EIGHT

ADJUNCTS, DISJUNCTS, CONJUNCTS

8.1
Units realizing adverbial functions
The functions of the adverbial are realized by:
(1) Adverb phrases, ie phrases with adverbs as head or sole realization:
Peter was playing as well as he could
W e’ll stay there
(2) Noun phrases (less com m on):
Peter was playing last week
(3) Prepositional phrases:
Peter was playing with great skill
(4) Finite verb clauses:
Peter was playing although he was \>ery tired
(5) Non-fmite verb clauses, in which the verb is
(a) infinitive:
Peter was playing to win
(b) -ing participle:
Wishing to encourage him, they praised Tom
(c) -ed participle:
I f urged by our friends, we’ll stay
(6) Verbless clauses:
Peter was playing, unaware o f the danger

8.2
Classes of adverbials: adjuncts, disjuncts, conjuncts
Adverbials may be integrated to some extent into the structure of the
clause or they may be peripheral to it. If integrated, they are termed
A D JU N CTS. If peripheral, they are termed D ISJU N CTS and CONJUNCTS,
the distinction between the two being that conjuncts have primarily a
connective function.
An adverbial is integrated to some extent in clause structure if it
is affected by such clausal processes as negation and interrogation.
For example, it is an adjunct if
either (1) itcannot appear initially in a negative declarative clause:
'^Quickly they didn’t leave for home
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 or (2) it can be the focus o f a question or o f clause negation:
Does he write to his parents because he wantsto (or does he
write to them because he needs money)!
We didn’t go to Chicago on Monday, (but we did go there on
Tuesday)
In contrast, a disjunct or a conjunct is not affected by either of these
clausal processes. For example, the disjunct to my regret can appear
initially in a negative declarative clause:
To my regret, they didn’t leave for home
and cannot be the focus o f a question or o f clause negation:
*Does he write to his parents, to my regret, (or does he write
to them, to my relief)!
*We didn’t go to Chicago, to my regret, (but we did go there,
to my relief)
Items can belong to more than one class. F or example, naturally
is an adjunct in
They aren’t walking naturally (‘in a natural m anner’)
and a disjunct in
Naturally, they are walking (‘o f course’)

8.3
Definitions of positional terms
We distinguish four positions o f adverbials for the declarative form o f the
clause:
Initial position (ie before the subject)
Medial position:
M l: (a) immediately before the first auxiliary or lexical be, or (b)
between two auxiliaries or an auxiliary and lexical be,
M2: (a) immediately before the lexical verb, or (b) in the case
of lexical be, before the complement.
Final position: (a) after an intransitive verb, or (b) after any object or
complement.
If there are no auxiliaries present. M l and M 2 positions are neutralized:
They sometimes watch television

If the subject is ellipted, initialand medial positions are neutralized:

I’ve been waiting outside his door the whole day and yet haven’t
seen him
Final position includes any position after the stated clause elements, eg:
I paid immediately for the book
I paid for the book immediately
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Adjuncts
8.4
Syntactic features of adjuncts
Certain syntactic features are general to adjuncts.
(1) They can come within the scope o f predication pro-forms or predi­
cation ellipsis. F or example, in
John greatly admires Bob, and so does Mary
the pro-form in the second clause includes the adjunct of the first
clause, so that the sentence means the same as
John greatly admires Bob, and M ary greatly admires Bob
(2) They can be the focus o f limiter adverbials such as only:
They only want the car fo r an H O U R (‘for an hour and not for
longer’)
(3) They can be the focus o f additive adverbials such as also:
They will also meet Afterw ards (‘afterwards in addition to some
other time’)
(4) They can be the focus of a cleft sentence:
It was when we were in Paris that I first sawJohn

8.5
Adverb phrases as adjuncts
Adverb phrases as adjuncts can often
(1) constitute a com parative construction
J(5hn writes more clearly than his brother does
(2) have premodifying however to form the opening o f a dependent
adverbial clause:
However strongly you feel about it, you should be careful
what you say

(3) have premodifying how, a pro-form for intensifiers in questions or

exclamations:
How often does she wash her hair?
How cautiously he drives!

(4) have premodifying so followed by subject-operator inversion and

a correlative clause:
So monotonously did he speak that everyone left
J9I
8.6

Subclassification of adjuncts
It is convenient to discuss adjuncts under classes that are essentially
semantic. Fig 8 : 1 gives the classes and their subclasses.
view point

focusing additive
lim ite r

em phasizer
in ten sifier am plifier
dow ntoner

manner
process means
instrum ent

general
adjunct subject volitional
form ulaic

positio n
place
direct ion

when
duration
time
frequency
relationship

purpose
others cause, reason *

Fig 8:1 Adjuncts

8.7

Viewpoint adjuncts
Viewpoint adjuncts can be roughly paraphrased by ‘if we consider what
we are saying from a [adjective phrase] point of view’ or ‘if we consider
what we are saying from the point o f view of [noun phrase]’.
Adverbs functioning as viewpoint adjuncts are m ost commonly derived
from adjectives by the addition of a -ly suffix:
Geographically, ethnically, and linguistically, these islands are closer
to the m ainland than to their neighbouring islands
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Viewpoint adjuncts derived from nouns by the addition o f the suffix
-wise (especially AmE) are considered informal:
Program-wise, the new thing on TV last night was the first instalment
of a new science series
All -ly viewpoint adjuncts have a corresponding participle clause
with speaking, eg: visually ^ visually speaking, and a corresponding prep­
ositional phrase with the frame from a [adjective phrase] point o f
view, eg: morally ^ from a moral point o f view. O ther examples of viewpoint
adjuncts:
As fa r as mathematics is concerned, he was a complete failure
Looked at politically, it was not an easy problem
Viewpoint adjuncts, whatever their structure, are usually in initial
position.

Focusing adjuncts
8.8
Focusing adjuncts indicate that what is being communicated is limited
to a part that is focused — LIM ITER A D JU N C TS — or that a fo­
cused part is an addition — A D D ITIV E AD JU N CTS. M ost focusing
adjuncts are adverbs.
LIM ITER S
•(a) EXCLUSIVES restrict what is said to the part focused eg: alone,
just, merely, only, purely, simply
(b) PA R T IC U L A R IZ E R S restrict what is said particularly or mainly
to the part focused eg: chiefly, especially, mainly, mostly: in particular
ADD ITIV ES
also, either, even, neither, nor, too; as well as, in addition
Examples of their use with an indication of the part that is focused:
Y ou can get a В grade J U S T fo r that answer
The workers, IN P A R T IC U L A R , are dissatisfied with the government
We bought some beer A S W E LL
Focusing adjuncts cannot be m odified: *very only, *extremely also.
M ost of them cannot be coordinated: *just and exactly, *equally and
likewise. But we have one cliché coordination:
He is doing it P U R E L Y A N D S IM P L Y fo r your benefit

Position and focus

8.9
Sentences such as
John only phoned M ary today
John also phoned M ary today
7 P. Кверк и др. 193
arc ambiguous, the m eaning varying with the intonation we give the
sentence. In m ore formal English varying positions can distinguish most
o f the meanings, with a nucleus on the focused part in speech:
IJohn ÖNlyl Iphoned MÄry to d a y |= O n ly JO H N phoned M ary today
(N obody but John phoned M ary today)
IJohn only phoned MAry to d a y |= J o h n phoned only MAry today
(John phoned M ary today but nobody else)
IJohn only phoned M ary toDÄYl = John phoned M ary

(John phoned M ary today but not at any other time)

8.10
Positions of focusing adjuncts
M ost limiters can either precede or follow the part on which they are
focused, though it is m ore usual for them to precede. Just, merely,
purely, and simply m yst normally precede:
You can get a B grade JU ST /M E R E L Y /PU R E L Y /SIM PLY fo r that
answer
On the other hand, alone m ust normally follow the part on which it is
focused, eg: You can get a B grade fo r that answer A LO N E.
The following additives normally precede a focused p art in the predicate
but follow a focused subject: again, also, equally, similarly, in addition.
On the other hand, tod and as well normally • follow a focused part,
wherever in the clause it may be, while even normally precedes:
I know your family has expressed its support. We TO O ¡AS W ELL
will do what we can for you.
Yesterday the Robinsons were here with their new baby. They brought
their other children T O O jA S W ELL.
My father won’t give me the money. He won’t E V E N lend it to me.
Neither and nor are restricted to initial position and non-assertive
either to final position:
They won’t help him, but N E IT H E R IN O R will they harm him
They won’t help him, but they w on’t harm him E IT H E R

8.11
Focusing adjuncts in correlative constructions and cleft sentences
With certain limiters —just, simply, and most commonly only and mere­
ly — there can be subject-operator inversion when they follow an initial
not in a correlative construction. Besides the norm al
He not only protested: he (also) refused to pay his taxes
we can also have
N ot only did he protest: he (also) refused to pay his taxes
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The focus can be on the subject or predicate or on some part of either o f
them. The second correlative clause, which often has {hut) also, may be
implied rather than expressed. N ot only (and less commonly not plus
one of the other limiters) can appear initially in this construction without
subject-operator inversion, with focus on the subject:
N O T O N L Y he protested: ...
In a non-correlative construction, not even can also occur initially, but only
with normal subject-verb order. The focus is on the subject:
N O T E V E N John protested
If the focus o f even is to be on the predication (or part o f it),
not even m ust follow the operator:
John may N O T E V E N have heen protesting
Focusing adjuncts can appear within the focal clause o f a cleft
sentence:
It was onlyjalso John who protested
We should distinguish the cleft sentence from the correlative structure,
which it resembles but from which it differs prosodically:
It was not that John protested; it was merely that he was rude
It’s not ju st that he’s young; it’s surely that he’s inexperienced
The adverbials are here functioning within the superordinate clauses
in which the /Äaz-clauses are complement. Limiters, additives and some
disjuncts {eg: possibly, probably) occur in this correlative structure.

Intensifiers
8.12
Intensifiers can be divided into three semantic classes: emphasizers, ampli­
fiers, downtoners. Intensifiers are not limited to indicating an increase
in intensity; they indicate a point on the intensity scale which may be
high or low. Emphasizers have a general heightening effect; amplifiers
scale upwards from an assumed norm ; downtoners have a lowering effect,
usually scaling downwards from an assumed norm. The three classes are
shown with their subclasses:
-EMPHASIZERS (eg: definitely)

-maximizers (eg: completely)

INTENSIFIERS AMPLIFIERS
-boosters (eg: very much)

-com prom isers (eg: kind of)

-DOWNTONERS diminishers (eg: partly)
minimizers (eg: hardly)
-approximators (eg: almost)
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 M ost o f the common intensifiers are adverbs, but there are also some
noun phrases and a few prepositional phrases.

8.13
Emphasizers
Common emphasizers include:
[A] actually, certainly, clearly, definitely, indeed, obviously, plainly, really,
surely, fo r certain, fo r sure, o f course
[B] frankly, honestly, literally, simply: fairly (BrE), just
Examples o f the use o f emphasizers:
I honestly don’t know what he wants
He actually sat next to her
I just can’t understand it
They literally tore his arguments to pieces
I simply don’t believe it
While emphasizers in G roup A seem to be free to co-occur with
any verb or predication, those in G roup B tend to be restricted.
F or example, honestly tends to co-occur with verbs expressing attitude
or cognition:
They honestly admire her courage
He honestly believes their accusation
M ost emphasizers normally precede the item they emphasize (medial
positions for verb phrases) but fo r certain and fo r sure are exceptional
in being postposed.
Note
[j] Certain emphasizers appear in restricted environments:
( 1) always when preceded by can or could in a positive declarative clause:

You can always sleep on the F L 6 0 R (‘You can certainly ...’)

( 2) well when preceded by can, could, may, or might in a positive declarative clause
It may well be true that he beat her
(‘It may indeed be true ...’)
[b] Indeed can be postposed:
I appreciate your help indeed
This is more common after a complement o f be which is realized by an adjective
(particularly if modified by another intensifier) or a degree noun:
He was very tired indeed (‘He was extremely tired’)
It was a sacrifice indeed (‘It was a great sacrifice’)

Amplifiers
8.14
Amplifiers are divided into (a) M A X IM IZERS, which can denote the
upper extreme of the scale, and (b) BOOSTERS, which denote a high
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point on the scale. Boosters are very much an open class, and new
expressions are frequently created to replace older ones whose impact
has grown stale.
M ost amplifiers can be contrasted in alternative negation with to
some extent:
He didn’t ignore me cortipletely, but he did ignore me to some extent
Some common amplifiers are given below, with examples of their use.

M AXIM IZERS
absolutely, altogether, completely, entirely, fully, quite, thoroughly, utterly;
in all respects: most
eg I can perfectly see why you are anxious about it
We absolutely refuse to listen to your grumbling
He quite forgot about her birthday
I entirely agree with you

BOOSTERS
badly, deeply, greatly, heartily, much, so, violently, well; a great deal,
a good deal, a lot, by fa r; exclamatory how; more
eg They like her very much
I so wanted to see her (‘I wanted to see her so m uch’)
I can well understand your problem
M 2 (8.3) and final positions are open to m ost adverbs that are
amplifiers; noun phrases and prepositional phrases are restricted to final
position. In positive declarative clauses, final position is preferred
for maximizers, but M 2 position is preferred for boosters, including
maximizers when used as boosters, ie when they denote a high point
on the scale rather than the upper extreme. Hence, the effect of
the maximizer completely in M 2 position in H e completely denied
it is close to that o f the booster strongly in He strongly denied it.
On the other hand, when completely is final, as in He denied
it completely, the intention seems to be closer to He denied all o f it
In negative, interrogative and imperative clauses, final position is
norm al in all cases.

Note
[a] There is a prescriptive tradition inhibiting the use o f very or the comparative with
completely and perfectly and with their respective adjective forms.
[¿>] The adverbs extremely, most, and (when no comparative clause follows) more are restricted
to final position.
[c] Some adverbs as boosters occasionally appear in M l position (8.3) usually when they
are themselves intensified or before an emphatic auxiliary:
I very much would prefer to see you tomorrow
I so did want to meet them
I well can understand your problem
But M2 position, eg. I would very much prefer to see you tomorrow, is normal.

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8.15
CO-OCCURRENCE RESTRICTIONS ON AMPLIFIERS
Amplifiers co-occur only with gradable verbs, whereas emphasizers can
co-occur with non-gradable verbs such as drink or judge:
He really drinks beer
He will definitely judge us
When amplifiers co-occur with non-gradable verbs they function as other
types o f adjunct*
He drinks beer a lot (‘often’)
He will judge us severely (‘in a severe m anner’)
However, a non-gradable verb can become gradable when the main
concern is with the result o f a process. F or example, if the perfective
particle up is added to drink or the perfective aspect of the verb is
used, we can add an amplifier such as completely:
He completely drank up his beer
He has completely drunk his beer
Similarly, while judge is non-gradable, misjudge is gradable, since the
latter is concerned with the result o f the judging:
*He badly judged the situation
He badly misjudged the situation
Certain amplifiers tend to co-occur predom inantly with certain verbs
for example:
entirely + agree completely + forget
badly + need, want greatly + admire, enjoy
Amplifiers may occur with a semantic class o f verbs, for example
greatly with verbs having a favourable implication and utterly with
verbs having an unfavourable implication. Some, such as deeply, occur
with the class o f ‘emotive’ verbs:
They wounded him deeply (emotional wounding)
They wounded him badly (physical wounding)
Note
[a] If badly is used with judge, it is interpreted as a process adjunct (perhaps express­
ing a blend of process with result) and must be put in final position:
He judged the situation badly (‘in a way that was bad and with bad results’)
The gradable/non-gradable distinction between judge and misjudge is found in other morpho­
logically related verbs, eg:
NO N-GRADABLE: calculate, estimate, rate, represent, behave, manage
GRADABLE: miscalculate, overestimate, underestimate, overrate, underrate, misrepre­
sent, misbehave, mismanage
[b] Much is largely used as a non-assertive, unless premodified or in the compared forms.
With some attitudinal verbs, unpremodified much can be used, but only in M2 position (8.3)*
We would have much preferred/appreciated her taking that position
They will much admire/regret your methods

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Downtoners
8.16

Downtoners have a lowering effect on the force of the verb. They can
be divided into four groups:
C O M PRO M ISERS have only a slight lowering effect

D IM IN IS H E R S j downwards considerably
M IN IM IZER S J

A PPR O X IM A T O R S serve to express an approxim ation to the force

o f the verb
COM PRO M ISER S
kind ofjsort o f (informal, esp AmE), quitejrather (esp BrE), more or
less
eg I kind o f like him (informal, esp AmE)
I quite enjoyed the party, but I’ve been to better ones (esp BrE)
D IM IN ISH E R S
partly, slightly, somewhat; in part, to some extent; a little
eg The incident somewhat influenced his actions in later life
We know them slightly
M IN IM IZER S
a bit; negatives: barely, hardly, little, scarcely; non-assertives: in the
least, in the slightest, at all
eg I didn’t enjoy it in the least
A : Do you like her? B: ^ bit.

A PPR O X IM A TO R S
almost, nearly, as good as, all but
eg I almost resigned
N oun phrases are quite common as non-assertive minimizers, eg\
M didn’t sleep a wink last night’; ‘I don’t owe you a thing*.
M ost downtoners favour M 2 position (8.3) but can also occur finally,
eg: ‘He more or less agrees with you’, ‘He agrees with you more or
less*. Some are^ restricted to M2: quite, rather, as good as, all but; eg
‘I quite like him’. Others tend to be restricted either to M 2 or to
M l (b), the position between two auxiliaries: barely, hardly, scarcely,
practically, virtually; hence we may have ‘He could hardly be described
as an expert’. A few are restricted to M 2 in a positive clause, but can
precede a negative phrase in M l : kind of, sort of, almost, nearly; eg
‘I almost didn’t meet him’ A few others favour final position — a bit,
at all - or are restricted to it - enough, a little; eg ‘I didn’t enjoy it
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at a ll\ ‘He hasn’t worked enoughs A je w can appear initially: in
part, in some respects, to some extent; eg "To some extent he prefers
working at home’.

8.17
Approxim ators imply a denial o f the truth-value o f what is denoted by
the verb. Hence we can say, with the approxim ator almost,
I almost resigned, but in fact I didn’t resign
The negative minimizers partially deny the truth-value o f what is said:
I .c a n scarcely ignore his views; in fact I can’t ignore his views
The second clause converts the partial denial in the first clause into a
full denial.
Compromisers reduce the force o f the verb. If we say
I kind o f like him (informal, esp AmE)
we do not deny liking him, but we seem to be deprecating what
we are saying, ‘I m ight go as far as to say I like him’.
Diminishers are not usually the focus o f negation, but when they are,
the effect is to push the scaling towards the top:
They didn’t praise him SLIG H Tly (‘They praised him a lot’)
On the other hand, the effect o f negation on those minimizers that
accept negation is to deny the truth-value o f what is denoted by the verb:
We don’t Uke it a B IT (‘We don’t like it’)
F our of the minimizers — barely, hardly, little, scarcely — are themselves
negative and cannot be negated.
Note
Certain minimizers appear in restricted environments:
(1) possibly and conceivably when they co-occur with can or could in a non-assertive clause:
They can't possibly ¡conceivably leave now (T h ey can’t under any circumstances leave
now’)
(2) never is a negative minimizer in
You will never catch the train tonight (‘It is utterly impossible that you will catch the
train tonight’)
In questions, ever can replace never as minimizer:
Will he ever¡never go to bed tonight?

8.18
Homonyms of intensifiers; quantifiers, time ‘frequency’ adjuncts, time ‘duration’
adjuncts
M any items that are intensifiers are also used to denote a measure
o f quantity or o f time duration or time frequency: all the minimizers;
the compromisers enough, sufficiently; the boosters much, a lot, a good
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deal, a great deal; the diminishers a little, least, somewhat, to some
extent. We can therefore contrast several uses o f (say) a lot:
I like them a lot (‘to a great extent’ - booster intensifier)
I paid him a lot for his work (‘a large am ount’ — quantifier)
I see him a lot (‘often’ — time frequency adjunct)
I slept a lot last night (‘a long time’ - time duration adjunct)
Some o f the quantifiers m ust be analysed as direct objects, because
they can be m ade the subject o f the passive form o f the sentence:
They paid a lot for these pictures lot was paid (by them) for
these pictures

Process adjuncts
8.19
Process adjuncts define in some way the process denoted by the verb.
They can be divided into at least three semantic subclasses:
M ANNER M EANS IN ST R U M E N T
Common pro-forms for process adjuncts are in that way, that way
(informal), like that.
Process adjuncts co-occur with dynamic verbs, but not with stative verbs:
He likes them l j^skilfully
He owns it j |*aw kw ardly
Process adjuncts favour final position, since they usually receive
the inform ation focus. Indeed, no other position is likely if the process
adjunct is obligatory for the verb:
I They live frugally ÎThey treated his friend badly
[*They frugally live |* T h ey badly treated his friend
Since the passive is often used when the need is felt to focus attention
on the verb, process adjuncts are commonly placed in M 2 position
(8.3) rather than finally when the verb is in the passive:
Tear gas was indiscriminately sprayed on the protesters
Process adjuncts realized by units other than adverb phrases often occur
initially, that position being preferred if the focus o f inform ation is
required on another part o f the sentence:
By pressing this button you can stop the machine

8.20
Manner adjuncts
Examples o f the use o f m anner adjuncts:
They sprayed tear gas indiscriminately on the protesters
She replied to questions with great courtesy
He spoke in a way that reminded me o f his father
He always writes in a carefree manner
201
 They walked {in) single file
You should write as I tell you to
M anner adjuncts are realized mostly by adverb phrases and prepo­
sitional phrases, biit also by noun phrases and clauses.
N oun phrases with way, manner, and style as head tend to have the
definite article:
'th e way I like
She cooks chicken j

As the above example illustrates, we can regard such noun phrases

as having om itted the preposition in.
An adverb m anner adjunct can usually be paraphrased by in a ...
manner or in a ... way with its adjective base in the vacant position.
Where an adverb form exists, it is usually preferred over a correspond­
ing prepositional phrase with manner or way. Hence, ‘He always writes
carelessly' is more usual than ‘He always writes in a careless manner!way'.
Adverbs as heads o f m anner phrase adjuncts are an open class.
The main m ethod o f forming m anner adverbs is by adding a -ly
suffix to an adjective. Three m inor methods are by adding -wise,
-style, or -fashion to a noun, eg: snake-wise, cowboy-style, peasant-
fashion. W ith these forms the prepositional paraphrase would include
postm odification: in the manner o f a snake, in the style o f cowboys,
in the fashion o f peasants.
Note
Some adjuncts express a blend of manner with some other meaning.
(1) Manner with result and intensification:
The soldiers wounded him badly (‘in such a way and to such an extent that
it resuhcd in his 'being in a bad condition’)
(2) Manner with time duration:
He was walking slowly (‘in such away that each step took a long time’)
Such items are more fully time adjuncts when they appear initially or medially:
Suddenly, I felt free again (‘it suddenly happened’)^
My brother quickly despised his school (‘My brother soon came to despise’)
(3) Manner with time when:
Put it together again (‘in the way that it was before’)

8 .21
Means and instrument adjuncts
Examples o f the use o f means adjuncts:
He decided to treat the patient surgically
I go to school by car
Examples o f the use o f instrum ent adjuncts:
He examined the specimen microscopically
Y ou can cut the bread with that knife
The injured horse was humanely killed with a rifle bullet
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M ost means and instrum ent adjuncts are prepositional phrases (6.31 f) ,
but some are adverb phrases and others are noun phrases w ithout an
article. We can consider the noun phrases as related to prepositional
phrases (8.20):

He sent it {by) air mail Fly

He travelled to W ashington {by) first class

Note
Adverbs as means and instrument adjuncts cannot be modified. Hence, microscopically
in ‘He examined the specimen very microscopically' can only be a manner adjunct (‘in
microscopic detail’), although without the premodifier very it can be a means or instru­
ment adjunct (‘by means of a microscope’ or ‘with a microscope’).

Subject adjuncts
8.22
Subject adjuncts relate to the referent o f the subject in an active clause
(or the agent in a passive clause) as well as to the process or state
denoted by the verb. All are either adverb or prepositional phrases.
Three groups can be distinguished: general, volitional, and formulaic.
The last group will be separately discussed in 8.23.
/
General subject adjuncts:
Resentfully, George invited her to the party (‘George invited
her to the party and was resentful about it’)
With great unease, he agreed to their plan. (‘He was very
uneasy when he ...’)
Volitional subject adjuncts:
He left his proposals vague on purpose (‘It was his purpose
to ...’)
He deliberately misled us (‘He was being deliberate when he ...’)
Common volitional subject adjuncts: deliberately, {unintentionally, pur­
posely, reluctantly, voluntarily, wilfully, {un)willingly\ on purpose,
with reluctance
The subject adjuncts show their relationship to the subject by the
paraphrase they allow. F o r example, we must provide ^a different par­
aphrase for the subject adjunct bitterly from its homonyms as m anner
adjunct and booster intensifier:
Bitterly, he buried his children (‘He was bitter when he ...’)
He spoke bitterly about their attitude (‘He spoke in a bitter way ...’)
He bitterly regretted their departure (‘He very much regretted ...’)
Volitional subject adjuncts differ from other subject adjuncts in that
(1) they express the subject’s intention or willingness, or the reverse
(2) they can often occur with intensive verbs:
He is deliberately being a nuisance
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 (3) they can more easily appear before clause negation:
Intentionally, he didn’t write to them about it
> Subject adjuncts require an anim ate subject:
Joan resentfully packed their luggage
♦The water resentfully boiled
However, in the passive form it is the agent (whether present or not)
that must be anim ate:
Their luggage was resentfully packed (by Joan)
Subject adjuncts tend to occur initially or medially, but M 2 position
(8.3) is probably preferred.

8.23
Formulaic adjuncts
Except for please, formulaic adjuncts tend to be restricted to M 2 po­
sition (8.3). They are a small group o f adverbs used as m arkers o f
courtesy. All except please are modifiable by very. The m ost common
are exemplified below:
He kindly offered me a ride (‘He was kind enough to ...’)
We cordially invite you to our party (‘We express our cordiality
to you by inviting ...’)
She announced that she will graciously consent to our request
(‘... she will be gracious enough to ...’)
He humbly offered his apologies (‘He was humble enough to
ofTer ...’)
Take a seat please (‘Please me by taking ...’)
Kindly and please are the only formulaic adjuncts to appear freely
before imperatives. Kindly is restricted to initial position in imperatives:
Kindly leave the room
Please, however, is mobile:
Please leave the room Open the door please
Unlike the other formulaic adjuncts, please is normally limited to sen­
tences having the function o f a command, or containing a reported
command, or constituting a request:
Will you please leave the room ?
You will please leave the room
I wonder whether you would m ind leaving the room please
I asked him whether he would please leave the room
M ay I please have my book back?
Please and (to a lesser extent) kindly are very commonly used to
tone down the abruptness o f a command.
204
Plaice adjuncts
8.24

Place adjuncts denote static position and also direction, movement, and
passage, here brought together under the general term ‘direction’. Most
place adjuncts are prepositional phrases, but clauses, adverb phrases
and noun phrases are frequently used:
He lives in a small village
The church was built where there had once been
an office block position
They are not there
She works a long way fro m here

He ran past the sentry

They followed him wherever he went
direction
I took the papers from the desk
He threw it ten yards

Position adjuncts can normally be evoked as a response to a

where question:
A : Where is he staying? B: /« à ho tel ^
The appropriate question for direction adjuncts is where plus the rel­
evant directional particle, except that for ‘direction towards’ the particle
to is commonly om itted:
A : Where are you going {to)! B: {To) the park.
A : Where have you come fr o m ! B: {From) the supermarket.
Adverbs commonly used for both position and direction: above, along,
anywhere, around, away, back, below, by, down, east (and other compass
points), elsewhere, everywhere, far, here, home, in, locally, near, off,
opposite, out, over, past, round, somewhere, there, through, under, up,
within.
A few adverbs denote direction only: aside, backward{s), downward{s),
forw ard(s), inward(s), left, outward(s), right, sideways, upward(s).
Where in its various usés is a place adjunct; here and there are
pro-forms for place adjuncts.

8.25

Co-occurrence restrictions on place adjuncts

Direction adjuncts are used only with verbs o f motion' or with other
dynamic verbs that allow a directional meaning:
He jum ped over the fence
She was whispering softly into the microphone
205
On the other hand, position adjuncts can be used with most verbs,
including stative verbs.
Position adjuncts, are used as predicative adjuncts with the intensive
verb be:
Y our sister is in the next room
The house you want is on the other side o f thestreet
Some direction adjuncts/ are also used with be, but with a resultative
meaning, indicating the/ state o f having reached the destination. Some
place adjuncts are oblicatory, providing verb com plementation to verbs
other than be: I
We don’t live here They put the cat out
I’ll get below Y ou should set that dish in the middle
Place adjuncts are used also non-hterally in phrasal verbs:
The light is on (‘is shining’)
When John heard what happened, he blew up (‘became very angry’)
They turned down the suggestion (‘rejected’)
Up, in particular, is used as an intensifier or perfectively:
You m ust drink up quickly (‘finish drinking’)
They closed up the factory (‘closed completely’)

8.26
Position and direction adjuncts in the same clause
Position and direction adjuncts can co-occur, with the position adjunct
normally following the direction adjunct in final position:
The children are running around (Ai) upstairs (A 2)
The position adjunct can be put in initially to avoid giving it
end-focus:
Upstairs the children are running around
A prepositional phrase may be put in that position, as in
In the park some o f the children are walking to the lake
to prevent it from being interpreted as a postmodifier o f a previous
noun phrase. There are other ways o f avoiding such an interpretation, eg:
Some o f the children are in the park and walking to the lake
Two position adjuncts or two direction adjuncts can be coordinated:
We can wait for you here or in the car
They went up the hill and into the station
But a position and a direction adjunct normally cannot be coordi­
nated. Hence in
The baby was crawling upstairs and into his parents* bedroom
upstairs can be interpreted only as a direction adjunct since it is coor­
dinated with a phrase that has only a directional function.
206
8.27

Hierarchical relationship

Two position adjuncts can co-occur:

M any people eat in restaurants (Aj) in London (A 2)
Only the adjunct denoting the larger place can be moved to initial
position :
In London many people eat in restaurants
*In restaurants m any people eat in London
Initial position may be preferred in the case o f a prepositional phrase
that can also be interpreted as postmodifier o f a previous noun phrase,
as possibly with {restaurants) in London {cf 8.26).
Two direction adjuncts can also co-occuf:
He came to London from Rome
He went from Rome to London
The norm al order o f these direction adjuncts accords with the interpre­
tation of the verb. Come concerns arrival, and therefore the destina­
tion {to London) is normally m entioned before the point o f departure
{from Rome), whereas go concerns departure and therefore the reverse
order is normal.
The norm al order o f juxtaposed direction adjuncts otherwise follows
the same order as the events described:
They drove down the hill (Aj) to the village (A 2)
Similarly, only the adjunct relating to the earlier event can be transposed
to initial position:
And then fro m Alexandria the party proceeded to Cairo

8.28
Positions of place adjuncts

Both types o f place adjunct favour final position:

m eet you downstairs
position 1 ^ “ J
11 find the sugar where the coffee is

[ r i l go downstairs
direction ^ . . , ,. ,
[We re moving some new furniture into the kitchen

Position adjuncts, particularly prepositional phrases, often appear initially.

They may be put there to avoid end-focus, or to avoid m isinterpreta­
tion, or to avoid a clustering o f adjuncts at final position, though
it is not usually possible to isolate any one reason.
Outside, children were jum ping and skipping
207
Here ... be and There ... be with a personal pronoun as subject and
the verb in the simple present are commonly used to draw attention
to the presence o f somebody or something:
Here I dLVCijHere it hjThere she islThere you are
Speakers sometimes put position adjuncts (especially here, there, and
compounds with -where) in M 2 and ’m ore rarely in M l (8.3):
We are here enjoying a different kind o f existence
Place adjuncts can take the position between verb and object if the
object is long:

They W e d the kitchen every conceivable kind of furniture

[found m J

Some direction adjuncts are put initially to convey a dram atic impact.
They normally co-occur with a verb in the simple present or simple
past:
Away he goes On they marched
If the subject is not a pronoun but a noun (and therefore has greater
inform ation value), subject-verb inversion is norm al when any place
adjunct is initial:
Away goes the servant On the very top o f the hill lives a hermit

Here 4- be and there 4- be with the verb in the simple present are
common in speech:
Here are the tools There's your brother ^

Direction adjuncts are put in initial position virtually only in lit­

erary English and in children’s literature. A few exceptions occur in
informal speech, mainly with go, come, and get in either the im­
perative with the retained subject you or in the simple present:

In (the bath) 'j fcom e

Over (the fence) > you <go
U nder (the bridge) J (get

, 1 There they Here go

U nder > you go ^ (come (we
R ound J u u
Here he comes

Note
[a] There are some idiomatic expressions with here and th e re \
Here
you are = This is for you
There
Here we are = We’ve arrived at the expected place
There you are = That supports or proves what I’ve said

208
[¿>] Certain direction adjuncts are commonly used as imperatives, with an implied verb
o f motion:
Out{side)!, In{side)!, {Over) Here!. (Over) There!, (Right) Back!,
Down!, Off!. Up!. Under!. Left!. Right!. Away!.
Up the stairs!. Out o f the house!. To bed!
This applies also to some other adjuncts, eg: Quickly!. Slowly!. Carefully!

8.29

Position adjuncts in relation to subject and object

Position adjuncts normally indicate where the referent o f the subject

and (if present) o f the object are located, and usually the place is
the same for both referents:
I m et John on a bus (John and I were on the bus)
But sometimes the places can be different:
I saw John on a bus (John was on the bus but I need not
have been)
W ith verbs o f placing, the reference is always to the place o f the
object and normally that will differ from the place o f the subject:
I have Ikeep Iput Ipark Ishelter my car in a garage
W ith certain verbs o f saying, arranging, expecting, position adjuncts
are resultative and are like predicative adjuncts of the direct object:
I want m y car IN T H E G A R A G E (‘to be in the garage’)
They plan a meeting A T M Y H O U SE (‘that there should be a meeting
at my house’)
They offered a barbecue N E A R B Y (‘to have a barbecue nearby’)
I like m y dinner IN T H E K IT C H E N (‘to have my dinner in the
kitchen’)
\

The position adjunct may sometimes refer to the object in a con­

ditional relationship: ^
I only like barbecues O N T H E B E A C H (‘if they are held on the
. beach’)

Time adjuncts

8.30

Time adjuncts that are clauses or prepositional phrases or noun phrases

are discussed elsewhere.
Time adjuncts can be divided into four main semantic classes:
209
 j — point o f time, eg. today
W H EN-
'— boundary o f time, e g ' afterwards

f— •length o f time, eg: briefly

D U R A T IO N
'----flTom some preceding point in time, eg. since

T IM E period, eg: daily

A D JU N C T S
definite
number, eg: twice
FREQUENCY
usual occurrence, eg usually
continuous/continual
indefinite eg: always
high, eg: often
low or zero, eg: occasionally,
never

O TH ER R E L A T IO N S H IP S, eg: already

Time ‘when’ adjuncts

8.31
M ost time when adverbs can serve as a response to a when question:
. \L a st night.
A : W hen did he arrive? B:
[While you were at the library.
When in its various uses is in part pro-form for the time adjuncts.
Time when adjuncts can be divided into
[A] those denoting a point o f time
[B] those denoting a boundary o f time, ie a point o f time but
also implying the point from which that time is measured
Common adverbs in these two groups include:
G roup A
again (‘on another occasion’), just (‘at this verv m om ent’), late
(‘at a late time’), now (‘at this time’), nowadays (‘at the
present time’), presently (‘at the present time’, esp AmE),
then (‘at that time’), today
G roup B
afterwards, before, eventually (‘in the end’), formerly, just (‘a very
short time ago’), lately (‘a short time ago’), momentarily
(‘in a m om ent’, AmE), previously (‘before’), presently (‘soon’),
recently (‘a short time ago’), since (‘after th at’), soon, then
(‘after th at’)
Examples o f the use o f time when adjuncts:
G roup A
I was in NeW' York last year and am now living in Baltimore
I’m just finishing my homework
210
 I was awarded my Bachelor o f A rts degree in 1970
r il tell you all the news when I get back home
G roup B
I haven’t any time at the m om ent but I’ll see you soon
Take a drink and then go to bed
Will you be there after lunch?
The town was destroyed by an earthquake ten years ago, but
it has been rebuilt since then
We went home after the rain stopped
M ost time when adjuncts in G roup A normally occur finally, but
just is restricted to M 2 position (8.3), eg: I v e just heard that you
are leaving us. Nowadays and presently commonly occur initially, eg:
Nowadays, many teenagers have long hair. Those in G roup B commonly
occur , initially or at M 2 position.
Nate
[a] Earlier and later are synonymous with before {that) and afterwards respectively:
He remembered the many insults that he had earlier experienced
He handed in his resignation, and later regretted his hasty action
[b] Presently is synonymous with soon where there is a modal auxiliary or (for some
speakers) when the verb is in the past:
will presently call on him
They
presently called on him
(Some find presently unacceptable when it co-occurs with a verb in the past.)
On the other hand, when the verb is in the present, it is synonymous with at present
(esp AmE):
They are presently staying with him

8.32

M ost adverbs in G roup B are used as correlatives to denote temporal

sequence; as such they tend to occur initially or medially:
First they petitioned the Governor, but heard nothing from him.
Then they wrote to the President, and received a polite but vague
reply from some official. They next organized a peaceful dem onstra­
tion. A nd finally they picketed all Federal buildings in the city.

8.33

Time when adjuncts can be in a hierarchical relationship:

I’ll see you at nine (Aj) on Monday (A 2)
The order o f final adjuncts depends in part on inform ation focus,
but the tendency is for the superordinate adjunct (the one denoting
the more extended period) to come last. However, the order may be
reversed if the other adjunct is considerably longer:
I was in New Y ork last year (A j) before the first snow fe ll (A 2)
211
Only the superordinate adjunct can occur initially:
On Monday I’ll see you at nine
*At nine I’ll see you on Monday

8.34
Time ^duration’ adjuncts
Time duration adjuncts can be divided into two groups:
[A] those denoting length o f time
[B] those denoting duration from some preceding point o f time
Time duration adjuncts in G roup A can serve as a response to a
{for) how long question:
{For) About a month.

repaired.
{
Till I can get m y car

Adverbs in G roup B cannot serve as a response to such a question

though prepositional phrases and clauses can do so:
A: (For) How long have you been collecting stamps?
B: * Since ¡* Recently ¡Since last monthj Since I was a child
Those in G roup B co-occur with perfect aspect:

His studies > improving lately ¡recently ¡since

[*weren t J
Common adverbs in the two groups include:
G roup A
always, long, momentarily (‘for a m om ent’), permanently, temporarily
G roup B
lately ¡recently (‘during a recent period’)
since (‘from some time in the past’)
Examples o f the use of time duration adjuncts:
G roup A
I have always lived here
I’ll be in California fo r the summer
Was it noisy the whole night?
There was no trouble while we were there
G roup B
He insulted me last year and I haven’t spoken to him since
Things haven’t become any better lately
I have been waiting for the books to be delivered ever since I came
to this apartment
Time duration adjuncts are normally positioned finally, except for
three adverbs normally positioned at M2 (8.3): momentarily, permanently,
temporarily.
212
Note
[a] When lately and recently are lime when adjuncts, they can co-occur with simple past
as w ell.
He lately Irecently moved into a new apartment
Since requires perfect aspect even when it is a time when adjunct:
has since movedl . , , ^
He , > mto a new apartment
♦smce moved J
[b] Uninflected long is normally a non-assertive form and positioned finally, but it can
be an assertive form when it co-occurs with certain verbs and is then usually po­
sitioned at M2. The verbs seem to be mainly verbs o f belief or assumption, at­
titudinal verbs, and some verbs of speaking
I have long admired his style o f writing
He has long thought o f retiring at the age o f 55
[c] Since when and until (or till) when are used to form questions:
A: Since when have you known him? B: Since he joined our club.
A: Until when are you staying? B: Untilnext Monday.
These are the normal positions for since and until/till, postposition being unacceptable
for since and until: * W hen-have you known him since?, *When are you staying
until?, and the less common position for till: ?When are you staying till? In this
respect, they contrast with how long ... for; fo r is normally postposed, the initial
position being a formal variant.

Time ‘frequency’ adjuncts

8.35
M ost time frequency adjuncts can serve as a response to a how often
question:
Every Sunday.

half-hour. {
Whenever I fin d a spare

Time frequency adjuncts are usually adverb phrases or noun phrases,

and they can be divided semantically into two m ajor subclasses:
[I] those naming explicitly the times by which the frequency is
m easured: D E F IN IT E FR E Q U E N C Y
[II] those not doing so: IN D E F IN IT E FR E Q U E N C Y
Each of these subclasses can in turn be subdivided. In each case we
list common adverbs.
[I] D E FIN IT E FR E Q U E N C Y
[A] PE R IO D FR E Q U E N C Y
Committee meetings take place weekly
If so desired, rent can be paid per week instead o f per month
common adverbs: hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, annually
[B] N U M B E R FR E Q U E N C Y
I have been in Singapore O N C E (onTy)
H e again demanded a refund (‘for a second time’)
common adverbs: again, once (‘one time only’), twice, etc\ other­
wise phrases, eg\ three times, on five occasions
213
 [II] IN D E F IN IT E FR E Q U E N C Y
[C] USUAL O C C U R R E N C E
We ng/mdlly don’t go to bed before midnight
As usual, nobody asked anything at the end of the lecture
common adverbs: commonly, generally, invariably, normally,
usually
[D] C O N T IN U O U S/C O N T IN U A L FR E Q U E N C Y
Does she always dress well?
He is continually complaining about the noise
common adverbs: always, constantly, continually, continuously
[E] H IG H FR E Q U E N C Y
I have often told them to relax more
Have you been ill many times?
common adverbs: frequently, often, regularly, repeatedly
[F] LOW O R ZERO FR E Q U E N C Y
I sometimes think she doesn’t know what she’s talking about
I have been in his office on several occasions
common adverbs: infrequently, occasionally, rarely, seldom,
sometimes; never, ever (‘at any time’)
Time frequency adjuncts in G roups A and B normally occur fi­
nally. Those in G roups C-F are normally positioned at ^M 2, but are
often found at M l (8.3). Phrases (apart from those consisting o f an
adverb or a premodified adverb) are normally initial for G roup C
{eg: as usual, as a rule, fo r the most part) and final for G roups
D-E {eg: at all times, many times, now and again).
Note
We should add to Groups E and F items that are used as intensifiers:
[E] much, a lot, a good deal, a great deal (all equivalent to often or very often)
[F] a little (‘very occasionally’), little (‘hardly at any time’),
less (‘less frequently’), least (‘least frequently’),
a bit (‘occasionally’); barely, hardly, scarcely
eg I don’t see him very much (‘very often’)
I go there very little (‘very infrequently’)
As frequency adjuncts, hardly and scarcely tend to co-occur with non-assertive ever (‘at
any time’):
I hardly Iscarcely ever go there

8.36
Adjuncts of definite frequency in G roup A denote the period o f time
by which the frequency-is measured, while those in [B] express the
measurement in number o f times. Items from each group can co-occur,
normally with the item from [B] coming first:
You should take the medicine twice [B] daily [A]
214
Those in [A] can also co-occur with each other in a hierarchical
relationship:
She felt his pulse hourly [A] each day [A]
The order o f the adjuncts in final position depends in part on in­
formation focus, but only the one denoting the longer period can occur
initially:
Each day she felt his pulse hourly
Those in [B] can likewise co-occur with each other in a hierarchical
relationship with a m om entary verb:
I spoke with him twice on two occasions (‘two times on each o f
two occasions’)
As here, the superordinate adjunct tends to follow the subordinate
adjunct; but it can be initial:
On two occasions I spoke with him twice
Adjuncts in [B] can often be the response to the question How
many times?:
A : How many times did you speak with him? B: Twice

8.37

Adjuncts o f indefinite frequency in G roup C denote usual occurrence.

They differ from most of the other adjuncts o f indefinite frequency in
that they can precede the clausal negative, in which case they indicate
that it is normal for something not to occur:
Generally [Normally ¡Usually, he doesn’t take medicine
Those in [E] and [F] that precede negation express a high or low
frequency. It is not contradictory to assert that it is frequent (or
infrequent) for something to occur and at the same time that it is
frequent (or infrequent) for it not to occur:

Often often
he doesn’t take medicine, but he does
Occasionally occasionally

(take medicine)

8.38

TIME FREQUENCY ADJUNCTS A N D QUANTIFIERS

If the subject is generic, many adjuncts o f indefinite frequency, partic­

ularly when positioned initially or medially, are equivalent to certain
predeterminers or to certain quantifiers in the noun phrase o f the subject.
For example, in
Sailors drink rum often (‘on many occasions’)
215
often refers to the frequency o f the drinking o f rum. However,
Often sailorsj often happens that ...’)
Sailors oftenj ^ ^
is very similar to
M any sailors drink rum

Other time relationships

8.39

Adjuncts included here express some relationship in time other than

those specified in 8.31-38. One group consists o f adjuncts concerned
with the sequence within the clause o f two time relationships, and they
co-occur with time when adjuncts. M any o f the same items are also used
as correlatives to denote temporal sequence between clauses or between
sentences (8.32):
These techniques were originally used in the Second W orld W ar
It wasn’t until last night that I was finally introduced to her
She broke her leg fo r the first tirne when she was ten
Adverb phrases normally appear in M 2 (8.3) and other phrases in final
position. Com m on adverbs in this group include afterwards, eventually,
finally, first, later, next, originally, subsequently, then.

8.40

A nother group consists o f adjuncts that are similar to time duration

adjuncts in that they express duration up to or before a given or implied
time; they are related by assertive/non-assertive contrasts:
assertive form s: already, still, by now
non-assertive forms: yet, any more, any longer
negative forms: no more, no longer
They have finished their work by now
We haven’t yet eaten
He would stay no longer
M ost o f these adjuncts occur either in M 2 position (8.3) or finally, but
already is normally in M 2 position.
The three items yet, already, and still are in particular closely
related. In contrast to non-assertive yet, already and still cannot lie
within the scope o f clause negation except in questions. Still, unlike
already, can precede negation. We therefore have the following possibilities:
DECLA RA TIV E POSITIVE
I already like him (‘I have by this time come to like him’)
*I yet like him
I still like him (‘I continue to like him ’)
216
 D ECLA RA TIV E NEG A TIV E (adverb preceding negation)
*I already haven’t spoken to him
*I yet haven’t spoken to him
I still haven’t spoken to him (‘I haven’t spoken to him so far’)
D ECLA RA TIV E NEG A TIV E (adverb following negation)
*He can’t already drive
He can’t drive yet (‘He can’t drive up to this time’)
?He can’t still drive (‘He can’t continue to drive’)
IN TER R O G A TIV E POSITIVE
Have you already seen him? (That was quick)
Have you seen him y e t! (Y ou’ve been here ages)
D o you still see him? (‘D o you continue to see him ?’)
IN TER R O G A TIV E N E G A TIV E
Haven’t you seen him already?^ (‘Haven’t you by this time seen
Haven’t you seen him y e t! j him ?’)
D on’t you still see him? (‘D on’t you continue to see him ?’)

Note
[fl] The difference between already and yet in questions is thart already expects an affirmative
answer whereas yet leaves open whether the answer is negative or positive.
[¿)] Yet can be assertive in ccrtain contexts where it is similar in meaning to still:
I have yet to find out what he wants (‘I have still to ...’)
I can see him yet (‘I can still see him’)
There’s plenty o f time yet (There’s plenty of time still')
[c] Still often blends concessive and temporal meanings. For example, in
It’s very late and he’s still working (‘He’s continuing even so to work’)

8.41
Relative positions of time adjuncts
Adjuncts from the three m ajor subclasses that can co-occur in final
position - time when, time duration, and time frequency — tend to occur
in the order
time duration (D) — time frequency (F) — time when (W)
The following sentences exemplify the normal order (but c f 8.45):
I was there fo r a day or so (D) every year (F) during my childhood
I’m paying my rent monthly (F) this year (W)
Our electricity was cut off briefly (D) today (W)

8.42
Time adjuncts and time reference
Time adjuncts play a part in specifying the time reference o f the verb
phrase. Thus, now determines that the reference in
He is playing now
217
is present, and tomorrow that it is future in
He is playing tomorrow

8.43
Time adjuncts as predicative adjuncts with ‘be’
Time adjuncts can co-occur with all verbs, including be:
It’s much warmer now
M any of them can also be used as predicative adjuncts with be:
T IM E W H E N
The meeting will be tomorrow
TIM E D U R A T IO N
The show is from nine till twelve
TIM E F R E Q U E N C Y
Interviews are every hour
Be in such cases is equivalent to ‘take place’, and the subject must be
eventive. F or example in
The opera will be tonight
the opera is interpreted as ‘the performance o f the opera’.

8.44
Other classes of adjuncts
Some classes o f adjuncts are realized by prepositional phrases or clauses
and either rarely or not at all by adverb phrases. For example, there are
adjuncts expressing purpose, but there are few adverbs used in this way.
(See Note below.) Other classes o f adjuncts are realized by prepositional
phrases only; for example, adjuncts expressing source or origin, as in
He took the book from me
Note
Perhaps symbolically (‘for a symbolic purpose’, ‘as a symbol’) and experimentally (‘for
an experimental purpose’, ‘as an experiment’) in the following sentences are instances of
adverbs used to denote purpose;
They symbolically buried the car as a protest against pollution;
The teacher experimentally called the students by their first names

8.45

Relative positions of adjuncts

W here adjuncts cluster in final position, the norm al order is

process - place - time
218
This order is exemplified in
He was working with his shears (process) in the garden (place) the
whole morning (time).
Three other general principles apply to relative order whether within
a class or between classes:
(1) The norm al relative order can be changed to suit the desire for
end-focus
(2) A clause normally comes after other structures, since otherwise
these would be interpreted as adjuncts o f the clause:
We stood talking fo r a very long time (Ai) where the fire had
been (A 2)
(3) Longer adjuncts tend to follow shorter adjuncts:
I was studying earlier (Aj) in the university library (A 2)
This principle often coincides with (1) and (2).
Adjuncts that can occur initially are often put in that position for
reasons o f inform ation focus, but also to avoid having too m any adjuncts
in final position. We might, therefore, ha:Ve moved the time adjunct in
the first example o f this section to initial position:
The whole morning he was working with his shears in the garden
It is not xisual for more than one adjunct to be in initial position,
but time and place adjuncts sometimes co-occur there:
In London, after the war, damaged buildings were quickly demolished
and replaced by new ones
Viewpoint adjuncts also cQ-occur with other adjuncts in initial position:
Economically, in this century our country has suffered many crises

Disjuncts
8.46
Most disjuncts are prepositional phrases or clauses. Disjuncts can be
divided into two m ain classes: STYLE D ISJU N C TS (by far the smaller
class) and A T T IT U D IN A L D ISJU N CTS. Style disjuncts convey the speaker’s
comment on the form o f what he is saying, defining in some way
under what conditions he is speaking. A ttitudinal disjuncts, on the other
hand, comment on the content o f the communication.
«
Style disjuncts
8.47
Examples o f the use o f style disjuncts:
Seriously, do you intend to resign?
Personally, I don’t approve o f her
219
 Strictly speaking, nobody is allowed in here
There are twelve people present, to be precise
I f I may say so, that dress doesn’t suit you
The adverb phrase as style disjunct implies a verb o f speaking o f
which the subject is the / o f the speaker. Thus, very frankly in
Very frankly, I am tired
is equivalent to / tell you very frankly. In a question, eg
Very frankly, is he tired?
the disjunct may be ambiguous. Here, very frankly corresponds to
/ ask you very frankly or to the more probable Tell me very frankly.
Common adverbs as style disjuncts include: bluntly, briefly, candidly,
confidentially, frankly, generally, honestly, personally, seriously.
Style disjuncts normally appear initially.

8.48
For some adverb phrases as style disjuncts, we have a series correspond­
ing to them in other structures. For example, in place o f frankly in
Frankly, he hasn’t a chance^
we could put:
prepositional phrase - in all frankness
infinitive clause — to be fra n k, to speak frankly, to put it frankly
’ing participle clause —frankly speaking, putting it frankly
-ed participle clause —put frankly
finite verb clause — if I may be fra n k, i f I can speak frankly, i f I
can put it frankly
For all o f the adverbs listed in 8.47, correspopding particle constructions
with speaking are available as style disjuncts, eg: se rio u sly se rio u sly
speaking. M any have infinitive clauses o f the form to be plus the stem
adjective, eg: bluntly ^ to be blunt. Those allowing such infinitive clauses
have a corresponding finite clause with if, eg: i f I may be blunt.
Note
[a] The style disjunct generally is to be distinguished from the time frequency adjunct
generally, synonymous with usually. The style disjunct is exemplified in
The committee interviewed the two writers. Generally, the writers were against censorship.
[b] The style disjunct personally is to be distinguished from the intensifier personally,
which is synonymous with the appropriate reflexive form of the pronoun-
I personally Im yself have never been to New York
These are both to be distinguished from the adjunct personally :
He signed the document personally (‘in person’)

Attitudinal disjuncts
8.49
Attitudinal disjuncts convey the speaker’s com ment on the content o f what
he is saying. They can generally appear only in declarative clauses:
220
 Obviously, nobody expected us to be here today
Understandably, they were all annoyed when they read the letter
He is wisely staying at home today
They arrived, to our surprise, before we did
O f course, nobody imagines that she will act so foolishly
To be sure, we have heard many such promises before
Even more important, he has control over the finances of the party
They are not going to buy the house, which is not surprising in view o f its
exorbitant price
What is even more remarkable, he manages to inspire confidence in
the most suspicious people
While attitudinal disjuncts can appear in almost any position, the
normal position for m ost is initial.

Conjuncts
8.50
M ost conjuncts are adverb phrases or prepositional phrases.
Examples of the use o f conjuncts are given below, followed by a list
of common conjuncts, which are grouped according to their subclasses:
r d like you to do two things for me. First, phone the office and tell
them r i l be late. Secondly, order a taxi to be here in about half
an hour.
You can tell him from me that I’m not going to put up with his
complaints any longer. W hat’s more. I’m going to tell him that
myself when I see him tomorrow.
I see that you’ve given him an excellent report. Y ou’re satisfied with his
work then, are you?
I took him to the zoo early this m orning and then we went to see a circus.
A ll in all, he’s had a very good time today.
It was a very difficult examination. Nevertheless, he passed it with distinction.
He doesn’t need any money from us. On the contrary, we should be going
to him for a loan.
E N U M ER A TIV E: first, second, third ...; fir s t(ly ), secondly, thirdly ...;
one, two, three (especially in learned and technical use); a, b, c
(especially in learned and technical use); fo r one thing ... (and)
fo r another (th in g ); fo r a start (informal); to begin with, to start
with; in the first place, in the second place; next, then; finally,
last, lastly; to conclude (formal)
R E IN F O R C IN G : also, furthermore, moreover, then (informal, especially
spoken), in addition, above all, what is more
EQUATIVE: equally, likewise, sim ihrly, in the same way
TR A N SIT IO N A L : by the way, incidentally
SU M M A TIV E: then, (all) in all, in conclusion, to sum up
221
A PPO SIT IO N : namely (often abbreviated to viz in formal written English),
in other words, fo r example (often abbreviated to e. g. or eg), fo r
instance, that is (often abbreviated to i, e. o r ie in specialized written
English), that is to say
R E S U L T : consequently, hence (formal), so (informal), therefore, thus
(formal), as a result, [somehow (‘for some reason or other’)]
IN FE R E N T IA L : else, otherwise, then, in other words, in that case
R E F O R M U L A T O R Y : better, rather, in other words
REPLA CIV E: alternatively, rather, on the other hand
A N TITH E T IC : instead (blend o f antithetic with replacive), then, on the
contrary, in contrast, by comparison, (on the one hand ...) on the
other hand
C O N CESSIV E: anyhow (informal), anyway (informal), besides (blend of rein­
forcing with concessive), else, however, nevertheless, still, though, yet,
in any case, at any rate, in spite o f that, after all, on the other hand,
all the same
TEM PO R A L T R A N SIT IO N : meantime, meanwhile, in the meantime
Note
[a] Somehow has been listed with result conjuncts because it is closest to them semaatically
It differs from all other conjuncts in not indicating a relationship between its clause
and what precedes:
Somehow I don’t trust him (‘for some reason or other’)
Somehow is used when the reason is not made explicit in the preceding context.
[b] On the other is an alternative form of on the other hand when it is correlative to
on the one hand.

8.51

Positions of conjuncts
The normal position for most conjuncts is initial. In that position they
are usually separated from what follows by a tone unit boundary in speech
or a comma in writing. In other positions, they may be in an independent
tone unit or enclosed in commas to prevent conf^usion with homonyms
pr contribute towards indicating inform ation focus.
Some conjuncts are restricted, or virtually restricted, to initial position:
again, also, altogether, besides, better, else, equally, further, hence, like­
wise, more, only, overall, similarly, so, still, then (antithetic), yet.
Medial positions are rare for most conjuncts, and final position rarer
still. Those that readily occur finally include anyhow, anyway, otherwise,
and (commonly) though. The last two frequently appear medially.
Virtually all conjuncts can appear with questions, most of them initially:
Anyway, do you know the answer?
Will you therefore resign?
222
8.52

Conjuncts as correlatives
Sometimes the logical relationship between a subordinate clause and the
following superordinate clause is emphasized by adding a conjunct to the
la tte r:
Though he is poor, yet he is satisfied with his situation
The sentences with the subordinator alone and the conjunct yet alone are
similar in meaning:
Though he is poor, he is satisfied with his situation
He is poor, yet he is satisfied with his situation
The m ajor difference is that the second states his poverty as a fact,
whereas in the first his poverty is presupposed as given information.
The conjuncts that reinforce particular subordinators are shown below
It is more usual to reinforce condition and concession subordinators than
cause and time subordinators.
condition: if... then
concession: although/(even) though/'j yet/still/however/
while/granted (that)/ > nevertheless/nonetheless/
even if J notwithstanding/anyway/
, anyhow

cause:
.b ecau »/i»e,„g
/ •
(that) ...
f therefore/hence/accordingly/

time: while ... meanwhile/meantime

Correlations with concession and cause are chiefly found in formal use.
Note
Certain other expressions with concessive, force may correlate with a concessive conjunct,
for example, true, clearly, or certainly.

8.53
Conjunctions for clauses with conjuncts
A clause containing a conjunct may be linked to a preceding clause
by one of the coordinators (and, or, but). The following conjuncts seem
to be limited to the specified coordinators:
and so or 4- elsejagain (replacive)
but + howeverjthen (antithetic)/r/ii?wg/i
andjbut + besides! stilllyetlnevertheless
Two of these conjuncts — however and though — cannot follow the
conjunction immediately. T hat is to say, if but is the coordinator, however
and though cannot be initial, although either can be if there is no pre­
ceding conjunction. We can therefore have:
223
 You can phone the doctor if you like, hut I very much doubt, however,
whether he will come out on a Saturday night.
You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt
whether he will come out on a Saturday night.
but not
*You can phone the doctor if you like, hut, however, I very much
doubt whether he will come out on a Saturday night.
Conjuncts occasionally occur in dependent finite clauses; eg
(a) Adverbial clauses:
I met him in the park, when, however, we had no time to speak

(b) Restrictive relative clauses:

He was considered a man who might anyway break his promise

(c) Non-restrictive relative clauses:

I ’m inviting Peter, who is a student, and who therefore cannot

afford to spend too much money.