(b) They did not come on time, did they?

NOTE: If there is no auxiliary verb, the tag is made by using DO / DOES /DID
Example:
(a) Children like to cat sweets, don’t they?
(b) The earth revolves around the sun, doesn’t It?
(e) The student did the work, didn’t he?
(d) Barking dogs seldom bite, do they?

Some contracted forms: -

Were + not = weren’t Would + not = wouldn’t
Do + not = don’t Shall + not = shan’t should + not shouldn’t
Will + not = won’t Have + not = haven’t
Does + not = doesn’t Ought + not = oughtn’t
Can + not = can’t Has + not = hasn’t
Did + not = didn’t Must + not = mustn’t
May + not mayn’t Had + not = hadn’t
Am I not = Aren’t I? Need + not = needn’t
Might + not—mightn’t was + not wasn’t
is + not = isn’t are + not = daren’t
Could + not = couldn’t Used + not = usedn’t (didn’t – as per SSC)
Are + not = aren’t

NOTE: There are certain words which are negative. Ex: hardly, scarcely, barely, rarely, neither, seldom,
little, few, none, nothing, nobody
(a) He takes little effort, does he? (h) He is writing, isn’t he?
(b) A little knowledge is a dangerous thing, isn’t It? (i) I am busy, aren’t I?
(c) The little milk left in the bottle turned sour, (j) I am not busy, am I?
didn’t it? (k) He hardly works, does he?
(d) It rarely rains here, does it?3 (l) It rarely rains, does it?
(e) Few people will come, will they? (m) He scarcely comes on time, does he?
(f) A few students got the award, didn’t they? (n) They often helps me, don’t they?
(g) He is busy, isn’t he?

Question tags with HAVE /HAS/HAD

1) The women has a beautiful car, doesn’t she?
2) You have to phone a taxi, don’t you?
3) She had her bedroom redone, didn’t she?
4) The girl has done the work, hasn’t she?
5) You haven’t got any money, have you?
6) The man had sold the house, hadn’t he?
7) Anu is having her hair cut, Isn’t she?
8) She never had her name revealed, did she?

There are certain nouns which are singular as well as plural. Ex: Team, jury, audience, panel, board,
committee, council, mob, government, parliament
I) The team won the match, didn’t it?
2) The team tried the uniforms, didn’t they?
3) The mob killed the magistrate, didn’t it?
4) The jury gave a unanimous opinion, didn’t it?
5) The jury gave a divided opinion, didn’t they?

`S – is / was / has
Ex:
(i) He’s got a beautiful house, hasn’t he?
(ii) It’s raining heavily today, isn’t ¡t?
(iii) He’s busy in his work yesterday, wasn’t he?

`d – would / had / did

Ex:
1) I’d not attend the party yesterday, did I?
2) I’d like to have tea rather than coffee, wouldn’t I?
3) He’d completed the work on time, had he?

LET’S (Let+us)  It takes the tag shall we?

Ex:
1) Let’s help her to complete the work, shall we?
2) Let’s not disturb them, shall we?
3) Let’s play together, shall we?

Note:
(i) I think, he is right, isn’t he?
(ii) As far as I know, they are the best, aren’t they?
(iii) I hope, he does the work on time, doesn’t he?
(iv) I know, India wilt win the match, won’t it?

(1) If the sentence starts with THIS/THAT, the pronoun used in the tag is “IT”
(2) If the sentence starts with THESE / THOSE the pronoun used in the tag is “THEY”
(3) If the sentence starts with THERE, the pronoun used is “THERE”

Ex:
(i) These are good examples, aren’t they?
(ii) These books are not mine, are they?
(iii) There is beauty in it, isn’t there?
 (iv) This is mine, isn’t it?
(v) That was a good book, wasn’t ¡t?

Note: One (one in number) / One (everybody)

Ex:
1) One should do one’s duties, shouldn’t one?
2) One must respect one’s elders, mustn’t one?
3) One of the students was absent, wasn’t he? Need (main Verb)
4) One girl did the work, didn’t she?
Need not (Model verb)
Note:
(i) He dare not go there, dare he? Used (Model verb)
(ii) He dares to go there, doesn’t he?
Used to. (Model verb)
(iii) He needs a book, doesn’t he?
(iv) I need not ask him, need I? Dare (main Verb)
(v) She dared to abuse him, didn’t she?
(vi) You used to smoke, didn’t you? Dare not (Model verb)
(vii) She used not to go there, did she?

a) Everybody / Everyone/Somebody/Someone / Nobody/Anybody  The pronoun used in the tag is PLURAL.

b) Everything/Something / Nothing / Anything  The pronoun used in the tag is SINGULAR.

1) Somebody stole the pen, didn’t they? 7) All of the them had gone there, hadn’t they?
2) Nobody was present, were they? 8) All of us can do this, can’t we?
3) Everything is clear to you, isn’t it? 9) Most of us have read the book, haven’t we?
4) Something is to be done, isn’t It? 10) Neither of you has done this, have you?
5) Nothing was available, was it? 11) Either of you is guilty, aren’t you?
6) All of you can be beaten, can’t you? 12) Some of us must do that, mustn’t we?

In imperative sentences (order, request, advice, suggestion), the tag is used is WILL YOU/WON’T
YOU / WOULD YOU
Note:
1) Negative request / command  WILL YOU?
2) Positive request / command  WILL YOU?/WON’T YOU?
3) Request  WOULD YOU?
Ex:
I) Open the window, will you/won’t you?
2) Don’t open the window, will you?
3) Have some more tea, would you?

Imperative sentences (irritation) the tag used is can you? / can’t you?
Get Out of the place, can`t you? / can you?
5 . Preposition
A preposition (pre + position) is a word that is placed before a NOUN or a PRONOUN. It shows the relation
of that noun or pronoun with some other word (noun, pronoun, adverb, adjective) in the sentence.
Examples:
(1) He is bond of music.
(2) He slipped off the stairs.
(3) The book is on the table.
(4) The book is lying on the table.
(5) There is a temple beside my house.
(6) He said to me.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PREPOSITION AND ADVERB

 The plane took off.
 Switch off the fans.
 He was in the room.
 He came in and took rest.
 Come down.
 The ship sailed down the river.

POSITION OF PREPOSITIONS
Ex :-
(1) The postman was standing at the doorstep.
(2) At the time of the opening ceremony, the minister was present.
(3) What are you looking at?

TYPE OF PREPOSITIONS
(1) Preposition of Time
(2) Preposition of Place
(3) Preposition of Direction

Examples
(1) He will come at down.
(2) He aimed at the bird.
(3) He was standing at the bus stop.

PREPOSITION OF TIME
(1) SINCE/ FOR
SINCE: - It denotes definite “POINT OF TIME.”
FOR: - It denotes” LENGTH OF TIME.” (Duration)
Examples:-
(a) He has been living here since/ for a month. (f) He has been reading since / for two hours.
(b) He has been living here since/ for January. (g) He has been working since / for Monday.
(c) I have known him since / for 2014. (h) He has been working since / for a week.
(d) I have known him since / for a year. (I) He has been working since / for last week.
(e) He has been reading since / for 20’clock. (j) This custom has been in prevalence since/for
ancient times. (I) He has been playing cricket since/for childhood.
(k) The custom has been in prevalence since/ for
time immemorial.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SINCE AND FROM

Since :- point of time (perfect tense)
From :- point of time
Examples
 He is working here from Monday (Correct)
 He is working here since Monday (Wrong)
 He is working (a)/ on the project (b)/ since morning. (c)/ No error (d)

AT/IN/ON
AT :- It denotes exact/ definite time
IN :- For longer duration
Ex :- He arrived at/in 8 O’clock in/at the morning.

PARTS OF THE DAY

(1) Dawn/ sunrise/daybreak — “AT”
(2) morning- “IN”
(3) noon- “AT”
(4) afternoon- “IN”
(5) evening- “IN”
(6) dusk/sunset/twilight — “AT”
(7) night- “AT”/ “IN”
(8) midnight- “AT”

Ex: - I sleep late at/in night.

He goes for a walk at/in night.
The inaugural function is at/ in the night

Note: - At the beginning / in the beginning.

Ex: - (a) At / IN the beginning of the movie, I felt bored.
(b) AT/IN the beginning of the civilization, man did not know how to count.

ON :- With days/dates
Ex :- (a) He will meet you Monday.
(b) He will meet you in Monday evening.
(c) The meeting is scheduled 16e’ March.

Note :- (a) He came Monday. (Correct)

(b) He came in last Monday.(Wrong)
(c) He comes every Monday.(Wrong)
(d) He will come on next Monday.(Wrong)
(e) He will come Monday next. (Correct)
IN :- With years / months / seasons
Ex :-
(a) He will come in/at 2016.
(b) My birthday is in/at May.
(c) My birthday is in/at/on May 11th
(d) My birthday is in/at/on 11th May.
(e) He will come in/at summer.

With festivals
Examples :-
(a) He will come at/on Holi.
(b) He will come on/at the occasion of Holi.
(c) He will come on/at the eve of Hou.
(d) He will come at/on Christmas.
(e) He is busy in/at the moment.

IN/WITHIN
IN :- It is used in sense of “AFTER”
WITHIN :- It is used in sense of “BEFORE”
Ex:- I will return the book in 5 days.(when 5 days are over)
Ex :- I will return the book within 5 days.(before 5 days)
Ex :- The students will complete the work in an hour.
Ex :- The students will complete the work within an hour.

DURING/WHILE
During: - It is used with a period of time as well as with an activity going on.
 We enjoyed during the trip.
 Everyone was present during the speech.
 There was fog during the morning.
 There was fog in the morning.

While :- It is used with an action.

 He got hurt while playing.(while he was playing)
 While I was watching the movie, he was stuyding.

UNTIL/TILL/BY
UNTIL/TILL :- It marks the end of an action.
 I will be there until Wednesday.
 I will be there till Wednesday.
BY: - Before/no later than
 By noon, the fog cleared a way.
 I will have completed the work by Monday.
 He has to find a new job by/until March
 We can’t leave the house by/until your mother calls
WHEN/WHILE
WHILE  it is used to denote two simultaneous continuous actions
WHEN  it is used to denote two single actions at the same time. (one immediately after another)

Examples:
(a) I picked up the phone when/while it rang.
(b) When/while I get home, I help my kids in their homework.
(c) While/when I was working, you were reading.
(d) He came out when/while the bell rang.
(e) You got hurt while/when playing cricket.
(f) While/when he was a child, he used to help his mother in the daily work.

PREPOSITION OF PLACE
AT/IN
AT :- It denotes exact place/location
IN :- Larger areas
Examples:
(1) The students are sitting in/at the room.
(2) The students are sitting in/at the corner of the room.
(3) The postman was standing in/at the doorstep.
(4) The guests were waiting In/at/on the table in/at the restaurant.
(5) He lives in/at Rohini in/at Delhi.
(6) He lives in/at Park Street.
(7) He lives in/at 30 Park Street.

Note :-
(1) He lives _________ India. (11) The thief attacked on the boy. (Wrong)
(2)He went _____ India. (12) There was an attack on the boy. (Correct)
(3) He arrived _______ India. (13) He ordered for two cups of coffee. (Wrong)
(4) He arrived ______ the station. (14) He gave an order for two cups of coffee.
(5) He reached _______ India. (Correct)
(6) He visited _______ India. (15) Will you order for a cup of coffee? (Wrong)
(7) He has been ______ India. (16) He emphasized on the point. (Wrong)
(8) He was at school.(correct) (17) He put emphasis on the point. (Correct)
(9) He was in school.(correct) (18) Television affects on our eyes. (Wrong)
(10) He went to abroad.(wrong) (19) Television has an effect on our eyes.(correct)

IN/INTO
IN :- No change of medium/state
INTO :- Medium/state changes
Examples:
(1) He dived in/into the river. (5) The frog was lying in/into the well.
(2) He was swimming in/into the river. (6) The frog jumped in/into the well.
(3) The students walked in the room. (7) The water was in/into the bottle.
(4) The students walked into the room. (8) He poured the water in/into the bottle.
(9) The residents were in/into trouble. (13) The filthy roads were changed in/into clean
(10) The residents got in/into trouble. roads.
(11) The pen was in/into the pocket. (14) Translate the passage in/into English.
(12) He put the pen in/into the pocket. (15) Translate the passage from Hindi in/into/to
English.
Note: - (1) ENTER (Place) — INTO / IN (wrong) / No preposition used
Examples:
(a) He entered in/into the classroom.
(b) He entered in/into the bank.
But,
Enter into an alliance (Correct) / Enter into an agreement (Correct) / Enter into a discussion (Correct)
Note: - His entry in/into/to the hail was banned.
THROW/THREW— INTO (Wrong) / IN (Correct)
Examples:-
(a) He threw the paper in/into the dustbin.
(b) He threw the bucket in/into the river.

ON/UPON/ONTO
ON: - When the body/object is in contact with some other object. (No movement) “ON” is used in sense of
stationary abject.
UPON: - First movement and then the body come In contact. “UPON” is used in sense of an object in motion.
Examples:-
(1) The book is lying on / upon the table.
(2) The book fell on/upon the table.
(3) The cat was sitting on/upon the chair.
(4) The cat jumped on/upon the chair.
(5) The tiger pounced on/upon the boy.

ONTO: - It denotes a sense of movement towards something.

Ex: - (1) He was sitting on /onto the horse
(2) He mounted on/onto the horse.
(3) He climbed on/onto the vehicle and settled on the soft cushion.

OVER/ABOVE/UNDER/BELOW
OVER: - vertically upwards (height)
ABOVE :- horizontally upwards (level)

Examples :-
(1) The aeroplane flew over/above my head.
(2) The fan is over/above my head.
(3) His performance is over/above average.
(4) We are flying above/over the clouds.
(5) He is over/above poverty line.
(6) There is a bridge over/above the river.
Note: - OVER :- (1) It also denotes ‘movement’.
Ex :- (1) He jumped over/above the fence.
(2) The clouds hovered over/above the sky
(3) The clouds lingered over/above the sky.

(2) It is used ‘when one thing covers the other’.

Ex :-
(1) Put the blanket over/above the child.
(2) Spread the cloth over/above the table.

UNDER :- vertically downwards (height)

BELOW :- horizontally downwards (level)

Ex :-
(1) The cat is under/below the table.
(2) The sun sets below/under the horizon.
(3) Students below/under 25 years of age cannot take the examination.
(4) He was sitting below/under the tree.

Note: - Over/Above age

Under/Below age
Over/Above 15 years
Under/ Below 15 years
Note: - Ex :-
(1) The ground is slippery under/beneath my feet.
(2) I found the purse under/beneath the pillow.
(3) She wore a sweater under/beneath her coat.

OF / OFF
OF :- (1) It shows possession/ownership
(2) It shows cause/reason
(3) It shows what something ¡s made of
Ex :-
(1) The dramas of Shakespeare are very interesting.
(2) He died of cancer.
(3) The water of the Ganga is dirty.
(4) She wore a necklace made of gold.

Note:-
(1) He died of Malaria. (Disease)
(2) He died in an accident. (accident)
(3) He died from wound. (injury/over-eating)
(4) He died of hunger. (starvation/thirst)
(5) He died with grief. (shame/sorrow)
(6) He died by violence.
(7) He died in the Gujarat riots.
(8) He died for his country.

Suffer
The suffering of the poor
He is suffering from cancer
He suffered failure

MADE OF/MADE FROM

MADE OF: - When the basic material doesn’t change in the process of making an object.
MADE FROM :- The basic material changes.
(1) Paper ¡s made of/from wood.
(2) The almirah is made of/from ¡ron.
(3) Curd is made of/from milk.
(4) Flour ¡s made of/from wheat.
(5) Glass is made of/from melted sand.

OFF: - It shows separation/detachment

Ex :-
(1) He switched off the fans.
(2) The wheels came off the cart.
(3) He took off his hat.
Examples:
(1) He fell off/from the chair.
(2) The apple fell off/from the tree.
(3) He fell off/from the bike.
(4) The leaves fall off/from the tree.
Note :-
(1) Switch off the lights.(C)
(2) Put off the candle.(W)
(3) Put out the candle.(C)
(4) Blow off the candle.(W)
(5) Blow out the candle.(C)

Note :- Apart from separation/detachment, “Qff.” can also be used in sense of ‘FAR AWAY”/
“CANCELLATION”
Example:-
(a) The deal is off.
(b) Our anniversary is a long way off.
(c) My friend is off in America.
BESIDE / BESIDES
BESIDE :- By the side of
BESIDES :- In addition to
Examples:-
(a) Beside/Besides English, he speaks French.
(b) The pilgrims took some medicines beside/besides food.
(c) There is a temple beside/besides my house.

BETWEEN / AMONG
Between: - For two persons/things, It is used when we talk about things which are “SEPARATE”/ “Distinct”
Among: - For more than two persons/things. It portrays the idea of being part of a “GROUP.”
Examples
(1) The two cats divided the bread between/among themselves
(2) The negotiations among/between the countries are going well.
(3) Innovation distinguishes between/among a leader and a follower.

AMONG/AMID
AMONG: - For more than two persons/things. It is used with countable nouns.
AMID :- For more than two persons/things. It is used with countable as well as uncountable nouns. ‘Amid’
means “surrounded by or “in the middle of.”

Examples:
(a) The cottage was hidden among the trees.
(b) Don’t worry, you are sitting among your friends.
(c) She has written a story of love and hope amid/among the tension
(d) the robbers escaped amid/among the confusion.
(e) He walked amid the trees.
(f) He walked among the trees.
(g) He was sitting amid his friends.
Among/Amongst
For consonant
For vowel
Share the sweets among/ amongst the boys
Share the sweets among /amongst us

MODES OF TRANSPORT TAKING DIFFERENT PREPOSITIONS

(1) He goes to office on/by foot.
(2) He goes to office walking on foot.(x)
(3) We travelled by train.
(4) We travelled in Rajdhani Express.
(5) We went to Delhi by car.
(6) We went to Delhi in Mr. Sharma’s car.

WITH/BY
WITH :-
(1) It is used to indicate “being together.”
Examples:-
(a) I will be with you shortly.
(b) He was working with his sister.
 (2) With instruments/weapons used by the doer.

Examples:-
(a) He opened the box with/by a screwdriver.
(b) He cut his finger with/by a knife.
(c) I wrote the answers with/by a blue pen.
(d) I wrote the answers in blue ink.

BY :- (1) It is used in sense of NEAR / CLOSE/BESIDE/NEXT TO

Ex :-
(a) The house is by the lake.
(b) She came and sat by me.
(c) I will stand by you through thick and thin.

(2) “BY” also indicates the “DOER” in passive voice.

Ex :-
(a) The work was done by him.
(b) She was taken to the hospital by her friends.
(c) He was killed by/with a dagger by/with a highwayman.

PREPOSITION OF DIRECTION
“AT” :- For exact direction
Ex :-
(1) He aimed at/on the bird.
(2) The hunter shot at/on the tiger.
(3) The hunter shot the tiger.

TO / TOWARDS
TO :- It denotes movement from one place to another/destination.
TOWARDS :- It denotes the direction of the movement.

Ex :-
(1) He went to school.
(2) He went towards the school.
(3) A snake was moving to/towards me.
(4) He turned to/towards the mirror.
(5) He walked to/till the end of the road.
(6) Send the parcel to/towards my address.
(7) Could you tell me the way to/towards the station?

ACROSS/ALONG
ALONG :- In the same line.
ACROSS :- From one side to another.

Examples:-
(1) He walked along the road.
(2) He walked across the road.
(3) There are tall trees along/across the sea-side.
(4) The clothes were hung across/along the rope.
(5) There is a bridge across/a long the river.

ACROSS/THROUGH
ACROSS :- From one side to another
THROUGH :- From one side to another (in sense of inside)
Examples:
(1) I can see through/across the window.
(2) He swam across/through the river.
(3) The wounded tiger passed across/through the forest.
(4) The train passed across/through the tunnel.
(5) Mohan came out of his house. He walked ____ the front garden, ____ the gate and then _____ the road
to the corner.
06. NOUNS
(1) NOUNS ANI) NUMBERS. (Singular/plural)
(2) NOUNS AND CASES (subjective, objective and possessive)
(3) NOUNS AND GENDERS (Masculine /feminine)

NOUN  A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, quality, condition, action.

TYPES OF NOUNS
(1) PROPER NOUN  Name of a particular person, place or thing. Ex: Mohan, John, Priya, Delhi,
London, Vivo, Camelin
Ex:
(a) Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India.

(2) CO1MON NOUN  it is the name given in common to every person or thing of the same class or kind.Ex:
boy, table, pen, teacher, student, baby, leaf

(3) ARSTRACT NOUN  It is usually the name of a quality, action or state.

(a) Honesty is the best policy.
(b) He thinks of the happy days of his childhood,

(4) COLLECTIVE NOUN  it refers to a group of persons or things taken together as a whole
(a) The class consists of twenty students.
(b) Our team is better than theirs.
(5) MATERIAL NOUN  It is the name given to materials or substances out of which things are made.
Ex: gold, iron, silver etc
Some important uses of nouns:
RULE I: There are sonic nouns which have one meaning in SINGULAR and another in PLURAL form.
S.no Word Meaning Examples
01 Wood The hard substance that trees (a) the tiger lives in the wood/woods.
are made of (b) the woods is/arc lovely, dark and deep.
Woods Forest, jungle.
02 Spectacle Sight/scene /view (a) spectacles is/are available.
Spectacles Eye-glasses (b) a pair of spectacles is/are available
03 Quarter One-fourth The quarters were located close to the
Quarters Houses, lodgings office.
04 Content Satisfaction What is/are the contents of the mixture?
Contents Index ,ingredients
05 Return Come back The returns from the copper fields are huge.
Returns Profits, earnings
06 Custom Habit The customs have seized large quantities of
Customs Duties/tax levied on smuggled heroin.
export/import
07 Ground Earth She was retired on medical.
Grounds Reasons
08 Surrounding Enclosure The surrounding/surroundings of kashmir is
Surroundings Neighboring areas /are beautiful.
09 People Person (a) people were dancing in the street.
Peoples The human beings of a particular (b) friendly contacts between different
nation or community or ethnic peoples help in cultural and economic
group interchange.
10 Paper A material with thin sheets foe 1. I forgot to take my paper for counselling.
writing / drawing/covering 2. A book is printed on paper
Papers Document
11 Work Job , task (a) i have a lot of work to do
Works Creations, accomplishments (b) the works of shakespeare have been
appreciated by all.
12 Pain Suffering (a) after a snake bite, her mother was in pain
Pains Care, exertions, efforts (b) he is taking great pains to get promotion
13 Iron Material The prisoner was in iron/irons.
Irons Chains/fetters/shackles
14 Good Nice The goods is/are for sale.
Goods Things/commodities
15 Air Atmosphere I don’t talk to her, she is in air/airs now-a-
Airs Proud, conceit, vanity days.
16 Force Strength/energy The forces were deployed in sensitive areas.
Forces Troop/armed forces
17 Alphabet A set of letters (a,b,c,d ) Bobby learnt the alphabet/alphabets at the
Alphabets Basics/fundamentals of any age of 2.
subject
18 Rich Wealthy (a) riches do not always bring happiness.
Riches Wealth/property (b) he is a rich person
19 Physic Medicine Temperance is the best physic
Physics Physical science
20 Stone Pebbles (a) the house is built of stone / stones.
Stones Gems (b) the crown was decorated with precious
stones / stone
21 Moral Lesson, principles of right and (a) the story gave an important moral
wrong lesson.
Morals Code of conduct, behavior (b) his morals were challenged and
eventually he had to lose the job.
22 Manner Method, way (a) the manner in which he did the work as
Manners Behavior commendable.
(b) manners make the man
23 Brain Organ The brain/brains are migrating to other
Brains Common sense, learned people countries.
24 Letter Alphabet / correspondence He is a man of letter / letters.
Letters Knowledge
25 Authority Power
 Authorities Persons in power The authorities concerned will look into the
matter.
26 Sand A type of soil Those who live on sand/sands arc used to
Sands Desert the heat of summer.
27 Water Colorless, transparent liquid
Waters Seas, oceans, rivers
28 Fruit Apple, orange etc The fruits of hard work are sweeter than the
Fruits Result/outcome ( good) sweetest of nectars
29 Belonging Linked /related to All his belongings were burnt in fire
Belongings Personal possessions
30 Man It is used in ordinary sense. (a) man is mortal.
Gentleman It refers to man of good moral (b) mr. Sinha is a gentleman.
character.
31 Cost The amount spent in producing a (a) the cost/price of production of
commodity. automobiles has gone up.
Price Amount paid by the customer. (b) she has paid a heavy price/cost for the tv
32 Habit It belongs to an individual. (a) he gave up the habit of drinking.
Custom It belongs to a society or a (b) we should honour the custom of
country. different religions
33 Freedom Independence , personal liberty (a) the prisoner was set at liberty
Liberty Being free from slavery or (b) even birds love freedom
imprisonment
34 Incident Event, occurrence (a) he met with an accident.
Accident Mishap, tragedy (b) writing a book is an important incident in
my life.
35 House A building to live in (a) the house was allotted to her
Home One’s native place or country (b) her home town is in bihar.
36 Sign Mark (a) put your sign / signature on the papers
Signature Impression ¡n writing
37 Room A space inside a house / a vacant I) there is no place /room for you ¡n the
seat compartment.
2) the auditorium was packed and there was
no place/room for anyone

NOTE:
I. He is my cousin brother.
Il. She is my cousin sister.
Ill. I went to the temple with my cousin sister.
IV. It was a blunder mistake.
V. The angry mob attacked the police officers.
VI. A strong breeze blew his cap off.
VII. What is the passing/pass marks in Mathematics?
VIII. Which is the link/Iinking road to the city?
IX. Put your sign / signature on the documents.
X. The documents should have your photo / photograph attached to it.
XI. He is a pick pocket / pick pocketer.

RULE 2. COMPOUND NOUNS

A compound noun is a noun which is made of two or more words. In order to make compound noun plural,
we have to add s/es/ies to the root words.
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. Son-En-law 1. Sons-In-law
2. Brother-in-law 2. Brothers-in-law
3. Commander-in-chief 3. Commanders-in-chief
4. Passer by 4. Passers by
5. Onlooker 5. Onlookers/lookers-on
6. Maid-servant 6. Maid-servants
7. Step-daughter 7. Step-daughters
8. Book fair 8. Book fairs
9. spoonful 9. Spoonfuls
10. Member of Parliament 10.Members of Parliament
11.Chief Minister 11.Chief Ministers
12.Landlord 12.Landlords
13. Girl student 13. Girl students
14. Man athlete 14. Men-athletes
15. Woman athlete 15. Women athletes
16. Man servant 16. Men-servants
17. Man hater 17. Man haters
18. Woman lover 18. Woman lovers
19. Bed-room 19. Bed-rooms
20. Book-shelf 20. Book-shelves
21. Man-of-war 21. Men-of-war

NOTE:
1) Haves and haves not (Wrong)
Haves and haves notes (Correct)
2) Whereabout (Wrong) / whereabouts (Correct)
Ex:
(a) He refused to divulge any information regarding her whereabouts.
(b)The population of India is divided into two classes- Haves and Have nots.

RULE 3.
If two nouns are joined by preposition, the noun on either side is Singular and the verb is also Singular.
Ex:
(I) Women after women spoke against the cruel practices of dowry. (W)
(2) Days by days, he is becoming weaker. (W)
(3) Piles on piles of books was/were arranged. (W)
(4) Pages after Pages of the Gita was / were read. (W)
(5) He enquired from doors to doors. (W)

RULE 4: Words like hundred, thousand, million, dozen etc arc used in singular form when preceded by a
numeral ( number)
Ex:
(1) She has donated five-thousand rupees.(C)
(2) She has donated five-thousands rupees. (W)
(3) She brought two dozens eggs.(W)
(4) She bought two dozen eggs.(C)
(5) She bought two dozens of eggs (C)
(6) She bought dozens of eggs (C)
(7) Two-thousands people were present.(W)
(8) Thousands of people were present.(C)
NOUNS AND GENDERS
(1) MASCULINE (boy, father, uncle, brother)
(2) FEMININE (girl, mother, aunt, sister)
(3) NEUTER (table, chair, pen)
(4) COMMON (teacher, student, doctor, soldier, baby, child)
PROFESSION (man/woman)
Common Feminine Masculine
Soldier Woman soldier Man soldier
Servant Woman/maid Man
servant servant
Teacher Woman teacher Man
teacher
Doctor Woman doctor Man doctor

BASED ON PHYSICAL CHARACIERISTICS (male/female)

(1) Male dress
Man dress
(2) Female purse
Woman purse
(3) Male shoes
Man shoes
(4)Male accessory
Man accessory

NOUNS AND CASES:

A noun has four cases.
(a) Nominative case/Subjective case:- When a noun is used as the subject, it is said to be in the Nominative
case.
Ex:
(a) Mohan did the work.
(b) Honesty is the best policy.
(a) Objective case: - When a noun is used as the object. it is said to be in objective case.
Ex:
(a) I helped Priya in her work.
(e) Possessive case:- When a noun denotes ownership, possession, it is said to be in possesses
Ex:
(a) This is Ram’s book.
(d) Vocative case:- When a noun is used to address or name a person or a thing, it is said to be in vocative
case.
Ex:(a) Come here Ram.
(b) Priya, wait for me.
USE OF APOSTROPHE (`S)
Some important points about the use of apostrophe(’S)
(I) An apostrophe is always used with possessive case (to denote ownership, possession, origin etc)
Ex:
(a) The dramas of Shakespeare are very interesting.
(b) Shakespeare’s dramas are very interesting.

NOTE:
(a) Ram’s uncle’s friend. (W)
(b) Friend of Ram’s uncle.(C)

(2) When the noun is singular, the possessive case is formed by adding ‘S to the noun
Ex:
(a) The boy’s bag was missing.

(3) When the noun has a hissing sound, the possessive case is formed by adding only an apostrophe, and not
‘S to the noun.
Ex:
(a) The boys’s books.
(b) The boys’ books.

(4) When a noun consists of several words(compound noun), apostrophe sign or the possessive sign is added
to the last word.
Ex:
(a) The government of India’s policy.
(b) The government’s of India policy.

(5) If pronouns like somebody, anybody, everyone, something etc are followed by “else”,apostrophe ‘s’ (‘s)
is use with else.
Ex:
(a) Somebody’s purse has been stolen.
(b) Somebody’s else purse has been stolen.
(c) Somebody else’s purse has been stolen.

(6) Two or more nouns joined by “and” implying separate possession must take separate possessive sign or
apostrophe
Ex:
(a) Ram’s and Shyam’s wife.
(b) I went to Ram’s and Sita’s house and found the couple missing.
(c) Mala’s and Priya’s account.
(d) Mala’s and Priya’s joint account.

(7) Generally apostrophe (‘S) is — used with living things.

Ex:
(a) The table’s legs were broken by the mob.x
(b) The fan’s blade was destroyed.x

NOTE:
But there are certain non-living things which take apostrophe (‘S)
(1) With personification  Ex: moon’s beauty, sun’s fury, nature’s love
(2) With phrases  Ex: at a stone’s throw, at an arms length.
(3) With words denoting time/value  Ex: a week’s time, a month’s duration, a kilogram’s weight,
7.PRONOUN
I) A pronoun is used in place of noun.
2) It is used to avoid the repetition of noun.
3) It acts as the subject / object of the sentence.
Ex:
1) Ram helped Priya to do the work.
2) The lion fought bravely.
3) The student tried his best to reach on time.
4) The baby cried loudly.
5) The teacher was busy in the project.
6) The child looked afraid.

NOTE:
Ex:
1) He bought a pen and gave the same to his brother.

TYPFS OF PRONOUNS
I) PERSONAL PRONOUNS (I, me, we, us, she, her, it, them)
2) POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (mine, yours, ours, hers)
3) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (this, these, that, those)
4) RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS (each other, one another)
5) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS (each, every, either, neither)
6) REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS (myself, herself, yourself, themselves)
7) EMPHASIZING PRONOUNS (myself, herself, itself, himself)
8) INDEFINITE PRONOUNS (anybody, anything, nobody, some, all, any, both)
9) RELATIVE PRONOUNS (who, whose, whom, which, that)
10) INTEROGATIVE PRONOUNS (who, whom, which, whose)

PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Cases of personal pronouns
Nominative / Subjective case Objective case Possessive case
Possessive adjective Possessive pronoun
1st person I ME MY MINE
WE US OUR OURS

2nd person YOU YOU YOUR YOURS

3rd person HE HIM HIS HIS

SHE HER HER HERS
IT IT ITS --------
THEY THEM THEIR THEIR
Uses of Personal pronouns
(1) If two or more pronouns arc joined by “AND”, “OR” they should be in the same case.
Ex:
a) These books are for you and I.
b) You and I will do the work.
c) Ram or myself will do the work.
d) There is an understanding between Ram and I.

(2) After the word “LET’, the pronoun is always in objective case.
Ex:
(a) Let him do the work.
(b) Let us attend the meeting.
(c) The principal ordered the peon to let Ram and I enter his chamber.

(3) After the phrases “it is” or “it was”, the pronoun is in subjective case.
Ex:
(a) ¡t was him/he who helped mc to do the work.
(b) It is me/I who is responsible for the mistake.

NOTE:
Ex:
(a) If i were he /him, I would help her with money.
(b) If they were l / me, they would not oppose their boss.
(e) I supposed Ram to be Shyarn
(d) I supposed Rani to be he/him.

(4) After the word “THAN”, the pronoun can be in subjective as well as in objective case.
Ex:
(a) I know better than he/him.
(b) J know you better than he/him.
(c) ¡ know you better than he/him.
ARRANGEMENT OF PRONOUNS
(I) When in a sentence there are 1st , 2nd and 3rd persons, the arrangement is [ 231 ]
Ex:
1. I , you and he shall complete the work on time.(Wrong)

Note:
(a) But in confessional sentences ( sentences expressing some mistake or guilt ), the arrangement is [123]
Ex:
1. You, he and I are responsible for the mistake.(Wrong)
(b) In case of plural pronouns, the arrangement is [123]
1. We, you and (hey will attend the meeting. (Correct)
(2) When in a sentence, there are l and 2 persons, the arrangement is [21]
Ex:
1. I and you are ready for the task. (Wrong)
(3) When in a sentence, there are 2m1 and 3’ persons, arrangement is ____
Ex:
1. He and you have finished the work.(Wrong)

(4) When in a sentence, there are l and 3” persons, the arrangement is [31]
Ex:
1. I and Priya will complete the work on time.(Wrong)

Note:
(a) You, he and I will complete your/his/my/our work.
(b) You and I will complete your/my/our work.
(c) Ram and I will complete your/my/our work.
(d) You and he will complete your/his work.
(e) You as well as I is/are ready to do the work.
(f) Ram and I is/are/am intimate friends.
(g) Ram or I is/am/are intimate friends.
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
EACH OTHER / ONE ANOTHER
(1) Each other  For two persons/things.
(2) One another  For more than two persons/things.\
Ex:
(a) The two cats were fighting with each other/ one another.
(b) All the students of the class help each other / one another.
(c) He was so afraid that his knees knocked against each other / one another.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
When in a sentence, the DOER (subject) as well as the RECIVER (object) is the same person, reflexive
pronouns are used.
Ex:
(a) I introduced myself to the chairman. (C)
(b) He introduced himself to the chairman.(C)
(c) He introduced herself to the chairman. (W)
(d) The man poisoned himself and his children.(C)

USES:
(1) A reflexive pronoun can never become the subject of the sentence. For a pronoun to act as
subject, it should be in subjective case.
Ex:
(1) Ram and myself were present at function
(2) There are certain verbs which take reflexive pronouns (on the condition when the doer as well as the
receiver is same person).
Ex: Enjoy, introduce, absent, hurt, avail, disguise, adapt, reconcile, pride, avenge, amuse, resign,
prostrate.
(1) I enjoyed myself at the party. (C)
(2) I enjoyed the party. (C)
(3) He disguised as a beggar. (W)
(4) He hurt himself while playing. (C)
(5) He hurt herself while playing.(W)
(6) They availed the opportunity.(W)
(7) She absented from class.(W)
(8) She was absent from class. (C)
(9) They adapted to the surroundings.(W)
(10) The manager reconciled to the demands of the employees. (W)

NOTE  Concept of ONE / ONES/ ONE’S / ONESELF

ONE ( Pronoun / Adjective)
Ex:
(a) One of the students was present
(b) One student was present.
(c) One should help others.
One (pronoun) one in number.
One (pronoun)  everybody.
Ex:
(d) One should do one’s /their duties oneself / themselves.
(e) Gandhi said that one should respect their / one’s religion.
(f) One of the students forgot to bring his / her / their book.
(g) I don’t want the blue pen. I want red one
(h) I don’t want the blue pens. I want red ones.

CONCEPT OF IT / ITS / IT’S

ITS  possessive case of “IT”
IT’S It was/It is/It has.
Ex:
(a) it`s raining yesterday.
(b) it`s going to be an interesting competition.
(c) it`s been a year since I met you.
(d) The plant is in its pot.
(e) The cat has lost its tail.
(f) The Ganga and it’s/its tributaries give an idea that India is a well-watered country.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
WHO, WHOSE, WHOM, WHICH, THAT
(I) WHO I WHOSE I WHOM  with persons
(2) WHICH / THAT  with persons and things
Ex:
(a) He is the boy who helped mc.
(b) He is the person whose bag was stolen.
(c) He is the person with whom I travelled.

Note :-
WHO  It denotes SUBJECT
WHOM  It denotes OBJECT
WHOSE  h denotes POSSESSION
Questions
(a) This is the road (i) / whose inauguration (ii) / was done by the President.(iii) / No error(iv)
(b) The Ganga is a never (i) / whose origin(ii) / has always been a matter of speculation.(iii) /No error(iv)

Note:
‘WHO” is followed a VERB
‘WHOM” is followed by a CLAUSE
Ex:
(a) The girl who helped mc is my friend.
(b) I met my friend who was returning from market.
(c) He has a dog whom he loves very much.

Note:
(I) He is the person who / whom everyone thought, has stolen the ring.
(ii) Here is the man who / whom I think, committed the crime.
(iii) This is the boy who /whom I know has helped my son in the exam.

WHICH / THAT with persons / things.

Ex:
(a) I don’t know which / who of the servants broke the glasses.
(b) The house has two rooms, the smaller of which leads to the kitchen.
(c) It is difficult to decide which / who of the two students performed well.

Note:
(I) WHICH It gives additional information about a person / thing
(ii) THAT It explains a certain idea.

Ex:
(a) I will give you the news which / that I read in the newspaper.
(b) I bought the pens which / that were red in colour.
(c) All which /that glitters is not gold.
(d) He talked on the phone for hours which / that irritated mc.
(e) He went to Kanyakumari which / that is 500 kms from Chennai.

NOTE:- USES OF THAT

(I) with superlative degrees (wisest worst, best, cleverest etc)
Ex:-
(a) He is the wisest person who / that ever-lived.
(b) This is the best piece of advice which / that I have received from you.
(2) With certain words like ALL, ANY, ALONE, ANYTHING, NONE, NOTHING, SAME, SUCH, ONLY,
EVERYTHING, MUCH, LITTLE, FEW, NOBODY.
(a) Any person who / that helps him is a fool. (c) There is little which / that can be done to help
(b) The person who / that helps him is a fool. him.
(d) He is alone who / that can manage. (g) He is not such a boy who / that can be trusted.
(e) There is nothing which / that can shake mc. (h) He is the person who / that helped mc.
(t) Man is the only animal who/ that can speak. (i) He is the same person who / that helped me
.

(3) If in a sentence, there is the reference of person as well as a thing / animal, “THAT” is used.
Ex: The lady and her pet dog which /that I saw were missing since yesterday.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
Who , Whom, Whose, Which
Ex:

(I) Who did the work? (3) Who / whom arc you talking to?
(2) Whom have you invited? (4) To who / whom are you talking?
(3) Whose name was announced by the principal? (5) I asked him, (a) / ‘whom did(b)/ you travel with
(4) Which is the way to the station? r(cy No error(d)
Note:- WHO / WHOM (6)Who / whom are you looking at?
(I) Who / whom was the Ramayana written by? (7)At who / whom are you looking?
(2) By who I whom was the Ramayana written?

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS (EACH, EITHER, NEITHER ANY , NONE)

(1) Each of the students did his / their work.
(2) Neither of them said his / their prayers.
(3) Neither of the five accused was present in the court (Wrong)
(4) He has three sons but neither of them is hard working(Wrong)
(5) Every student is expected to do his /their work.
(6) Any person can do the work, if he / they try / tries.
(7) Every man and woman wishes to do the work of his / her / their choice

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
EVERYBODY, EVERYTHING, NOBODY, NOTHING, SOMEBODY, SOMETHING
Ex:
(1) Everybody should respect his / their elders.
(2) All should do his / their work.
(3) Nobody was ready to leave his /their scat.

PRONOUN AND SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

(I) The students as well as the teacher did his / their work.
(2) He was one of those students who completed his/their project on time.
(3) Neither Ram nor his friends brought his / their documents.
(4) The treasurer and secretary gave his / their consent.
(5) The treasurer and the secretary gave his / their consent.
(6) He was only one of the students who completed his /their work on time.
(7) One of the students forgot to do his / their work.
08 . ADJECTIVE
An adjective is a word used to describe a NOUN or a PRONOUN.
Ex:
1) The clever fox defeated the brave lion.
2) Solomon was a wise king.
3) The grapes are sour.
4) She wore a beautiful dress.
5) The weather is pleasant.

ATTRIBUTIVE AND PREDICATIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES

(I) Attributive use  When adjective is used before a noun.
(2) Predicative use  when adjective is followed by a verb.
Ex:
1) The green door opened slowly.
2) The stretch of water is dangerous.
3) He is an efficient officer.
4) The milk turned sour.
5) They seem intelligent.

CERTAIN ADJECTIVES ARE USED IN PREDICATIVE POSITION

Ex: afraid, alone, asleep, awake, alike, alive, afloat, alert, aware, ashamed, fond, eager, sour

I) He is afraid.(C) 9) She is ill.(C)

2) He is an afraid man.(W) 10) She is an ill person (W)
3) He is a frightened man (C) 11) The baby ¡s awake.(C) (subjective
4) He is alone. (C) complement)
5) He is an alone person.(W) 12) The dog is keeping the baby awake (C) (obj.
6) He is a lonely person.(C) complement)
7) Both the sisters look alike.(C) 13) The awake baby is crying.(W)
8) The baby fell asleep.(C) 14) The baby awake is crying.(W)

TYPES OF ADJECTIVE
1) ADJECTIVE OF QUALITY (good, wise, beautiful)
2) ADJECTIVE OF QUANTITY (Some, enough, sufficient)
3) ADJECTIVE OF NUMBER (one, first, few)
4) DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE (this, these, that, those)
5) POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE (my, our, her, their)
6) DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE (each, every, either, neither)
7) INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE (what, which, whose)
8) PROPER ADJECTIVE (Indian, Buddhist, British)
Degrees of adjectives
Positive degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
(No Comparison) (Comparison b/w two) (Comparison among more than 2)
Big Bigger Biggest
Strong Stronger Strongest
 Poor Poorer Poorest
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Intelligent More intelligent Most intelligent
Good/well Better Best
Bad/ill Worse Worst
Many (countable) More Most
Much (uncountable) More Most
Little (uncountable) Less / Lesser Least
Few (countable) Fewer Fewest
Old Older Oldest / eldest
Far Farther/further Farthest/furthest
Near Nearer Nearest/next
Late Later/latter Latest/last
fore former First/foremost

Examples:
1) He is the richer/richest of the two brothers.
2) He is going to the US for farther/further studies.
3) My house is farther/further form the place.
4) This is the oldest / eldest temple in the village.
5) He is older/elder than his friend.
6) He is older/elder to his brother.
7) Gandhi was the first/foremost leader of India.
8) Of the three friends, he was the latter/last to come.
9) He has as much / many as fifty cars.
10) No less /fewer than fifty students were present.
11) Of the millions of stars in the sky, how many / much are countable.
12) Little/few students attended the seminar.
USE OF ADJECTIVES
(1) USE OF LITTLE/ FEW
(a) LITTLE / FEW Negligible
(b) A LITTLE /A FEW at least something
(c) THE LITTLE / THE FEW whatever that is remaining/left
Ex:
I) With little knowledge, he would have solved the problem.
2) The soil was moist as there was little rain last night.
3) Though its gloss can fool few customers, the clever ones will judge its real worth.
4) The show was cancelled as a few people turned up to sec it.
5) A little milk left in the bottle turned sour.

USE OF SOME /ANY

Some Any
I) (a) countable (plural verb) I) (a) countable (Singular verb)
(b) Uncountable (Singular verb) (b) Uncountable (Singular verb)
 Ex: Ex:
1. He has some money to help her 1. He doesn’t have any knowledge
2. He has some books to help her 2. He doesn’t have any book
2) It is used in positive sentences 2) It is used in positive as well as negative sentences
Ex: I have some beautiful gifts for her birthday Ex: 1. Any person can help him
2. I don’t have any book

Note: Difference between the use of SOME /ANY in interrogative sentences.

Ex:
i) Could you lend mc some /any money?
ii) Do you have any /some money left for the vacation?

Note: The words WITHOUT, HARDLY, SCARCELY, RARELY take ANY.

Ex:
i) He hardly has some / any money.
ii) I can do the work without any/some help.
iii) I can do the work without little help.

USE OF ANOTHER / OTHER/ THE OTHER / OTHERS

(1) ANOTHER (AN + OTHER) 
(a) It means one more / something extra/ additional.
(b) It ¡s used with singular as well as plural countable nouns.
Ex:
(1) I want another day to complete the work.
(2) I want another two days to complete the work.

(2) OTHER (For two things / persons) 

(a) It is used for the second person / thing
(b) It is used with countable as well as uncountable nouns.
Ex:
(i) I need the help of some other students.
(ii) Give me some other news.

Note: OTHER (determiner)  not specific

THE OTHER (determiner)  specific
OTHERS (pronoun)  (Other + Plural noun)
Ex:
(1) Other students were present.
(2) Others were present.
Note:
(1) He ¡s sitting on another/other/the other side of the road.
(2) No other/another/the other girl is as intelligent as Priya.
(3) He was ready to move to another/other country.
(4) Do you have any other/another question.
(5) Some students are present but other/others are absent.
(6) The other/another point was more confusing.

USES OF ADJECTIVES
(I) Avoid using double comparatives and double superlatives.
Ex:
i) He is more wiser than his brother.
ii) Sachin is capable of doing more better work.
iii) She is the most smartest girl in the class.
iv) She is the most intelligent girl in the class.

Note:
more better (Wrong)
much better (Correct)
Ex: She is feeling much better. (Correct)

(2) The words” comparatively” and “relatively” take adjectives of POSITIVE DEGREE.
Ex::
I) The weather is comparatively hot / hotter.
2) The train is relatively slow/slower.
3) Earlier job opportunities were comparatively good / better.

(3) If two or more adjectives arc joined by “AND”, “OR” they should be in the same degree.
Ex:
(I) Our playground is big and cleaner. (Wrong)
(2) Our playground is big and cleaner than theirs. (Wrong)
(3) She ¡s beautiful and wiser than her sister. (Wrong)
(4) He is the kindest and intelligent boy of our class. (Wrong)

a) as(positive degree)as
b) so(positive degree)as
c) too positive degree
d) So positive degree
e) Very positive degree
f) Enough positive degree
Ex:
I) He is as wiser as his brother. (X)
2) She is not so taller as her younger sister. (X)
3) The boy is too weaker to do the work. (X)
4) She is smarter enough to deal with her rude boss. (X)
5) She is enough smart to deal with her rude boss. (X)

(5) CARDINALS (one, two, three )

ORDINALS (first, second, third.)
MULTIPLICATIVES (single, double, triple...)
ARRANGEMENT Is OCM
Ex:
1) The three first single bedrooms were large in size.
2) The two first rows were properly arranged.
Note:
Ex:
(I) He is as wise, if not wiser than his brother. (X)
(2) He is as wiser as, if not wiser than his brother. (X)
(3) He is as wise as, if not more wiser than his brother. (X)

(6)
Ex:
(I) Shimla is better than Delhi.
(2) The climate of Shimla is better than Delhi
(3) The symptoms of Dengue are similar to Malaria.
(4) The roads of Chandigarh are better than Delhi.
(5) The people of Japan arc wiser than America.
(6) Nescafe is better than any coffee in the market.
(7) The circulation of “THE HINDU” is better than any other newspaper.
(8) No girl in the class is as intelligent as Priya.
(9) Gold is precious than any other metal.
(10) Gold is precious of all metals.

(7) If two qualities of the same person / thing are compared, the comparative degree is made not by
using [er] but by using [MORE]
Ex:
(1) She is smarter than her sister.
(ii) She is smarter than beautiful. (X)
(iii) He is braver than his brother.
(iv) He is braver than wise. (X)

Note:
(I) She gave him sister / sisterly treatment.
(2) He is my mutual/common friend.
(3) He got passing / Pass marks in English.
(4) There is a mutual / common understanding between them.

(8) There are certain adjectives which don’t have comparative and superlative degrees.
Ex: unique, perfect, major, minor, ideal, outstanding, supreme, round, square, triangular, excellent,
tremendous, preferable
Ex:
(I) This is the most unique piece of diamond. (X)
(2) She has done the most excellent piece of work. (z)
(3) Our system is the most perfect. (X)
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS
(I) He is twice taller than his brother.
(2) He is two times taller than his brother.
(3) He is two times as tall as his brother.
(4) He is equally as smart as his brother.
(5) How many eggs and money do you need?
(6) These all mangoes are ripe.

(2) ORDER OF ADJECTIVES (OSASCOMP)

O  OPINION (lovely, beautiful, pretty)
S  SIZE (huge, tiny, big, little)
A AGE (old, young, new)
S  SHAPE (round, square, triangular)
C COLOUR ( Red, yellow, green)
O ORIGIN (British, Chinese, French)
M MATERIAL (woollen, silk, wooden)
P PURPOSE (gardening gloves, wedding dress, riding boots)
Ex:
(a) The girl has long , straight, blonde hair.
(b) He meet a handsome, tall , dark, African Negro.
(c) A big, red , leather bag was lying on the table.
09. TENSES
TENSE tells about the TIME as well as the STATE of an action (action complete or incomplete).
THREE MAIN TENSES
1. PRESENT TENSE (He goes to school on time)
2. PAST TENSE (He went to school on time)
3. FUTURE TENSE (He will go to school on time)

SUBDIVISION OF THREE MAIN TENSES

I. PRESENT TENSE
(a) Simple present / Present Indefinite (Subject + V1 / V5)
Ex: (i) He completes his work on time
(ii)I have my lunch at 2pm
(b) Present Continuous / Present Imperfect (Subject + is/ am / are + ing)
Ex: (i) He is writing the essay
(ii)The students are doing the work
(c) Present Perfect (Sub + has / have + V3)
Ex: (i) The students have arrived for the meeting
(ii) He has taken the book
(d) Present Perfect continuous (Sub + has / have + been + ¡ng + since/ for)
Ex: (i) I have been reading since morning.
(ii) He has been working for two months

2. PAST TENSE
(a) Simple past / Past indefinite (Sub + V2)
Ex: (i) He visited the zoo yesterday.
(ii) The ere absent from class
(b) Past continuous / Past imperfect (Sub + was / were + ing)
Ex: (i) The teacher was conducting the exam
(ii) The were not responding to the question.
(c) Past Perfect (Sub + had + V3)
Ex: (i) They had left before I came
(ii) If he had come, ¡ would have helped him.
(d) Past Perfect continuous (Sub + had + been + ing + since/for)
Ex: (i) He had been sleeping since afternoon.
(ii) They had been working for a week.

3. FUTURE TENSE
(a) Simple future / future indefinite (Sub + will / shall + V1)
Ex: (i) I shall help him.
(ii) The will come on time
(b) Future continuous I future Imperfect (Sub + will / shall + be + ing)
Ex: (i) I will he attending the meeting
(c) Future Perfect (Sub + will / shall + have + V3)
Ex: He will have completed his graduation.
(d) Future perfect continuous
Ex: (I) I shall have been teaching here for ten ears

2) 1. Simple Present / Present Indefinite

USES
(i) With universal truths / general statements / habitual action / proverbs.
EX:
(a) He is going everyday for a morning walk. (W)
(b) Galileo proved that the earth revolved around the sun (W)
(c) All that glitters is not gold (C)
(d) Honesty the best policy (C)
(e) It has been advisable to refrain from smoking (W)

NOTE: Simple present can also be used to denote future tense (near / immediate future / for activities which
arc a part of fixed timetable)
Ex:
(a) The PM leaves for Mumbai next month
(b) The match begins at 2 pm.

(ii) If two activities of the future are mentioned, the part having clauses of TIME AND CONDITION takes
Simple present tense
Ex: If , When , Whenever , After, Before , Until , Unless ,Provided, Incase , Till , On The Condition
(a) Unless you will work , you will not succeed (X)
(b) If I shall come, I shall help him (X)
(c) Wait here till I will come (X)
(d) I will take an umbrella in case it will rain (X)
(e) Unless aid arrives (a) / within the next few weeks (b) / thousands are starving (c) / No error (d)

(f) After the letter reached me, I shall know the result
(i) After the letter reaches
(ii) After the letter will reach
(iii) After the letter has reached
(iv) No Improvement

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS
USES
(i) It denotes activities (temporary) going on in the present
Ex:
(a) They are helping the poor. (C)
(b) They help the poor (C)
NOTE: Present continuous can also be used to denote future activities (near future)
Ex:
(a) Ile is leaving for the meeting next work
(b) The train is going to enter the platform.

(ii) There are certain verbs (static verbs) not normally used in the CONTINUOUS FORM
(I) KNOW
(a) I am knowing the truth (X)
(b) I have been knowing him for two years. (X)
(c)After knowing the truth, I gave my opinion (C)
(2) HAVE
(a) I am having two books.(X)
(b) Madhuri Dixit is having a large fan following.(X)
(c) She is having tea (C)
(3) APPEAR /SEEM
(a) It is appearing to me that you are a thief (X)
(b) The actor is appearing on the stage V)
(c) The stars are appearing in the sky. (V’)

(4) HEAR
(a) I am hearing the music. (X)
(b) I am listening to the music. (V’)
(e) The judge is caring the case (v’)

(5) LIKE
(a) He is liking her a Iot. (X)
(b) He has a liking for sweets. (C)
Examples:
(a) I am seeing the movie. (X)
(b) I am watching the movie. (C)
(C) I am seeing the CM tomorrow (C)
(d) All the luggage is belonging to me. (X)
(e) I am hoping for the best. (X)
(f) hoping for the best. (C)
(g) Some people are believing that women cannot
compete with men. (X)
(h) Seeing is believing.(C)
(I) He is remembering his hard early years. (X)
(j) He is not understanding the problem.(X)

3. PRESENT PERFECT
USES:
(i) It is used to indicate a link between the present and the past. It denotes activities beginning in the past
and have the effect in the present
Example:
(a) I have lived here since 2016.
(b) She has not completed the work yet.
(c) I have known him for a long time

(ii) Present perfect is used when we give more importance to the action rather than the time of action.
Ex:
(a) I have done the work. (C)
(b) I have done the work yesterday. (X)
(C) I have seen the movie three times. (C)
(d) I have seen the movie last night. (X)
(e) Gandhi has started the Non-Cooperation Movement. (X)
(f) Gandhi started the Non- Cooperation Movement. (C)
(g) I have visited him. (C)
(h) I have visited him ago. (X)

(iii) Present perfect is used with certain adverbial phrases which express Lime
ex: yet, just, recently, already, so far. Uptil now, lately, of , late
Ex:
(a) He did not come uptil now. (X)
(b) Of late, there is no news of his recovery. (X)
(C) He already completed the work on time. (X)
(d)The train just left the station. (X)
NOTE:
(I) I worked / have worked hard this week
(II) I saw / haven’t seen her today.

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINOUS

USES
(i) It denotes activities started in the past and still are in progress.
Ex:
(a) He has been working for two hours,
(b) I have been watching television since 2 pm.
(c) The boy has been studying for a day.
(d) He is living in this (a) / town for (b) / the last two years (c) / No Error, (d)
(e) I am knowing (a) / the students (h) / since January. (e) / No error. (d).
NOTE:
Ex:
(a) The player has been scoring centuries since 2016.
(b) The player has scored centuries since 2016
(e) The player has scored / has been scoring ten centuries since 2016.
PAST TENSE
SIMPLE PAST / PAST INDEFINITE
USES:
i) With time expressing adverbs, simple past is used.
Ex: Yesterday, Ago, Last Week, Last Night, Previous Night, Last Month, Last Year, Formerly, the Other
Day.

(a) He has left for London last night.(X)

(b) She had seen the movie yesterday. (X)
(e) Two years ago, the earthquake had destroyed the city. (X)
(d) I was hearing the dog barking last evening. (X)
(e) Newton has discovered that the force of gravitation makes apples fall. (X)
(f) I have taken my lunch.(C)
(g) I have taken my lunch an hour ago. (X)

(ii) With expressions such as IT’S TIME”, “IT’S HIGH TIME”, IT’S ABOUT TIME” Simple past is used
Ex:
(a) It’s time he goes / went / had gone to school.
(b) It’s time to do the work.
(c) It’s high time he does/did the work,

(iii) Suppositional sentences having phrases like I wish”, He / She wishes”, “as if, as though” and indicating
some unfulfilled wish / desire take simple past.
Ex:
(a) I wish I was I were a doctor
(b) If she was / were a bird, she would fly.
(C) He behaves as if he knows/ knew everything.

(iii) The modals “USED TO” and “WOULD” are used ¡n Simple Past Tense to denote habits of the past
Ex:
(a) He used to study late hours.
(b) My friend would follow my advice.

(iv) If the principal clause ¡s in Past tense, the subordinate clause should also be in the Past.
Ex:
(a) I would inform you if he agree / agreed to do the work.
(b) Ile said that he will / would do the work.

(v) If in a sentence the comparison is made by using “THAN”, even if the principal clause is in Past Tense, the
subordinate clause can have any Tense according to the requirement.
Ex:
(a) He helped me more than he helps his mother. (C)
(b) He helped me more than he helped his mother. (C)

2. PAST CONTINOUS / PAST IMPERFECT

USES:
(i) It denotes activities going on at some time in the Past.
Ex:
(a) We were listening to music all evening.
(b) I sprained my ankle while I was playing.
(c) While I was work yesterday, I hurt my back
NOTE:
(a) I was playing yesterday. (C)
(b) I played yesterday. (C)
(c) She dashed against the truck while she crossed / was crossing the road
(d) When the film began, we stood / were standing in the queue.
(e) Five years ago. I sat / was sitting in a Japanese car, driving towards Berlin

3. PAST PFRFECT
USES
(i) If two activities of the past arc mentioned, the activity which takes place FIRST takes PAST PERFECT and
the SECOND ACTIVITY will take SIMPLE PAST
Ex:
(a) I had left home before they arrived.
(b) On reaching the campus, he was disappointed as the bus had left.
(c) Although we reached his house on time (a) / he left (b) / for the airport (c) / N.E
(d) The thief escaped (a) / before (b) / I opened the door.(c) / No Error.(d)
NOTE:
(i) When he reached the station, the train had departed.(W)
(ii) The dais collapsed as soon as he had stepped onto it. (W)
(iii) When he had finished his study, his mother entered the room.
(iv) That was the worst film that I saw / had seen.
(v) The thief explained how he escaped / had escaped from the jail.

(ii) If two activities of the past are mentioned, one dependent on other, the grammatical structure is:
[lf+ had + V3 + would have / could have / should have / might have + V3]
Examples
(a) If he will come, I will leave for office.(W)
(b) lf he comes, I will leave for office. (C)
(c) If he would have come, I would have left for office.(W)
(d) If he had come, I would have left for office. (C)
(e) Had he come, I would have left for office.(C)
NOTE:
(i) If he would have read (a) / the instructions carefully (b) / he would not have committed mistakes(c) / No
Error,(d)
(ii) If we had Mohan (a) / in our team (b) / would have won the match (c) / No Error. (d)
(iii) If he comes, I will help him
(iv) If he came. I would help him.
(v) If he had come. I would have helped him.
(vi) If I had money, I would help the poor.
(vii) If had had money, L would have helped the poor

4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

USES: It denotes activities that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to that time
Ex:
(a) He was leaving (a) / in the town (b) /for two years (c) / No Error,(d)
(b) I was waiting for you (a) I since morning but you
(b) / did not turn up on time(c)/No Error. (d)
 FUTURE TENSE
I. SIMPLE FUTURE / FUTURE INDEFINITE
USES:
(i) To talk about activities that think or believe will happen in future.
Ex:
(i) I will do the work on time.
(ii) I shall return by Monday.
(iii) I hope to finish the work soon
(iv) I am sure she will get a first class.

(ii) The expressions ‘going to” and “about to” also denote activities likely to take place in the near future.
Ex:
(i) his father is about to retire.
(ii) He is going to sing a song.
(iii) The train is going to leave the station.

2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS
USES:
(i) It denotes activities that will be going on at some time in future.
Ex:
(i) He will be watching the movie.
(ii) He will be working there till Monday.
(iii) The postman will be coming soon.
3. FUTURE PERFECT
USES: It denotes activities that will be completed by a certain time in future
Ex:
(i) By next year, the students will qualify / will have qualified the exam.
(ii) He will read / will have read the books by the end of the vacation.
(iii) Too little ¡s known about the incident by this time / presently.
(iv) By this time next year (a) / he has had settled (b) / in London with his parents(c) / No Error.(d)
(v) The train will be arriving / will have arrived before we reach the station

4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINIOUS:

USES: it denotes activities that will be in progress over a period of time in future.
Ex:
(i) He will have been teaching here for two years.
(ii) I shall have been living ¡n this town for a year.
10. ARTICLE
The three words ‘A’, ‘An’ and ‘The’ arc called Articles. Articles are used before a noun. In modern English
Grammar, articles are also called determiners.

INDEFINITE ARTICLE: ‘A’ and ‘An’ are called indefinite articles as they do not denote a definite or particular
person or thing spoken of.
Ex: A do was barking at night..(any dog)
There was an apple on the table.(any apple)

DEFINITE ARTICLE: ‘The’ is definite article as it refers to a particular or definite person or thing spoken of.
Ex: This is the pen which I have bought.(a particular pen)
The house in which I live is new(a particular house)

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ‘A’ and ‘An’

Both ‘a’ and ‘an’ denote a singular number but the difference between them is that ‘a’ is used before words
starting with consonant sound and ‘an’ is used before words starting with vowel sound.
Ex:
I have a expensive car. (X)
I have an expensive car. (C)
This was an one man show. (X)
This was a one man show. (C)

USES OF INDEFINITE ARTICLE

Use of “An”
1. Before words beginning with vowel sounds (a, e, i, o, u)
Ex: an apple, an owl, an umbrella
2. Before words beginning with silent ‘h’
Ex: an hour, an heir, an honorable man, an honest man
3. F, H, L, M, N, R, S, X are letters that arc not vowels but begin with vowel sound. So ‘an’ is used before
words beginning with these letters.
Ex: an SP, an M.L.A. an FIR, an X ray
Use of ’A’
I.Before words beginning with consonant sounds.
Ex: a boy, a chair, a one rupee note (since ‘one’ begins with sound ‘w’)

2.With certain expressions of quantity.

Ex: a lot of, a couple of, a great deal of

3.When two subjects or things are thought of as a single unit, article is used before the first subject.
Ex:
 He was ready with a cup & a saucer. (W)
 He was ready with a cup and saucer. (C)
 He introduced me to his friend who is a singer and a scientist. (W)
 He introduced me to his friend who is a singer and scientist. (C)
USE OF A/AN

1.____ European 10.___nest

2.____egg 11.___NRI
3.____one eyed man 12.___Son
4.____owl 13.___SP
5.____umbrella 14.___MLA
6.____university 15.___mug
7.____unique man 16.___X ray
8.____heir 17.___MA degree
9.____honorabl man

USES OF DEFINITE ARTICLE (The)

1 .When We Speak of a particular person or thing referred to.
Ex: The boy I met at the station was very intelligent.(particular boy)

2. When a singular noun represents a whole class.

Ex: The rose is the sweetest of all flowers.
The cow is a useful animal.
Note: The nouns ‘man’ and ‘woman’ do not take ‘the’ before them. if they are used to represent the whole
class)
Ex: Man is mortal.

3. with certain books.

Ex: The Vedas, The Bible, The Ramayana

4. with parts of body.

Ex: The eyes, The head, The nose

5. with names of Rivers, Mountains , islands, seas

Ex: The Ganga, The Himalayas, The Arabian sea

6. with superlatives
Ex: He is the best boy in the class.
She is the tallest girl in the family.

7. With ordinals
Ex: The first chapter of the book ¡s interesting.
Our class is on the second floor

8. Before Comparative degree

He is the better of the two boys.
Remark: If ‘than’ is used to express comparative degree, the article “the” is not used with comparative
degree.
Ex: He ¡s better than the two boys. (C)
He is the better of the two boys. (C)
Note:
a) The higher you go, cooler you feel.
b) Greater the demand, the higher the price.
c) The more electricity you use, higher your bill will be.
Note:
1. A Mr. Ram has come to meet me.
2. Mr. Ram has come to meet me.
3. The Newton was a great scientist.
4. He is the Newton of our class.
5. The Shakespeare was a great dramatist.
6. Kalidas was the Shakespeare of India.
7. Judge in him prevailed upon and he sentenced his own son to death.

OMISSION OF ARTICLES
1. Articles are not used with organizations / institutions like schools, colleges, temples churches, jail etc, if
they are used for their primary purposes.

Ex: After returning from the jail, he abandoned all criminal activities. (X)
After returning from jail, he abandoned all criminal activities. (C)

Ex: I go to school everyday.

Here, “school” has been used for its primary purpose, so article is not used.

Ex: I went to the school to drop my brother.

Here, ‘school’ has not been used for its primary purpose, so article is used.

2. No use of article before sunset, sunrise, daybreak, dawn, dusk, night, noon, today ,yesterday, tomorrow.
Ex: I will meet you at a night. (X)
I will meet you at night. (C)
3. When we talk about a person or thing in general sense, no article is used. But when a person or thing is
particularized, article is used,
Ex: Man is mortal.(General sense)
I saw the man in the forest.
Water is essential for life.(General sense)
The water of the river is dirty.
Gold is a precious metal.(General sense)
The gold of this ring is of inferior quality.

4. No article with certain idiomatic phrases like — in danger, in demand, on fire, in problem, by mistake, in
detail, in conclusion, in difficulty, in hope, by train, in confusion, in debt, in anger etc.
Ex: The house was on a fire. (X)
The house was on fire. (C)
5.No use of articles before most proper nouns (names of persons, countries, cities, continent etc)
Ex: My friend will come from India. (C)
 My friend will come from the U.S.A. (C)

Remark: Certain countries like U.S.A. U.S. U.A.E take the article “the” before them.

6. No article is used before the names of languages.

Ex: He studied the English at home. (X)
He studied English at home. (C)
Ex: The English defeated the French. (C)
Here, The English refers to ‘The British’
Examples:
1) He went to jail/the jail to repair the gates
2) The America, The USA, The England, The UK, The UAE
3) The Tamil Nadu, The Punjab
4) I speak the English
5) The English — The British (The people of England)
6) The French speak the French
7) The English is spoken by the English
8) The English opens the door for World communication
A) The Englishman B) The English language
C) English D) No improvement

In a difficulty in a serious problem

In confusion In temper
in difficulty in a temper
In a dilemma on a fire
in a problem In a bad mood
In anger in debt
in an anger
11. VOICE
VOICE : Voice is that form of verb which tells whether the ( person or thing) of the sentence performs or
receives action.
ACTIVE VOICE  When the subject performs the action.
PASSIVE VOICE  When the subject receives the action.
Ex: (1) He took the books. (Active voice)
(2) The books were taken by him. (Passive voice)

(1) The subject of Active voice becomes the object in passive voice and the object becomes the subject.
In Active - Passive conversion, we use the v3 form of verb
In Active - Passive conversion, the tense doesn’t change
PRESENT TENSE
Simple present / present indefinite
Examples: PASSIVE VOICE
ACTIVE VOICE
(1)We respect him. (1) He is respected by us.
(2) Ram washes the clothes. (2) Clothes are washed by Ram.
(3) Manners reveal character. (3) Character ¡s revealed by manners.
(4) She teaches English. (4) English is taught by her.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Examples: PASSIVE VOICE
ACTIVE VOICE
(1) The students are helping the poor (1)The poor are being helped by the children.
(2) The mason is building the wall. (2) The wall is being built by the mason.
(3) He is singing songs. (3) Songs are being sung by him.

Note: 1)1 see them doing the work diligently. (Active)

2) They are seen doing the work diligently by me. (Passive)

PRESENT PERFECT
Examples:
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(1) Han has invited all his friends. (1)AII his friends have been Invited by Hari
(2) I have completed all the work. (2) AIl the work has been completed by me
(3) He has eaten the fruit. (3) The fruit has been eaten by him.
Note: Present perfect continuous  No passive
PAST TENSE
(1) Simple Past/Past indefinite
Examples: PASSIVE VOICE
ACTIVE VOICE
(1) The peon opened the gate. (1)The gate was opened by the peon.
(2) India won the match. (2) The match was won by India.
(3) The boy killed the birds. (3) The birds were killed by the boy.
PAST PERFECT
Examples:
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(1) She had completed the work. (1) The work had been completed by her.
(2) The farmer had ploughed the field. (2) The field had been ploughed by the farmer.
(3) The boy had made all the arrangements. (3) All the arrangements had been made by the boy.
Note: Past perfect continuous  No passive

FUTURE TENSE
1. Simple Future
Examples:
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(1) I shall complete the work. (1) The work will be completed by me.
(2) They will tell me. (2) I shall be told by them.
(3) My father will write a letter. (3) A letter will by written by my father.
Note: - Future continuous  No passive

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

Examples:
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(1) They will have finished the work. (1) The work will have been finished by them.
(2) I shall have completed the project (2) The project will have been completed by me.

Note:- Future perfect continuous-  No passive

NOTE:- In sentences where we have two objects, the passive is made In two different ways.
Ex:
(1) She teaches us Grammar. (active)
(a) Grammar Is taught to us by her.(passive)
(b) We are taught Grammar by her.(passive)

[2) She will tell us the truth.(Active voice)

a) I shall be told the truth by her.(Passive voice)
b) The truth will be told to us by her.(Passive voice)

NOTE: - In sentences where we have a VAGUE (UNCLEAR) NOUN OR PRONOUN, the preposition “BY” is not
used
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(1) Somebody killed the dog (1) The dog was killed.
(2) Somebody cleaned the room. (2) The room was cleaned.
(3) The cleaner cleaned the room. (3) The room was cleaned by the cleaner.
(4) People speak English all over the world. (4) English is spoken all over the world.
(5) No one desired riots. (5) Riots are not desired.
(6) One should keep one’s promises. (6) Promises should be kept.
Fixed Preposition: Surprised at, wondered at. Astonished at, started at, amazed at. Satisfied with. Pleased
with. Thronged with, covered with, Known to, Frightened of
PASSIVE OF SENTENCES WITH DIFFERENT PREPOSITIONS
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(1)1 know him. (1)He is known to me.
(2) His behaviour surprised me. (2) I was surprised at his behaviour.
(3) A thick layer of snow covers the mountain. (3) The mountain is covered with a thick layer of
snow.
(4) Snakes frighten me. (4) I am frightened of snakes.
(5) His performance satisfied me. 5) I was satisfied with his performance.

PASSIVE OF INFINITIVES
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(1) I was to sell the watch. (1) The watch was to be sold by me.
(2) The students have to bring the admit cards. (2) The admit cards have to be brought by the
students.
(3) There’s no time to lose. (3) There’s no time to be lost.
(4) It’s time to take tea. (4) It’s time for tea to be taken.
(5) It’s time to stop writing. (5) It’s time for writing to be stopped.

NOTE:
Ex:
(1) Women like men to flatter them.(active)
(a) Women e liked to be flattered by men.
(b) Men are liked to be flattered by women.
(c) Women like to be flattered by men.
(d) Women like that men should flatter them.

(2) He likes people to call him “sir”.(active)

(a) He is liked to be called “sir”.
(b) He likes to be called sir.

3) Somebody killed the dog

a) The dog was killed by somebody
b) The dog is killed by somebody
c) The dog has been killed by somebody
d) That dog was being killed by somebody
e) The dog was killed

4) The room was cleaned

a) somebody cleaned the room
b) The cleaner cleaned the room

5) The police arrested the thief

 The thief was arrested
PASSIVE OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
(1) WHO / WHOM
Who  By whom
Whom  who
Ex:
(1) Whom does he look for?
(a) He ¡s looked after for whom?
(b) Who ¡s looked after for him?
(c) Who is looked for by him?
(d) He is looked after by whom?

(2) Who can question Gandhi’s integrity?

(a) By whom Gandhi’s integrity can be questioned?
(b) By whom can Gandhi’s integrity be questioned?
(c) Gandhi’s integrity can be questioned by whom?
(d) Who could have questioned Gandhi’s integrity?

(3) Who inaugurated the fair?

(a) The fair was inaugurated by whom?
(b) The fair is inaugurated by who?
(c) By whom was the fair Inaugurated?
(d) By who was the fair inaugurated?

(4) Who asked you to draft this letter?

(a) By who you are asked to draft this letter?
(b) By who have you been asked to draft this letter?
(c) By whom were you asked to draft this letter?
(d) By whom you were asked to draft this letter?

(2) DO/DOES/DID
Do/Does  IS/AM/ARE
DID  WAS/WERE
Ex:
(1) Do you understand what I mean?
(a) What ¡ mean ¡s that understood by you?
(b) Was what I mean understood by you?
(c) Is what I mean understood by you?
(d) What I mean is understood by you?

(2) Did the noise frighten you?

(a) Did you frighten the noise?
(b) Was the noise frightened by you?
(c) Were you frightened by the noise?
(d) Were you frighten by the noise?
(3) Did everybody miss the first bus?
(a) The first bus was missed by everybody?
(b) Was the first bus missed by everybody?
(c) Everybody missed the first bus?
(d) Had the first bus been missed by everybody?

(4) Do you expect your parents to come from Dubai today?

(a) Did you parents come today from Dubai?
(b) Where your parents expected to come from Dubai today?
(c) Are you expecting your parents to come from Dubai today?
(d) Are your parents expected to come form Dubai today?

(5) Does he race cars ?

(a) Is racing of the cars done by him?
(b) Are cars raced by him?
(d) Does he the racing of cars?
(e)Are race cars done by him?

(3)WHAT / WHEN / HOW /HAS /HAVE /WILL/SHALL / WHERE / WHY /CAN /COULD
Ex:
(1) Why did you not agree to my proposal?
(a) Why was my proposal not agreed to ?
(b) Why was my proposal not agreed by you?
(c) Why my proposal was not agreed to by you?
(d) Why was my proposal not agreed to by you?

(2) Will she tell us the truth?

(a) ls the truth told to us by her?
(b) The truth will be hold to us by her?
(c) Will the truth be told to us by her?
(d) Will the truth be told us by her?

(3) Has the price rise affected alt the people?

(a) Have all the people been affected by the price-rise?
(b) Are all the people being affected by the price-rise?
(c) Had all the people being affected by the price-rise?
(d)Are all the people affected by the price-rise?

(4) What amused you?

(a) What you are made to amuse by?
(b) By what are you being amused?
(c) By what were you amused?
(d) By what have you been amused?

(5) How much a month are you paid?

(a) How much a month do you pay?
(b) In a month how much do you pay?
(c) How much a month do they pay you?
(d) How much a month do you pay them?

(6) Could you pass the salt?

(a) Could the salt been passed?
(b) Could the salt be passed by anyone?
(c) Could the salt be past?
(d) Could the salt be passed?

(7) When did he return my books?

(a) When were my books returned by him?
(b) When will my books be returned by him?
(c) When has he returned my books?
(d) When are my books returned by him?

(8) Can we send this big parcel by air?

(a) Can this big parcel be sent by air?
(b) Can this big parcel sent by air?
(c) Could this big parcel be sent by air?
(d) Could this big parcel sent by us by air?

(9) Have you been shown what to do?

(a) Have anybody been shown by you what to do?
(b) Have anybody been showing you what to do?
(c) Has you been shown what to do?
(d) Has anybody shown you what to do?

(10) Were you washing the clothes?

(a) Was the clothes being washed by you?
(b) Were the clothes being washed by you?
(c) Is the clothes being washed by you?
(d) Has the clothes being washed by you?

PASSIVE OF IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

(ORDER, REQUEST, SUGGESTION, ADVICE)
FOR ORDERS ( Let / You are ordered to)
OR REQUESTS  “You are requested to”
FOR ADVICE / SUGGESTIONS  “SHOULD”

1) Don’t laugh at me.

a. Let me be laughed at. b. Let me be not laughed at.
c. I am laughed at.
d. Let me be not laughed.
2) Let me do this
a. Let us do this.
b. this be done by me.
c. Let this be done by me.
d. Let do this.

3) Do all the necessary tests soon.

a. All the necessary tests may be done soon.
b. Let all the necessary tests be done soon.
c. Let all the necessary tests were done soon.
d. All the necessary tests have to be done soon.

4) Close the doors

a. Let the doors are dosed.
b. The doors are to be dosed.
c. Let the doors be closed.
d. Allow the doors to close.

5) One should avoid honking the horn unnecessarily.

a. Unnecessary honking of horn ought to be avoided.
b. Unnecessary honking of horn can be avoided.
c. Unnecessary honking of horn should be avoided.
d. Unnecessary honking of horn must be avoided.

6) One should not give unsolicited advice.

a. Unsolicited advice is not to be given.
b. Unsolicited advice can’t be given.
c. Unsolicited advice may not be given.
d. Unsolicited advice should not be given.

7) We must respect the elders.

a. The elders deserve respect from us.
b. The elders must be respected.
c. The elders must be respected by us.
d. Respect the elders we must.

8) The traitors should be shot dead by them.

a. They should have shot the traitors dead.
b. They shall shoot the traitors dead.
c. They should shoot the traitors dead.
d. They shot the traitors dead.

9) Open the window

a. Let the window open.
b. Someone opens the window.
c. Window is opened.
d. Let the window be opened.
10) Do not inform the police about the robbery.
a. The police do not be informed about the robbery.
b. Let not the police be informed about the robbery.
c. Let the police be informed about the robbery.
d. The police need to be informed by the robbery.

PASSIVE OF SENTENCES STARTING WITH “LET”

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(1) Let us help the poor. (suggestion) (1) The poor should be helped.
(2) Let us organise a Party. (2) A party should be organised.
(3) Let them play.(permission) (3) They may be allowed to play.
(4) Let me do this. (4) Let this be done by me.

(1) Call the police at once.

(2) Let the police be called at once.
(3) The police was to be called at once.
(4) Let the police called at once.
(5) The police is to be called at once.

PASSIVE OF MODAL VERBS

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(1)We could do ¡t. (1) lt could be done by us.
(2) He might suffer a great loss. (2) A great loss might be suffered by him.
(3) I shall take her to the hospital. (3) She will be taken to the hospital by me.
(4) We ought to respect our parents (4) Our parents ought to be respected.

PASSIVE OF VERBS FOLLOWED BY ADJECTIVES

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(1) Sugar ¡s sweet. (1) Sugar is sweet when it is tasted.
(2) Wood feels hard. (2) Wood Is hard when it is felt.
(3) Quinine tastes bitter. (3) Quinine is bitter when it is tasted.
(4) The curd smelt sour. (4) The curd was sour when it was smelt.
(5) They elected him secretary. (5) He was elected secretary by them.
(6) People called him a fool. (6) He is called a fool.
(7) We proclaimed him king. (7) He was proclaimed king by people.

PASSIVE OF UNIVERSAL TRUTHS/GENERAL STATEMENTS

(1)We all know that there is only one God.
(a) We are all known that there is only one God.
(b) We have all known that there is only one God.
(c) Only one God is known by us all.
d) It is known to us that there is only one God.
2. The sun rises in the East. (active)
It is known to us that the sun rises in the east.(passive)

3. Honesty is the best policy.(actìve)

It is well said that honesty is the best policy.(passive)

PASSIVE OF CAUSATIVE VERBS

ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
(1)1 made him wash all the clothes (1) He was made to wash all the clothes by me.
(2) He bade me leave the room. (2) I was bidden to leave the room by him
(3) Her step mother got her to do all the household (3) She was got to do all the household chores by
chores. her step mother
12. NARRATION
The word NARRATION” has been coined from the word narrate which means “to say” or “to state”. We
often report speech in two ways:
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
1) When we quote the actual words of the speaker. 1) When we state the words of the speaker in our
own words
2) It is in inverted commas. 2) It is not mentioned in inverted commas
Examples: Examples:
The boy says, “I am busy”. The boy says that he is busy.
The boy said, “I am busy”. The boy said that he was busy.
The boy will say, “I am busy”. The boy will say that he is busy.

Note:The tense of the sentence changes only when the reporting verb is in Past Tense. When the Reporting
verb is In Present and Future, the tense doesn’t change
 He said, “I go for a walk every morning”
 He said that he goes for a walk every morning
 The teacher said, “Honesty ¡s the best policy”
 The teacher said that honesty is the best policy
 He said, “I am busy”
 He said that he was busy
 He said to them, “I am busy”
 He told them that he was busy
 He says to them, “I am busy”
 He tells them he is busy
 He will say to them, “I am busy”
 He will tell them he is busy
 He said, “Ram, you are unwell”
 He told Ram that he was unwell
 He said to Ram, “You are unwell”
 He told Ram that he was unwell
 He said to me, “you are right but I am wrong”
 He told me that I was right but he was wrong
 He said, “you are busy”
 He said that I was busy
 He said that he was busy

CHANGE OF PRONOUNS
 S Subject 1 First person (I /We)
 O Object 2 Second person (You)
 N No change 3 Third person (He. She, They. It)
S O N
1 2 3

Note (1) 1st person according to the subject.

 (2) 2nd person according to the object.
(3) 3rd person No change ,
 She said, “You are busy”
 She said that I was busy
 She said that she was busy
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
He said, “ I am busy” He said that he was busy.
He said to me, “I am right but you are wrong”. He told me that he was right but I was wrong.
You said to me, “He is Handsome” You told me that he was handsome.
She said to me, “You are guilty”. She told me that I was guilty.
She said, “You are guilty”. a) She said that I was guilty.
b) She said that he was guilty.
She said, “You all are guilty”. a) She said that we all were guilty.
b) she said that they all were guilty

He said, “Ram, you are unwell”

He told Ram that he was unwell
He said to Ram, “You are unwell”
He told Ram that he was unwell

In direct —indirect conversion, certain words also change.(on the condition when the reporting verb is in
past tense
1) THIS — THAT 9) TONIGHT - THAT NIGHT
2) THESE - THOSE 10) YESTERDAY - THAT DAY BEFORE / THE
3) NOW - THEN PREVIOUS DAY
4) HERE—THERE 11) TOMORROW - THE NEXT DAY
5) AGO - BEFORE 12) LAST NIGHT- THE PREVIOUS NIGHT / THE
6) THUS — SO NIGHT BEFORE
7) HENCE – HENCE 13) NEXT DAY -THE FOLLOWING DAY
8) TODAY-THAT DAY

Change of Tenses When the Reporting Verb Is In Past Tense

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
1) SIMPLE PRESENT 1) SIMPLE PAST
2) PRESENT CONTINUOUS 2) PAST CONTINUOUS
3) PRESENT PERFECT 3) PAST PERFECT
4) PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOU 4) PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
5) SIMPLE PAST 5) PAST PERFECT
6) PAST PERFECT 6) PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
7) PAST PERFECT 7) PAST PERFECT
*) PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS 8) PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
EXAMPLE:
1) The boy said, “I am glad to be here this evening”. (Direct)
The boy said that he was glad to be there that evening. (Indirect)
2) She said, “I will go to Delhi next week”. (Direct)
She said that she would go to Delhi the following week. (Indirect)

3)The man says to him, “I will do this work”. (Direct)

The man tells him that he will do this work. (Indirect)

Examples:-
1) The chairman of the selection committee said, “We shall finalize the rest of our team after we have
selected the skipper”.
(a) The chairman of the selection committee told that they would finalize the rest of our team after we have
selected the skipper.
(b) The chairman of the selection committee said that we would finalize the rest of our team after we have
selected the skipper.
(c) The chairman of the selection committee said that they would finalize the rest of their team after they
selected the skipper.
(d)The chairman of the selection committee said that they would finalize the rest of their team after they
had selected the skipper.

2) The pilot said, “please don’t panic but tighten your seat belts”.’
(a) The pilot told to the passengers that they should not panic but tighten the seat belts.
(b) The pilot told the passengers to not panic but to tighten their seat belts instead.
(c) The pilot told the passengers not to panic but to tighten your seat belts.
(d) The pilot told the passengers not to panic but to tighten their seat belts.

3) He said to me, “you are getting lazy day by day.”

(a) He informed me that I am getting lazy day by day.
(b) He told me that I have been getting lazy day by day.
(c) He told me that I was getting lazy day by day.
(d) He told me that you were getting lazy day by day.

4) The Prime Minister said at a meeting. “There is no need of a working president for the party now.”
(a)The Prime Minister told a meeting that there was no need of a working president for the party now.
(b)The Prime Minister said at a meeting that there was no need of a working president then.
c)The Prime Minister told a meeting that there was no need of a working president then.
(d) The Prime minister addressed a meeting that there was no need of a working president for the party
then.

5) I said to her. “All your faults will be pardoned If you confess them.’
(a) I told her that all her faults will be pardoned if you confess them.
(b) I told her that all her faults would be pardoned if she confessed them.
(c) I told her that all her faults will have to be pardoned ¡f she confessed them.
(d) I told her that all her faults would have to be pardoned if she confessed them.
6) Socrates said ,” virtue is its own reward.”
(a) Socrates said that virtue had its own rewards.
(b) Socrates says that virtue is its own reward.
(c) Socrates said that virtue ¡s its own reward.
(d) Socrates said that virtue was its own reward.

7) He said , “ it used to be lovely ,quiet street.”

(a) He said that it used to be a lovely, quiet street.
(b) He pointed out that it had used to be lovely, quiet street.
(c) He said that there used to be a lovely , quiet street.
(d) He inquired whether there was a lovely , quiet street.

08) Anil said , “ Ali deserved the prize.”

(a) Anil says that Ali deserves the prize.
(b)Anil said that Ali deserves the prize.
(c) Anil said that Ali has deserved the prize.
(d)Anil said that Ali had deserved the prize.

09) I warned her that I could no longer tolerate her coming late.
(a) I said to her, “you can no longer tolerate my coming late.”
(b) I said to her, “I can no longer tolerate your coming late.”
(c) I said to her, “he can no longer tolerate her coming late,”
(d)I said to her,” I can no longer tolerate she coming ¡ate1”

10) I said to my mother, “I will certainly take you to Bangalore this week.”
(a) I t my mother he would certainly take her to Bangalore this week.
(b) I told my mother that I would certainly take her to Bangalore that week.
(c) I told my mother that she would certainly take her to Bangalore that week.
(d)I told to my mother that I would take you to Bangalore that week.

11) The Prime Minister said that no one would be allowed to disturb the peace.
(a) The Prime Minister said , “we shall not allow anyone to disturb the peace.
(b) The Prime Minister said, “we would not allow no one to disturb the peace.”
(c) The Prime Minister said , “no one will disturb the peace.”
(d) The Prime Minister said , ‘no one can disturb the peace.”

12) The boss said, “it’s time we began planning our work.”
(a) The boss said that it was time they had begun planning their work
(b) The boss said that it was time we had begun planning our work.
(c) The boss said that it was time they began planning their work.
(d) The boss said that it was time we began planning his work.

13) He said to judge, “I did not commit this crime”

(a) He told the judge that he did not commit the crime.
(b) He told the judge that he had not committed the crime.
(c) He told the judge that he had not committed that crime.
(d) He told the judge that he had not committed this crime.

14) He wrote in his report, “the rainfall has been scanty till now,”
(a) He reported that the rainfall has been scanty till now.
(b) He reported that the rainfall had been scanty till now
(c) He reported that the rainfall has been scanty till then.
(d) He reported that the rainfall had been scanty till then.

15) He said, “I am going to college just now.’

(a) He said that he was going to college just now.
(b) He asked that he was going to college just then.
(c) He said that he was going to college just then.
(d) He asked that he was going to college just now.

16) He said, “I am coming tomorrow.”

(a) He told that he was coming tomorrow.
(b) He said that he was coming tomorrow.
(c) He told he come the next day.
(d) He said that he was coming the next day.

INDIRECT NARRATION OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
WH-WORDS (WHAT, WHEN, WHY, HOW, WHERE.....)
YES /NO QUESTIONS (DO, DOES, DID, HAS, HAVE, HAD, WILL, SHALL, COULD, CAN.....) THAT (X)
IF / WHETHER (__) (NO CONJUNCTION IS USED)
EXAMPLE:
(1) The policeman said to him, “where do you live?” (Direct)
(a) The policeman asked him where did he live.
(b) The policeman asked him where he did live.
(c) The policeman asked him where he lived.

(2)The villager said, “Will you listen to such a man?”(Direct)

(a) The villager asked if I would listen to such a man.
(b) The villager asked if I would have listened to such a man.

(3) He said , “Ravi , why are you sounding so depressed today?”

(a) He asked Ravi why did he sound so depressed that day.
(b) He asked Ravi why he was sounding so depressed that day.
(c) He toad Ravi why he sounded so depressed today.
(d) He asked Ravi that why was he sounding so depressed that day.

(4) He asked me , “ what time will the sun set tomorrow?”

(a) He asked me what time does the sunset the next day.
(b) He asked me what time the sun would set tomorrow.
(c) He asked me what time the sun would set the next day.
(d) He asked me what time would the sun set the next day.
(5) “Tinu, where have you been all these days?” asked the principle.
(a) The principle asked Tinu where he had been all those days.
(b) The principle asked Tinu where he has been all those days.
(c) The principle asked Tinu where had he been all those days.
(d) The principle asked to Tinu where was he all those days.

(6) “Have you finished assignment, Minu?” said her brother.

(a) Minu’s brother asked Minu if you have finished your assignment.
(b) Minus brother said to Minu ¡f she had finished her assignment.
(c) Minu’s brother asked her ¡f she had finished her assignment.
(d) Minus brother asked Minu if she has finished her assignment.

(7) “What are you doing here ?“ she asked me.

(a) She asked what I was doing here.
(b) She wanted to know what I am doing here.
(c) She wants to know what I was doing here.
(d) She wanted to know what I was doing there.

(8) The Manager said, “well, what can I do for you?

(a) The Manager asked what he could do for him.
(b) The Manager wondered what he could do for him.
(c) The Manager wanted to know what he could do for him.
(d) The Manager said that he couldn’t do anything for him.

INDIRECT NARRATION OF IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

EXAMPLE:
(1)” Please don’t go away”, she said.
(a) She said to please her and not to go away.
(b) She told me not to go away.
(c) She begged that I not go away.
(d) She begged me not to go away.

(2) He said to them, “Don’t make a noise”.

(a) He told them that don’t make a noise.
(b) He told them not to make noise.
(c) He said them not to make a noise.
(d) He asked them not to make a noise.

(3) My mother said , “Please go to the shop.”

(a) My mother told me to please go to the shop.
(b) My mother requested me to go to the shop.
(c) My mother requested me going to the shop.
(d) My mother asked me to be going to the shop.

(4) Mohan said to his friend, “Let me go home now.”

(a) Mohan requested his friend let him go home then.
(b) Mohan requested his friend that he might be allowed to go home then
(c) Mohan requested his friend to go home.
(d) Mohan told his friend to go his home.

(5) I said to him , “Let us go to the river for swimming.”

(a) I proposed him that we should go to the river for swimming.
(b) I asked him that we should go to the river for swimming.
(c) I proposed to him that we should go to the river for swimming.
(d) I requested him to go for swimming.

(6) “if you don’t keep quite I shall shoot you ,“he said to her In a calm voice.
(a) He warned her to shoot if she don’t keep quiet calmly.
(b) He said calmly that I shall shoot you if you don’t be quiet.
(c) He warned her calmly that he would shoot her if she don’t keep quiet
(d) Calmly he warned her that be quiet or else he will have to shoot her.

(7) You said to me , “ Let us play now.”

(a) You proposed to me that we could play now.
(b) You proposed toe that we should play now.
(c) You proposed me that we should play now.
(d) You proposed to me that we should have played now.

(8) The assistant said, “Sir, give me the list of the dealers”.
(a) The assistant requested to him to give the list of the dealers.
(b) The assistant requests him to give the list of the dealers.
(c) The assistant requested him to give the list of the dealers.
(d) The assistant requested him give the list of the dealers.

(9) “Thank you child, for showing me the way to the hospital,” said the old lady.
(a) The old lady thanked the child for showing him the way to the hospital.
(b) The old lady thanks the child for showing her the way to the hospital.
(c) The old lady thanked the child for showing her the way to the hospital.
(d) The old lady has thanked the child for showing her the way to the hospital.

INDIRECT NARRATION OF EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES

(sudden feeling of Joy, surprise, sorrow)
EXAMPLE:
(1) Everybody said, “How well she sings!”
(a) Everybody told us that she sings very well.
(b) Everybody exclaimed that she sings very well.
(c) Everybody exclaimed that she sang very well.
(d) Everybody told us that how she sang very well.

(2) The old man of Latur said, “Alas, my only son is dead!”
(a) The old man of Latur exclaimed with sorrow that his only son was dead.
(b) The old man of Latur told with pain that his only son was dead.
(c) The old man of Latur expressed with anguish that his only son was dead
(d)The old man of Latur sorrowfully narrated that his only son was dead.

(3) “How clever of you to have solved the puzzle so quickly,” said the mother.
(a) The mother exclaimed admiringly that it was very clever of him to have solved the puzzle so quickly.
(b) The mother expressed that he was so clever to have solved the puzzle quickly.
(c) The mother told he was very clever in solving the puzzle so quickly.
(d) The mother exclaimed with joy that he was clever enough to solve the puzzle so quickly. 46

(4) He said, “How I wish they would come!”

(a) He exclaimed that he wished they could come.
(b) He exclaimed hopefully that they would come.
(c) He exclaimed that he would wish them to come.
(d) He exclaimed how he wished they would come.
(5) She exclaimed , “I’m afraid we are rather late!”
(a) She exclaimed that they were frightened of being late.
(b) She exclaimed that she was afraid that they were rather late.
(c) She shouted that they were scared that they would be late.
(d) She screamed that she was worried that they would all be late.

(6) “I wonder what he wants of us,” said Quint.

(a) Quint said that he was wondering what he wanted of them.
(b) Quint said that he wondered what the wanted of us.
(c) Quint said he wondered what he wants of them.
(d) Quint said that he wondered what he wanted of them.

(7) The traveler said , “what a beautiful sight!”

(a)The traveler exclaimed that it was an beautiful sight.
(b)The traveler exclaimed that it was a beautiful sight.
(c)The traveler said that ¡t was beautiful.
(d)The traveler remarked the beautiful sight.

(8) The girl wondered where the sparrows had gone.

(a) The girl said, “oh! where the sparrows have gone?”
(b) The girl said, “oh! Where are the sparrows?”
(c) The girl said, “oh! Where had the sparrows gone?”
(d) The girl said, “oh! Where have the sparrows gone?”

(9) “It’s a cold day today!” cried the boy.

(a) The boy was crying as it was a cold day.
(b) The boy exclaimed that ¡t was cold that day than yesterday.
(c) The boy said that he had caught cold that day.
(d) The boy exclaimed that it was cold that day.

(10) “oh! how foolish I have been in money matters!”

(a) He confessed regretfully that he had been very foolish In money matters.
(b) He confessed to himself that he ¡s being very foolish ¡n money matters.
(c) He exclaimed regretfully that he was very foolish in money matters.
(d) He expressed with regret that he could be so foolish in money matters.

(11) Robin said, “Hurrah! I have topped again.”

(a) Robin exclaimed joyfully that he had been topped again.
(b) Robin exclaimed joyfully that he had topped again.
(c) Robin exclaimed joyfully that he would have topped again.
(d) Robin exclaimed joyfully that he had toppd again.

(12) He said,” Bravo! You have done well.”

(a) He applauded him to say that he had done well.
(b) He applauded him and said that you have done well.
(c) He applauded him, saying that he has done well.
(d) He applauded him, saying that he had done well.

INDIRECT NARRATION OF OPTATIVE SENTENCES (Wishes, blessings, prayers)

EXAMPLES:
(1) My mother said to me, “Wish you a happy and prosperous life!”
(a) My mother wished me a happy and prosperous life.
(b) My mother told me that I should lead a happy and prosperous life.
(c) My mother wished that I enjoy a happy and prosperous life.
(d) My mother wished that I should be living a happy and prosperous life.

(2) I said, “Good bye, my beloved friends.”

(a) I bade my beloved friends good bye. (c) I said good byë to my beloved friends.
(b) I bided good bye to my beloved friends. (d) I wished my beloved friends good bye.

(3) “May you live long and prosper”, said the old lady to her son.
(a) The old lady blessed her son with long life and wished him prosperity.
(b) The old lady prayed for her son’s life and prosperity.
(c) The old lady prayed for her son and said that he might live long and prosper.
(d) The old lady blessed her son aid prayed for his long life and prosperity.

(4) “Many happy returns of your birthday” ,we said.

(a) We greeted him on his birthday.
(b) We said that many happy returns of your birthday.
(c) We wished him many happy returns of his birthday.
(d) We prayed for many happy returns of his birthday.

(5) The teacher said to Mahesh, “Congratulations! Wish you success in life.”
(a) The teacher congratulated Mahesh and said wish you success in life.
(b) The teacher wished congratulations and success in life to Mahesh.
(c) The teacher said congratulations to Mahesh and wished him success In life.
(d) The teacher congratulated Mahesh and wished him success in life.
13. ADVERB
An adverb describes a VERB, an ADJECTIVE or another ADVERB
Examples:
(1) The driver stopped the train suddenly.
(2) The book is very interesting.
(3) The work he did was really good.
(4) He ran slowly.
(5) He ran quite slowly.
(6) She is too careless in her work.

WORDS USED BOTH AS ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

(1) (a) He lives in the next house.
b) When you see him next, give him the message.
(2) (a) He is the only child of his parents
(b) He can only sit and do nothing.
(3) (a) He works hard.
(b) Lie is a hard worker.
(4) (a) He rises early in the morning.
(b) He is an early raiser.
(5) (a) He runs fast.
(b) He is a fast runner.
(c) They fast on Monday
(d) They keep a fast on Monday.

TYPES OF ADVERBS
(I) ADVERBS OF TIME  (WHEN)
Ex:
(a) I met him yesterday.
(b) I had a letter from him recently.
(e) Ile arrived late.

(2) ADVERBS OF PLACE (WHERE)

Ex:
(a) The boy followed her mother everywhere.
(b) Go there.
(c) He came in and sat down.

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY  (HOW OFTEN/HOW MANY TIMES )

Ex:
(a) He hardly comes on time.
(b) He frequently makes the same mistake,
(c) Barking dogs seldom bite.

ADVERBS OF MANNER  (HOW OR IN WHAT MANNER)

Ex:
(a) The lion fought bravely.
(b) He works hard.
(c) He loves his mother dearly.

POSITION OF THE ADVERB

(1) Adverb of frequently used before a verb
Ex:
(a) He helps me never (Wrong)
(b) He comes often to my house (Wrong)
(c) She is always making the same mistake (Correct)

(2) MTP  Adverb of manner / Adverb of place / Adverb of Time

Ex:

(a) The girl sang beautifully last night at the party. (Wrong)
(b) Come at 7 o’ clock to my house. (Wrong)
(c) They last evening went to Jaipur. (Wrong)
(d) He spoke loudly yesterday at the meeting. (Z)

SOME OTHER KINDS OF ADVERBS

(1) ADVERBS OF DEGREE OR QUANTITY (which show how much or to degree / extend)

Ex: (I) He was fully prepared to do the work.

(2) She is too weak.
(3) You are quite wrong.

ADVERBS OF AFFIRNIATION AND NIGATION

(a) I will not attend the party.
(b) He will certainly come.
(c) He was surely mistaken.

ADVERBS OF REASON
(a) He therefore quit the job.
(b)The teacher was hence respected by all.
(c) Consequently, he failed in the exam.

NOUN + “ly” – ADJECTIVE

ADJECTIVE + ‘ly” -ADVERB

ADJECTIVE: manly, womanly, brotherly, sisterly, miserly, costly, friendly, niggardly, cowardly, scholarly,
orderly
ADVERB: cleverly, slowly, suddenly, quickly, independently, foolishly, harshly, beautifully
Examples:-
(a)He behaved cowardly. (Wrong)
(b)He behaved in a cowardly manner. (Correct)
(c)He spends money miserly. (Wrong)
(d)He spends money in a miserly manner. (Correct)
(e)He is a miser man. (Wrong)
(f)He is a coward person. (Wrong)

USES OF ADVERBS
(1) HARD/HARDLY
Ex:
(a) He works hard for his examination.
(b) He works hardly for his examination.
(e) He works hard / hardly, he is sure of passing.
(d) We appreciate the hard/hardly won freedom by our freedom fighters.
(e) The farmers were hard/hardly hit by the bad weather.

2) FAST / FASTLY
(a) He ran fast.
(b)He ran fastly.

(2) BITTER/BITTERLY
Ex:
(a) The food tasted bitter/bitterly.
(b) She was weeping bitterly/bitter.
(c) He was bitter/bitterly disappointed.
(d) The food tasted delicious / deliciously.

(4)SWEET/SWEETLY
Ex:
(a) The birds sang sweet / sweetly.
(b) The food tasted sweet / sweetly.
(c) He was smiling sweet/sweetly at him.

(5)LATE/LATELY
Ex:
(a) I haven’t talked to him lately
(b) Lately, I haven’t been to movies.
(c) He came late and could not attend the meeting.

(6) RESPECTFULLY / RESPECTIVELY

Respectfully  With full of respect & dignity
Respectively  in a particular order/sequence

Example:
(a) When the guest arrived, the audience stood up respectively /respectfully.
(b) Ram and Mohan, ages 4 and 6 respectively / respectfully are good at playing.

GOOD (Adjective not adverb) / WELL (Both adjective and Adverb)

Examples:
(a) The audience responded good/ well at the concert.
(b) He performed good/well in class.
(c) His performance in class was good/well.
(d) He is well/ good known for his honesty.
(e) He is a good/well singer.
(f) I could not attend the meeting because I was not feeling welll200d.

8) PRETTY/PRETTILY
PRETTY (adj) (she is a pretty girl).

(Adverb) (I am pretty sure)

Prettily (adverb) she was prettily dressed at the party.
Examples:
a) He was pretty/prettily well.
b) Your aunt and uncle seem pretty/prettily fond of you.
c) The flowers were pretty/prettily arranged.

ADVERBS AND INVERSION

(a)(i) He never helps me. (C)
(ii) Never he does help me. (W)
(iii) Never does he help me. (C)
(iv) Never I have met a person like him. (W)

(b)(i) He hardly attended the classes. (C)

(ii) Hardly he did attend the classes. (W)
(iii) Hardly did he attend the classes. (C)

(C)(i) He voice was so hoarse that he couldn’t speak a single word. (C)
(ii) So hoarse his voice was that he couldn’t speak a single word. (W)

(d)(i) He could not speak a single word. (C)

(ii)Not a single word he could speak. (W)

(e)(i)He was too weak to do the work. (C)

(ii)Too weak he was to do the work. (W)

(f)He knew little about the incident. (C)

(i) Little he did know about the incident. (W)

USE OF “ONLY”
The word “ONLY” should be placed immediately before the word it modifies or describes.

Examples:
(a) Only she can speak. (C)
(b)She can speak only. (C)
(c)He only spoke and everybody was silent. (W)
(d)She only answered two questions. (W)
(e)The only death of her son was shocking. (W)
(f)She only eats strawberries for dinner. (W)
(g)They only work when they need money. (W)

NOTE: (a) He can even do this work. (W)

(b)He can do even this work. (C)

USE OF “ENOUGH” . .
ENOUGH (Adjective / Adverb)
Examples:
(a)We haven’t got enough money to complete the project.
(b)She is smart enough to handle the situation.
(c)He is enough tall to be selected in the basketball team. (W)
(d)He is wiser enough to do the work on time. (W)

Note: “Enough” can also be used as a PRONOUN

Ex: (a) Do you want more ice-cream, or you had enough?

STILL/YET
STILL  It is used in positive sentences.
YET  It is used in negative as well as in interrogative sentences.
Examples:
(a)She is still doing the work.
(b)She has not completed the work still / yet.
(c)Haven’t the students completed the work yet / still?

Note: “Yet” — Present Perfect Tense

Ex: (a) He did not come yet. (W) (b)He has not come yet. (C)
FAIRLY/RATHER

FAIRLY RATHER
It is used with pleasant adjectives It is used with unpleasant adjectives.
It takes adjectives of positive degree It takes adjectives of positive as well as comparative
degree.

Examples:
a) The result of the survey were fairIy /rather disappointing.
b) The weather is fairly/rather pleasant.
c) They are rather/fairly mean and cunning.

Note: Fairly - too (Wrong)

Rather — too (Correct)
Example:
(a) John is fairly too wise. (W)
(b) John is rather too unwise, (C)

USE OF VERY / MUCH

VERY — (a) It takes adjective of positive degree.
(b) lt takes Present Participle.

MUCH — (a) It takes adjective of comparative degree.

(b)lt takes Past Participle.
Examples:
(a) She is very good/better at painting. (d)The incident was very shocked / shocking
(b)He is very/much smarter than his brother. (e) the book is very/much interesting.
(c)I was much/very shocked to see her pathetic (f)The matter has been much/very discussed.
condition.

RULE
The adverb “AS” is not used with certain verbs like appoint, call, name, elect, think,
consider, make, choose.
Examples:
(i) (a) I consider his as my friend. (W)
(b) l regard him as my friend. (C)

(ii) (a)This process is called as respiration. (W)

(b)This process is known as respiration. (C)
(c)This process is defined as respiration. ©
(iii) The teacher appointed him as the captain of the school team. (W)
(iv)He thinks himself as a fool. (W)
NOTE:

a) She refused not to pay the money. (X) d) Both of them were not present. (X)
b) She denied that she had not done the work. (X) e) I was prohibited not to go there. (X)
c) He hardly did no work. (X) t) He forbade me not to do the work. (X)

TOO MUCH / MUCH TOO

TOO MUCH  It takes a NOUN with it.
MUCH TOO It takes an ADJECTIVE with it.

Example:-
(a)The task given to him is too much / much too difficult.
(b)There was too much/much too snow on the road.
(c)I haven’t had too much/much too sleep today.
(d)The boys are too much/much too lazy to volunteer for extra work.

RULE:
There are certain verbs which don’t take adverbs, but adjectives.
STATIE VERBS – adjectives
ACTION VERBS - adverbs
Example:
(a)She looks beautiful/beautifully. (e)He ate all the food hungry/hungrily.
(b)She was looking angry/ angrily. (f)Quinine tastes bitter/bitterly.
(c)She was looking angry/angrily at him. (g) She was weeping bitter/bitterly
(d) She was feeling hungry/hungrily.
.

HIGH / HIGHLY
HIGHLY  greatly, extremely, very
HIGH  to an elevated position or level

Example:
(a)He was the most highly paid member of the team.
(b)The aeroplane flew high/highly in the sky.
(c)His remarks were high /highly objectionable.
(d)His desk was piled high/highly with papers.

USE OF SO/MUCH
1. SO  It takes an adjective /adverb with it.
2. SUCH t takes a noun with it.

Note: - SUCH + A / AN + NOUN

SO + ADJECTIVE/ADVERB
Examples:-
(a)He spoke such/so clearly that everybody understood his point.
(b)He is so/such an idiot that he doesn’t know the capital of his country.
(c)He is so/such strong that he can do the work easily.

Note:
Examples:-
(a) He is such a strong person that he can easily complete the work.
(b) He is so strong a Person that he can easily complete the work.

USE OF Too /SO

Too (excessive /as well / it takes adjective of positive degree)

Examples:-
(a)He is too weak to walk.
(b) He too went to England.
(c) l too helped him in his work.
(d) He is too weak/weaker to do the work