2: How Students Learn

As a visiting lecturer at Ohio State some years ago, Professor Tony Grasha of the University of Cincinnati
titled his talk, “How Can I Teach You If I Don’t Know How You Learn?” Although Grasha’s question
seems perfectly logical, quite amazingly, colleges and universities have traditionally had no formal require-
ments for any study of learning theory in the backgrounds of the people they hire to teach. The long-
standing assumption has been that if one knows a body of knowledge, one can teach it. Recently, this
assumption has been questioned and more systematic efforts to prepare graduate students and new faculty
for teaching have been undertaken. Knowing how students learn involves exploring theories of cognition
and motivation, knowing the backgrounds of the students one will teach, and being aware of differences
in learning styles and stages of development among one’s students.

The material offered here will provide an overview of current learning theory, some constructs that have
been used by researchers to organize descriptive information on students’ ways of learning, and implica-
tions for instructors.

Ideas on How Learning learner has established for fitting pieces of informa-
tion together. At times, new frameworks must be
Occurs constructed as well. Good explanations of learning
theory applied to college teaching are contained in
Ideas on how human learning occurs are explored
Bruning (1994) and Casazza and Silverman
primarily by psychologists. A very powerful
(1996).
explanation posed by a group of theorists taking
what has come to be called the behaviorist-
Svinicki (1991) outlines six principles of learning
associationist approach has for years dominated
based on cognitive theory and their implications
thinking on how people learn. Some tenets of this
for instructors:
theory are that people learn through associations
and that a given stimulus will produce a response.
1. If information is to be learned, it must first be
The well-known example is Pavlov’s classical
recognized as important.
conditioning exercise of the salivating dog.
Implication: The more attention is effectively
Learning is viewed as the building up of habits of
directed toward what is to be learned (that is,
association. Repetition, especially followed by
toward critical concepts and major areas), the
positive reinforcement, promotes learning. The
higher the probability of learning.
teacher breaks up knowledge into small, logically
organized bits of information and provides
2. During learning, learners act on information
reinforcement for students to learn. Many of the
in ways that make it more meaningful.
approaches in college teaching today, such as
Implication: Both instructor and student
behavioral objectives, hierarchical curricula, and
should use examples, images, elaborations, and
objective testing, are the legacy of behaviorist-
connections to prior knowledge to increase the
associationist thinking.
meaningfulness of information.
More recently, the cognitive approach has been
3. Learners store information in long-term
favored as an explanation for how people learn in
memory in an organized fashion related to
settings such as college environments, where
their existing understanding of the world.
knowledge is complex and process is as important
Implication: The instructor can facilitate the
as recall of facts. Cognitive psychologists focus on
organization of new materials by providing an
memory, reasoning, and tasks such as critical
organizational structure, particularly one with
thinking and problem solving. They are most
which students are familiar, or by encouraging
interested in how learners construct meaning as
students to create such structures.
they encounter new information and try to fit it in
with what they already know. These theorists
4. Learners continually check understanding,
describe learning as a process of accommodating
which results in refinement and revision of
new information into existing frameworks that the
what is retained.

How Students Learn 7

 Implication: Ample opportunities for checking
and diagnosis should be given to aid learning.
The Role of Motivation and
Classroom Environment
5. Transfer of learning to new contexts is not
automatic but results from exposure to Cognitive psychologists also emphasize the
multiple applications. internal motivation of the learner (as opposed to
Implication: Provision must be made during external stimulus) and the role of social communi-
initial learning for later transfer. ties in learning. Theorists such as Pintrich (1994)
and Perry, Menec, and Struthers (1996) point out
6. Learning is facilitated when learners are aware that motivation is affected by both student and
of their learning strategies and monitor their classroom factors. Students’ beliefs about whether
use. they are in control and competent to perform a
Implication: The instructor should help learning task as well as the nature of the tasks, the
students learn how to translate these strategies reward and goal structure, the instructional
into action at appropriate points in their methods, and teacher expectations and behaviors
learning. can affect learning. They suggest that teachers help
students use “effort” as an explanation for their
Some suggestions for instructors were made by learning results rather than “luck,” and teachers
Svinicki (1994) in a guest lecture at Ohio State: provide variety, an appropriate level of challenge, a
collaborative rather than competitive ethos, and
❖ For activating prior knowledge before learning, sufficient organizational structure for learning.
instructors can ask students to fill out a Wlodkowski and Ginsberg (1995) focus on
prelearning checklist, a preconceptions/ student diversity in discussing motivation. They
misconceptions checklist, or brainstorm on argue that students at the margins have particu-
what they already know that is related. During larly high needs for support. They suggest that
learning, instructors can make ample use of teachers work hard to establish a sense of inclusion
analogies, familiar examples, and comparison so that students feel respected and connected to
with topics that were previously treated. one another; that they use relevance and choice to
create a sense of self-determination; that they
❖ To help students actively process new informa- engage and challenge students to enhance mean-
tion, instructors can emphasize the organiza- ing; and that they create a sense of competence in
tion of the ideas by having students fill in their students. Also focusing on instructor actions
empty outlines or making concept maps that and classroom climate, McLeod (1996) distin-
show relationships with other ideas. They can guishes between “deep learning states” and surface
encourage students to summarize by asking learning, emphasizing that low stress learning
them to paraphrase at given intervals or write environments that promote interpersonal interac-
a short summary of their understanding after a tion and create an atmosphere of caring and open
class or reading. Instructors can promote active reflection are more likely to foster deep learning.
involvement in learning by fostering peer
dialogue and speaking, problem solving, and Effective teachers realize that teaching is more
writing. than simply “laying out the feast of knowledge”
and hoping that students will be motivated
❖ To help students become more aware of their enough to partake. Teachers can have significant
own learning, instructors can have students impact on levels of student motivation through
document in writing the steps they took to exciting interest and encouraging learning as well
solve a problem or arrive at a conclusion, as in introducing information. Instructors who
discuss their learning approach and assess their excel in inspiring students argue that creating a
own progress, and use peers as process observ- good classroom environment for learning is
ers who give feedback on the observed fundamental to their success. James Knight, a
approaches to tasks and assignments. former Ohio State faculty member, lists nine tips
for improving the classroom climate:

1. Make students feel important. Knight argues

that instructors who value students avoid

8 Chapter 2
 condescension, sarcasm, and impersonal topic. Trying to look at the familiar in a new
behavior, and cultivate self-esteem through light or to present things in fresh ways are
praising good performance and taking a strategies instructors use to maintain their
personal interest in students. enthusiasm. It is said that enthusiasm shows—
so does its absence.
2. Make students feel invited. In a number of
studies of student retention, the presence or Integral to any discussion of motivation is “per-
absence of a close relationship with an sonalizing” the classroom. Using instructional
instructor is cited as a factor which influences strategies that enable some individualization of
retention. Instructors who make students feel instruction or small group work helps develop
invited, both in class and outside of class, have personal investment and interest in learning.
a strong impact on motivation. Similarly, direct attempts of instructors to talk
about such things as their own life experiences
3. Deal with needed changes from a positive point related to the subject and their personal difficulties
of view. Honest and frequent feedback is in mastering certain concepts create a warmer
essential to good learning, but even very classroom climate.
critical feedback can be offered in a construc-
tive way. Instructors can usually find some As discussed in Chapter 1, Ohio State students
good point to praise and can suggest specific come from a variety of backgrounds. It would be
ways in which unsatisfactory performance can appropriate to assume that they would also have a
be improved. variety of motivations for learning and widely
differing levels of motivation. Even if students are
4. Learn to make nonverbal cues. Good eye willing to work hard and learn while in school or
contact, smiles, and active listening skills such are capable of doing good work, there are external
as nodding, help motivate students. factors that may inhibit them from succeeding.

5. Get to know students personally. Knight cites Reasons for Being in College
instructors who request that all students visit
them personally outside of class to chat and in Class
informally and instructors who have lunch or There is an incredibly wide range of reasons for
coffee with students as examples of those who why your students are in college and specifically
understand that a personal acquaintance why they are in your class. Keep in mind that their
enhances the teaching-learning relationship. reasons may differ from your reasons for going to
college and for having an interest in your field.
6. Learn to empathize. Instructors who remember Some students come to college with noble goals of
some of the hardships, uncertainties, and self-edification and some come with practical goals
stress of their own student days are better able of receiving knowledge, training, and experience.
to help their students who are undergoing Some come for social reasons (prestige, partying)
those difficulties. or for the sake of “getting a degree” because it is
the next step expected of them after high school.
7. Establish parameters. Knight feels that instruc- As educators we generally hope that the latter
tors who clearly define tasks and set high reasons eventually turn into the former, and we
expectations for behavior and learning are should all participate in encouraging that transfor-
better able to motivate students. mation. Likewise, students enroll in specific classes
for a variety of reasons, from a deep passion for the
8. Use student-centered instruction. Student- subject, to teacher reputation, to a pedestrian
centered instruction involves planning interest in the subject matter, to requirements for
learning activities that will actively engage majors and graduation, to parents’ insistence, to
students and will anticipate the kinds of scheduling limitations which necessitate that they
opportunities and challenges that will be take any class at that time. In addition, some
present in a specific area. students come with a strong desire to succeed and
a network of family and friends who are constantly
9. Be enthusiastic. Most instructors find their supporting and encouraging them. Others may be
discipline compelling, but sometimes it is the first in their family to go to college, and thus
hard to recapture excitement about a familiar

How Students Learn 9

 are here without the sense of tradition or their Students sitting in class may have high intelligence
family’s understanding of the difficulty and of the but lack confidence in their ability to complete
life-changing processes of the new experience. This tasks successfully. If they lack confidence (they do
type of motivation and support in particular have a not believe they were born with that trait), they
profound effect on student dedication and success. will approach learning challenges with dread. They
will typically avoid challenge and choose easy
Vying for Student Time learning tasks which they are confident they can
perform, ultimately ensuring some level of success.
and Attention
We are also soon made aware that we may not be Attribution Theory
perceived as the hottest ticket in town. Even if
students are motivated to study and learn, there are Attribution theory states that motivation depends
other temptations and obligations which vie for on the reasons to which people attribute their
their attention: the draw of social events, concerts, success or failure when completing various tasks.
sporting events, television, the Internet, Greek life, There are several ways of categorizing the attribu-
work, recreational sports, new romances, and tion or cause of outcomes:
family matters. And then there are their other
classes. Being aware of our “audience” makes us Locus. The cause is internal (ability) or external
more effective teachers, not by pandering to (teaching/exam) to the learner.
students’ wishes and likes, but by understanding
how they learn, how they got here, what they Stability. The cause is permanent (intelligence does
need, and the wide range of obstacles hindering not change) or temporary (effort can be modified).
their success, and then addressing each of these in
how we teach. Controllability. The actor has or does not have
power or control in success or failure (no control
over exam questions; control over own ability).
Theories of Learning
Motivation According to this theory, students may be less
motivated to learn when they believe they are
In addition to these factors which affect motiva- powerless over their success. They may assume that
tion, there is also the psychological or cognitive their ability is permanent and cannot be changed,
element in motivation. How students perceive leading to problems with self-confidence. Addi-
their competency and how they judge the amount tionally, for students who believe that they have no
of control they exert in the learning process greatly control over the success of a learning task (e.g.,
affects how they will perform. Several learning exams are unfair, they were not born with high
motivation theories are briefly outlined below. intelligence), they may lack the motivation to put
Implications for instructors will also be provided. a lot of effort into learning tasks.
This section on learning motivation theories has
been adapted from Cross and Steadman (1996). Self-Worth Theory
In a competitive academic environment, most
Self-Efficacy Theory students want to preserve their sense of self-worth,
The self-efficacy theory of learning motivation which is based on their self-perceived ability to
places emphasis on a person’s beliefs about their complete tasks successfully. Students who have
ability to learn. Some believe that ability is some- been successful in their academic endeavors feel
thing that a person is born with and is seen as a good about themselves, while those who have not
permanent, fixed trait. Others believe that ability is done well question whether their failure is due to
expandable and that people can be successful either their ability or effort (being dumb versus
through hard work. This incremental view of being lazy). Most people would rather have others
ability motivates them to take on challenges to (and themselves) question their effort and not
increase their knowledge and to never give up their ability. Unfortunately, both potential causes
when tasks become very difficult. come with negative emotions. If people fail at a
task while putting in a lot of effort, they feel
For others, beliefs about their lack of ability to shame; if failure is due to a lack of effort, they feel
learn are more important than actual skill levels. guilt.

10 Chapter 2
Using the self-worth theory, an inherent conflict take specific courses for a variety of reasons based
exists between student and instructor values about on different goals (occupational, educational,
effort. Instructors reward effort, yet students take a social, etc). All of these goals influence their
risk putting forth a lot of effort when faced with a motivation to learn. Many may not come to
challenging task that they perceive as having a low college with clear, specific goals, and this in turn
probability of success. In order to avoid shame affects the amount of importance they will place
from failing due to a lack of ability, some students on certain courses and the amount of time and
may not try hard to succeed, may procrastinate on energy they will allot to learning the material.
difficult tasks, or may select an easier learning task Some students desire or otherwise need guidance
with less risk. It is interesting to note that some in identifying or clarifying their goals. Many need
students avoid failure in the classroom (or excuse to be shown (or convinced of ) the relevance of the
it) in a more socially acceptable way such as course to these goals and to their lives in general.
becoming overly involved in extracurricular Instructors, therefore, need to identify this rel-
activities. evance while designing the course, discuss it at
the beginning of the course, and reinforce it
According to the concepts of the self-worth model, frequently.
there are four different (although not mutually
exclusive) patterns of student motivation: Assess motivation. In Classroom Assessment Tech-
niques (Angelo & Cross, 1993) instructors can find
Success-Oriented. These students enjoy learning for numerous tools to help uncover their students’
the sake of learning. They are confident in their motivations for learning. For example, conducting
success because they have succeeded in the past. a Course-Related Self Confidence Survey allows
Despite some failures in the past, they will con- students to rate their self-perceived confidence in
tinue to take on learning tasks. topics related to the course. The Focused Autobio-
graphical Sketch can be used early in the course to
Overstrivers. These students are never entirely help instructors determine how their students’ past
confident in their ability to succeed. They strive successes and failures may be related to their
for high academic achievement in order to prove willingness to take on learning challenges which
their ability to themselves and others. These are are important to the course. Tools like these can be
usually the students who study very hard and still valuable in looking for ways to modify curriculum
have very high anxiety about succeeding. and adjust teaching strategies that will allow the
most success in their students’ learning.
Failure-Avoiders. Students in this category escape
testing their ability by avoiding challenges that Challenge and encourage. Instructors can increase
pose a risk of failure. They have high anxiety but students’ optimism for potential success and
may not always be successful. consequently decrease their fear of failure by
providing moderate, non-threatening levels of
Failure-Accepting. These students have given up challenge. The rationale is based on the fact that
trying to succeed. They are not necessarily satisfied students’ perception of their ability to succeed
with success, but not unhappy with failure either. depends on both their perception of the level of
Since they do not expect much success, there is not difficulty and their self-confidence in their ability
a lot of shame in failure. These are typically the to succeed in that task. Allowing students to revise
students who never check on their grades after their own work, giving them choices in assign-
exams and never seek out help from instructors. ments, and always providing some amount of
positive feedback on all learning tasks will increase
their sense of control, responsibility, and mastery.
Implications of Learning
Motivation for Instruction Tap into intrinsic motivation. By learning to make
meaning of something and being able to use new
Keeping all of the information given above in information, students begin to have an intrinsic
mind, instructors may want to take the following motivation to learn. All too often, students are
measures to maximize their students’ chances for accustomed to working for extrinsic motivating
success. factors such as fulfilling requirements, grades/
rewards, and avoiding punishment. In order to
Identify student goals. Students attend college and help students foster intrinsic motivations, instruc-

How Students Learn 11

 tors should avoid the excessive use of grades or
penalties (less emphasis on substance and more on
Cognitive Development
performance), be enthusiastic about the course The most widely known work on the cognitive
content, provide relevant examples that connect development of college students is Forms of
with existing knowledge, actively discuss and Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College
review what they have mastered so far, and apply Years by William Perry (1970). Although Perry’s
principles such as problem-based learning early on study was completed some time ago and was based
in the course. on a small sample of students from Harvard and
Radcliffe, the scheme of development that he
Student Preparedness described has proven helpful in understanding
students in many different settings. Perry con-
Although learning theory provides a general entry cludes that students move through stages of
to the question of how students learn, college cognitive development, each of which is qualita-
teachers must also be aware of differences in tively different and more complex than the
learning across individuals. One of the most previous stage. As students move through these
difficult issues in beginning to teach a new group stages, the ways in which they perceive, organize,
is assessing the entry level of the students (i.e., level and evaluate experiences and events in their lives
of preparation in and previous experience with the change. Perry (1970, p. 9) describes nine positions,
subject matter, level of cognitive development, of which the first six pertain most directly to
repertoire of learning styles, level of interest and cognitive development.
motivation). This knowledge is extremely impor-
tant to effective teaching; a poor understanding of Dualistic Stages
the needs and abilities of students can result in
teaching that is at an inappropriate level of diffi- Perry uses the term dualistic to describe the first
culty or is irrelevant to the needs of the students. three positions. The ways in which students at
There are several quick ways of assessing this entry these stages differ are based on how they account
level at the beginning of the term. In Classroom for uncertainty:
Assessment Techniques, Angelo and Cross (1993)
discuss different means of determining prior Position 1. All information is either right or wrong.
knowledge, preconceptions, and misconceptions. Uncertainty is not perceived.
Methods for assessment include student informa-
tion cards (asking for previous experience, reasons Position 2. All information is either right or wrong,
for taking the class, etc.), an ungraded previous and where uncertainty seems to exist, it is really an
knowledge quiz, and class brainstorming on the error committed by a wrong authority.
subject matter of the class.
Position 3. All information is either right or wrong,
but uncertainty is acceptable in areas where experts
Different Learning Styles do not know the answers yet. Someday the right
and Their Implications answer will be discovered or found.
for Teaching Students in the dualistic stage are often confused
or hostile in a classroom setting in which multiple
Chapter 1 of this handbook provides a demo- points of view are presented. They want “just the
graphic portrait of the Ohio State undergraduate facts, please” and do not want to hear that there
population. Equally important to teaching is some are conflicting opinions. They want the teacher to
understanding of how these students are likely to be strong, authoritative, and clear in the position
differ in the ways in which they learn. Three broad that is taken. These students are apt to view their
categories of descriptive literature on students’ roles as passive recipients of a body of knowledge
ways of learning will be discussed here. They and will often resent being asked to play an active
include cognitive development, cognitive style, and role in class. They regard the teacher as the person
differences based on age, disability, gender, and who already has the knowledge and may not feel
cultural background. that there is any value in contributing an opinion
or listening to the opinions of their fellow
students.

12 Chapter 2
Students in Positions 1 and 2 are able to learn students in the traditional age range of 18–24
(often by memorizing) basic facts and definitions enter at the dualistic stage and many progress
of words and concepts, identify parts of a whole, toward the advanced relativistic stage as they go
begin to compare and contrast, and provide an through college. Some enter at higher levels and
explanation of why they answer as they do. In some will not progress, so one cannot assume
Position 3, the student can compare and contrast homogeneity in a group of a given age. Neverthe-
and see multiple perspectives, parts, opinions, and less, a general guideline is that most seniors can
evaluations. The student can do basic analytic tasks perform cognitive tasks that most freshmen cannot
but needs to learn to use supportive evidence. and instructional expectations should be based on
this general guideline.
Relativistic Stages
Widick, Knefelkamp, and Parker (1975) use the
Perry uses the term relativistic to describe students notions of challenge and support to draw implica-
in Positions 4–6. During this phase, the students’ tions for teaching based on Perry’s theory. They
previous categories of right and wrong are trans- argue that students at a given level need to be
formed. Knowledge is now seen as uncertain or stretched or challenged to continue to reach higher
valid only within a context. The positions are levels but also need support to handle the chal-
differentiated by the following traits: lenge. They caution that one cannot expect
students to skip over developmental stages; tasks
Position 4. The student begins to feel that most must be at or only slightly above the student’s level.
questions cannot be answered with absolute Specific recommendations are summarized below.
certainty and, when uncertainty prevails, feels that
all answers are of equal value.
Students in the Dualistic Stages
Position 5. The sense of relativism enlarges and the
student begins to form nonabsolute criteria for Teachers can challenge their students to move on to
making judgments. other levels by:

Position 6. The ability to make judgments increases ❖ employing content diversity in the curriculum
and a personal stance or commitment develops. by presenting two or three (but not more than
three) points of view
Students in Position 4 can compare and contrast,
do abstract analysis, and do some synthesis. They ❖ assigning different kinds of experiential learning
can do both positive and negative critiques and use activities and encountering content diversity
supportive arguments well. At this stage, the through activities such as structured discus-
student is developing the capacity to relate learning sions, structured group experiences, role
in one context or class to other issues in other playing, and field trips with structured observa-
classes or to issues in real life. tion guides

In Positions 5 and 6, the student can relate learning ❖ processing experiential encounters in pre-
in one context to learning in another with some structured ways (checklists, outlines, etc.)
ease and can look for relationships in learning. The that emphasize differentiation and the use of
student can evaluate, conclude, and support his or evidence to support views
her own analysis and can synthesize various points
of view. Finally, the student learns to modify and ❖ using a variety of media (e.g., print, video, web)
expand concepts of knowledge, and perhaps to convey information (equipment and advice
generates new ways of looking at a given question can be obtained from Classroom Services, see
or formulates new questions. Appendix)

❖ incorporating opportunities for the ideas of

Implications for Teaching others to be heard in class
Administration of instruments designed to assess
cognitive development in terms of Perry’s scheme Teachers can support students who are at the
has revealed that, although students of a given age dualistic stage as they work toward higher levels by:
category vary in their cognitive levels, most college

How Students Learn 13

 ❖ responding to student needs for structure by ❖ continuing personalization through group
prestructuring activities and by using a syllabus work, opportunities for participation, peer
that itemizes such details as specific assign- teaching, and learning
ments, policies, and due dates; and using
outlines of each class, textbook session, etc. Women’s Development
❖ preparing handouts that help students fulfill Gilligan (1982) and Belenky et al. (1986), aware
course requirements (e.g., how to do a bibliog- that the sample for Perry’s research was largely
raphy, laboratory report format) male, undertook research on female moral and
cognitive development and found different
❖ personalizing interactions with student by patterns in their sample of women. Belenky and
providing opportunities for students to get to her co-authors described an initial level of silence
know each other and the instructor; using small in which women feel powerless and intimidated by
group work in or out of class; using feedback male authority and forms of argumentation.
techniques such as logs, journals, or response Following this are four more levels:
forms; and responding to written work as
concretely as possible 1. Received knowledge. Women at this level are
listening to others around them and relying
Students in the Relativistic Stages on the voices of authority. They see things
dualistically as did the participants in this
Teachers can challenge the students to move to stage in Perry’s study, but identify less with the
higher levels by: authority figures. They regard the multiple
perspectives they read and hear as increasingly
❖ providing them with opportunities to choose confusing and hard to reconcile.
positions and defend their choices
2. Subjective knowledge. Dissatisfied with
❖ asking them to narrow choices and weigh pros received knowledge, they turn to their inner
and cons of alternative arguments or choices voices and trust their own feelings and
thoughts at this level. They believe that all
❖ drawing upon course material that stimulates opinions are equally valid and that first-hand
thinking about personal philosophy and life experience is the only valid route to knowing.
choices
3. Procedural knowledge. At this level, women
❖ setting learning tasks that call for students to again listen to outside voices, but this time,
analyze, synthesize, and evaluate from personal they are listening to how to think rather than
perspectives and then progressively more what to think. They are interested in and
abstract or experiential perspectives, and that aware of multiple perspectives. Belenky et al.
call for students to apply learning from one borrow from Gilligan, who distinguishes
context to problems in a different context between two kinds of procedural knowledge:
separate knowing that relies onanalysis,
❖ posing activities that ask students to generate dispassion, and argument; and connected
new questions or evaluate assumptions inherent knowing that is holistic in nature, joining
in how points of view are constructed emotion with reason and seeking understanding
and interconnections among perspectives. Even
Teachers can support the students as they move to connected knowers, however, experience a sense
higher levels by: of alienation at this stage since their knowledge
is so directed toward the other.
❖ providing choices of assignments and projects
and minimizing the structure and guidance 4. Constructed knowledge. At this level, women
provided are able to integrate their own voices with
those of others. They are active builders of a
❖ allowing for more flexibility and creativity in knowledge base and see that “All knowledge is
formats of written work constructed and the knower is an intimate
part of the known” (Belenky et al., p. 137).

14 Chapter 2
Although Gilligan and Belenky and her coauthors Field Independence and
make the point that given types of cognitive
development are not exclusively male or female, Field Dependence
they do note that the above pattern is found more Based on studies on perception, Witkin and Moore
in women than men. (1975) describe a central differentiating character-
istic of learners based on the way in which they
Another researcher, Baxter-Magolda (1992) handle information in context. They describe field
describes stages that have similarities with those independent students as those who try to analyze
found by Belenky and her coauthors. Baxter- things into component parts and like to work
Magolda describes four levels of knowing (absolute, independently. Field independent students are able
transitional, independent, and contextual). Within to set their own learning goals and prefer the
each of these levels, she distinguishes two contrast- freedom to participate in setting their assignments.
ing approaches, which are gender-related. These are They like to work with abstract ideas and prefer to
the interpersonal approach (found more commonly work with a minimum of structure and guidance.
in women) and the impersonal approach (more Witkin and Moore call learners who perceive in
characteristic of men). Interpersonal learners are holistic fashion field dependent learners. These
more concerned than impersonal learners with individuals rely on external stimuli in approaching
sharing ideas (rather than debating them), with a task and have a much more difficult time separat-
seeking rapport with the teacher (rather than being ing the individual parts within a whole. These
challenged by the teacher), with expecting to be students tend to be more social in their interests
evaluated as an individual (rather than receiving and like teachers to structure classroom goals for
standard treatment), and with using personal them. They prefer group work and student discus-
judgment (rather than logic and research) to resolve sion in class.
uncertainty. Baxter-Magolda asserts that although
men and women pass through similar stages at
similar rates in developing cognitive complexity, Kolb’s Learning Styles
their approaches toward knowledge tend to be David Kolb (1981) posits that four main processes
different. are used in learning:

The implications for teaching of the research on Concrete experience—learning through direct
cognition and gender include the importance of involvement in a new experience
recognizing that women may often feel over-
whelmed and silenced by a discourse style that is Reflective observation—learning through watching
not comfortable to them; that they may want to others or through thinking about our own experi-
trust personal judgment, instincts, and emotions as ences or those of others
valid contributions to arriving at a position; and
that they may withdraw from argumentation and Abstract conceptualization—learning by creating
forced analysis as hostile or unproductive forms of concepts and theories to describe and explain our
activity. Instructors can make sure that all students observations
have a voice in class by moderating discussion to
ensure equal levels of participation and encourage- Active experimentation— learning by using the
ment and providing opportunities for personal theories and concepts we have derived to solve
forms of expression in papers and projects. Rowe problems and make decisions
(1986) and Mansfield (1996) provide examples of
how an instructor’s attention to wait time can He states that most people apply these four
ensure gender equity in the classroom. processes in cyclical fashion as they learn, but that
each person engages in some activities more than
Cognitive Styles others. Depending on these preferences, he
describes four learning styles:
Another way of describing differences in students is
based on the idea that people have different ways of Convergers rely most on abstract conceptualizing
learning. Research in this area has mushroomed in and active experimenting. They like to find
the past several years, producing descriptions of specific, concrete answers and move quickly to
styles based on a variety of organizing ideas. A few solution. They are relatively unemotional and
of the dominant schemes are described below. prefer dealing with things rather than with people.

How Students Learn 15

 Convergers often specialize in the physical sciences teaching styles, but on extending the strengths of
or engineering. They prefer learning tasks that learners and expanding their range of modalities. A
have specific answers. teacher can accomplish this by using a range of
activities and having students complete assign-
Assimilators rely most on abstract conceptualizing ments in a variety of formats.
and reflective observation. They like to integrate
ideas and are more interested in theoretical
concerns than in applications. Assimilators tend to Cognitive Styles and Culture
gravitate toward math and the physical sciences
and like research and planning. They prefer Although learning style is not directly related to
learning tasks that call for them to integrate race and gender, there are research studies that
material. suggest some patterns (Anderson & Adams, 1992).
For example, Irvine and York (1995), in a review
Divergers rely on concrete experience and reflective of the extensive published research findings on
observation. They like to generate many ideas and learning styles and culturally diverse students,
enjoy working with people. They often are at- found that African American, Native American,
tracted to such fields as counseling and consulting. and Hispanic students often have a learning style
Divergers enjoy class discussion and working in referred to as field dependent learners (some writers
groups. prefer to use the terms relational, field sensitive, or
global learners). This suggests that these students
Accommodators rely on concrete experience and achieve best when working in groups on verbal
active experimentation. They take risks, are action tasks. Research further indicates that they learn
oriented, like new experiences, and are very more easily those materials that have humor, social
adaptable in new situations. They prefer a hands- content, and are characterized by the use of
on approach and often are attracted to technical or imagination. In learning situations, they are most
business fields, such as marketing and sales. sensitive to the opinions of others. This particular
learning style often conflicts with the traditional
Learning Modalities school environment, which tends to favor
individual and competitive learning processes. In
Several researchers have focused on the extent to contrast, many European American men and Asian
which sensory receptors influence learning. In American students are field independent learners.
general, they describe the following different types Therefore, they tend to perform better on analyti-
of learners: cal tasks, learn more easily material that is inani-
mate and impersonal, and not be greatly affected
Auditory learners prefer to learn by listening. by the opinion of others as they perform
Lecturing is the teaching approach that works best Anderson, 1988).
for them.

Visual learners prefer print material. They learn Cognitive Styles and
best by reading or responding to visual cues, such Teaching Strategies
as the chalkboard or overhead transparencies.
The differences in cognitive learning styles have
Tactile learners like to manipulate objects. Labora- distinct implications for preferences in student
tory or hands-on methods of learning are most instruction and teaching strategies. According to
appropriate for them. Anderson and Adams (1992), an initial approach
for instructors might be to develop a sense of the
Kinesthetic or whole body learners like to learn expectations that students and instructors bring
through experiential activities. They prefer simula- into the classroom. Such interactions guide the
tions, exploratory activities, and problem-solving. more formal dimensions of the teaching-learning
dyad. One example of the expectations that two
Implications for Teaching different types of students exhibit is outlined on
the following page.
As with all of the literature on learning styles, the
emphasis with sensory modality preferences is not
placed solely on trying to match learning and

16 Chapter 2
 What Students Expect from Instructors
(based upon preferred style)

Field Dependent Orientation Field Independent Orientation

To give support, show interest, be emotional To focus on task and be objective

To provide guidance, modeling, and To provide independence and flexibility

constructive feedback

To provide verbal and nonverbal cues To provide commands and messages directly
to support words and articulately

To minimize professional distance To maximize professional distance

To seek opinions when making decisions To make decisions based upon analysis of
and to incorporate affective considerations problem and objective criteria

To identify with values and needs of students To identify with goals and objectives of task

A Comparison of Teaching Styles Based upon a Similar Orientation

(field dependent and field independent teaching strategies)

Field Dependent Field Independent

Focuses on needs, feelings, and interests of Focuses on task

students

Acts as a consultant or supervisor in the Fosters modeling and imitation

classroom

Uses an informal approach—elicits class Uses a formal, lecture-oriented approach

discussion

Uses personal rewards Uses impersonal rewards

Encourages group achievement Encourages individual achievement

Narrates and humanizes concepts Emphasizes facts and principles

Identifies with class Remains emotionally detached

How Students Learn 17

 Teaching in a diverse classroom means that there more likely than younger students to question
will be many different learning styles. Effective the importance of a given assignment or body
teaching cannot be limited to the delivery of of information (although they may not make
information, but needs to be based on a model of their reservations known, since they may lack
minds at work. The generative process of learning confidence). They are also more eager to make
is most effective when instructors both affirm the contributions based on their personal experi-
presence and validity of diverse learning styles, ences and to use these experiences as the basis
and also maximize the climate or conditions for for argument in papers and other assignments.
learning in the classroom (Anderson & Adams, Instructors can enlist the support and enthusi-
1992). While instructors should be aware of asm of older learners, explaining the relevance
differences when identifying learning styles with of assignments and class activities to the course
particular groups, they also should still use a full whenever possible. They can also provide opportu-
range of instructional strategies in order to stretch nities for older students to draw on their experi-
the experience and learning repertoire of all of ences and incorporate new learning through the
their students. lenses that past experience provides, helping
students learn to derive abstract ideas from these
experiences in the process.
Differences Based on Age,
Personal responsibilities of adult learners are often
Disability, Gender, and more complicated than those of traditional age
Cultural Backgrounds learners. They may have a child in the hospital, a
major report due at their office, or a leaking roof to
Researchers who study the learning styles of fix at the same time as a term paper is due. Often,
socially and culturally diverse populations— they are making large sacrifices to attend college
students not traditionally a part of the college and are spreading their effort over many different
enrollment—have made observations about the life tasks. Instructors can try to understand their
particular ways in which these students can learn situations and exercise whatever flexibility they
most effectively. These archetypes, developed to can in helping nontraditional age learners to be
aid the learning of nontraditional students, can successful.
help instructors be more aware of the needs of
their students. In order to avoid assuming that all Especially with much older nontraditional age
members of a given group display characteristics learners, physical limitations, such as poor
that have been associated with the group as a vision, hearing loss, or diminished memory, can
whole, however, it is important for the instructor impair learning. Time limits and reliance on a
to consider carefully whether general characteris- single mode of teaching, such as lecture, constrain
tics associated with a group of learners are descrip- opportunities for these older students. Instructors
tive of a particular student in the course. A sum- can vary the stimuli (using visual as well as auditory
mary of some of the characteristics of different approaches) and make whatever allowances for time
learners is included below. and recall that they judge possible and fair in the
situation.
Nontraditional Age Students
Students with Disabilities
Many nontraditional age students lack confidence
and feel uncomfortable in the college environment Students who are physically challenged may be
that is still predominantly populated by young relying on special transportation and may need
adults. Instructors can help them by offering special considerations in order to attend.
positive feedback as often as they can, by avoiding Instructors who are flexible about time and
comparing students, and by avoiding putting adult make sure that physical arrangements accom-
learners “on the spot” by drawing attention to modate these students help them participate in
their age or directly calling on them to contribute higher education.
when they do not volunteer.
Students with physical and learning disabilities
Nontraditional age learners, even more than may require such considerations as extra time
younger students, feel the need for learning to to take a test, a reader to read the text or test to
be relevant to their life experiences. They are them, or special equipment to compose written

18 Chapter 2
work. The Office for Disability Services (see can enhance learning opportunities for women as
Appendix) provides services for students with a well as men by trying to incorporate in their
wide array of disabilities, such as mobility, teaching the contributions of women and other
visual or hearing impairments, and learning cultures and recognizing the value of multiple
disabilities. They can advise instructors on what ways of knowing. They can see knowledge as
is reasonable to allow and how to refer students constructed, rather than transferred, and learn to
to appropriate support services. Often, however, appreciate alternate ways of knowing, such as
students will be reluctant to ask for special emotions, insight, and intuition.
arrangements. Instructors can help by notifying
the entire class publicly or stating in the syllabus Students of Different Cultural
that any student who has need for test-taking or
note-taking accommodation should feel free to Backgrounds
discuss the matter with them. A sample syllabus Stereotypes about cultural background abound.
disability statement is included in Chapter 4 in the Assuming that every Asian American student is
section “Preparing an Effective Course Syllabus.” good at math or that every African American
student is an athlete or from an underprivileged
Students with learning disabilities sometimes need background leads to faulty expectations that are
extra encouragement to sustain their participation, communicated to students in subtle ways, often
but often do not want to be singled out for special only subconsciously. It is important for instructors
attention. Instructors who try to be sensitive to to view all students (regardless of cultural back-
maintaining a good balance between helping these grounds) as individuals who may or may not have
students and not providing undue attention to the characteristics of the dominant culture before
disability will help further their learning. forming expectations.
As with students with different learning styles, Many students whose family traditions are rooted
it helps students with learning disabilities and in the culture of such places as Africa, Puerto Rico,
some physical disabilities to have information Mexico, and pre-European America exhibit
presented in a variety of ways, such as visually, learning styles that emphasize group cooperation,
orally, and kinesthetically. If necessary, supplemen- holistic thinking, a concrete rather than abstract
tary sessions outside of class time can be scheduled orientation, a valuing of personal knowledge, oral
for this purpose. over written tradition, and reliance on imagery and
expressiveness to provide an affective component to
Women Students learning. Instructors who recognize the strengths of
these cultural orientations and provide opportuni-
Although women have been a part of the college ties for students to draw upon them not only
scene for many years now and constitute approxi- further the learning of these students but enrich
mately half of the undergraduate population at the learning opportunities for majority students,
Ohio State, classroom practices that have arisen some of whom may share these styles and others of
through a tradition of male-dominated instruc- whom can profit through expanding their stylistic
tional settings are often still in use and detract repertoires.
from learning opportunities for women. These
practices are described extensively in Hall and Language, either of another country or a non-
Sandler (1982) and include use of sexist language standard American dialect, is often a sensitive issue
and jokes, failure to recognize women during with students from other cultural backgrounds.
discussion or to employ eye contact with women, Students with language differences should be made
failure to intervene when male students interrupt to feel, first of all, that their language is respected
or deny access to women in discussion situations, and is not considered substandard. It is important
holding lower performance expectations for to remember that all language is culturally bound.
women than men, and routine assignment of The rules of a given language are determined by
dominant roles such as team leader to men rather usefulness; therefore, it is problematic to impose
than women. standards from one context on a language that is
part of another, or to denigrate language systems
The world view, epistemology, and curriculum that are not mainstream. Instructors who focus on
content of most university instruction has been task or content (when a course objective can be
rooted in the male western tradition. Instructors separated from language itself ) help students retain

How Students Learn 19

 self-confidence and cultural pride in a different How Should Instructors
environment. Using visuals, synonyms, and
examples when lecturing or in examination ques- Respond to Student
tions helps those with different language back-
grounds understand what is being communicated.
Differences?
It should also be kept in mind that Academic
To summarize the advice on individual differ-
English is no one’s native variety and thus we all
ences, the following guidelines are provided.
must learn it. Instructors may help in this process
by suggesting and explaining the technical language
❖ While working in a group setting makes it
used in their fields and in academia in general.
impossible for instructors to respond to each
unique need, they can try to be sensitive to
Instructors should take the time to get students’
individual differences by providing options for
names right, especially those from languages other
participation, for assignments, for class activi-
than English. It is also important to be sensitive to
ties; and by varying the ways in which instruc-
names of groups; for example, “African American”
tion is provided, trying to supplement lectures
and “people of color” and “students with disabili-
with opportunities for discussion, with audiovi-
ties” are currently favored, at least in certain
sual aids, with hands-on or real world experi-
geographic locations. “Minorities” is objectionable
ences when possible.
to many who know that they either already are, or
soon will be, in the majority in their state or
❖ Instructors can try to extend the learning styles
country. The safest stance is to use currently
of all their students as well as respond to them.
favored term and to defer to a student’s preference
Students from an oral tradition need to have
if an alternate is offered.
more writing experiences; students who view
knowledge from a dualistic perspective need to
Teaching style expectations are often different
be helped to understand that things are more
across cultural backgrounds. Students from Asian
complex; students who rely on concrete
countries may regard asking questions or maintain-
experience need to develop greater facility with
ing prolonged eye contact as improper behavior
abstract thinking. It is important, however, that
toward a teacher. Many African American students
efforts to extend student learning styles and
prefer an informal conversational style with
cognitive levels build incrementally on given
sustained eye contact and use of humor by their
levels and that instructors not expect major
teachers. While it is impossible for an instructor to
leaps or changes in direction.
accommodate all teaching style preferences and still
be true to a personal style, it is important to work
❖ Helping students understand their own styles
to accommodate different frames of reference.
can lead to better self-awareness of their
learning behaviors—the situations in which
Students bring to the classroom a knowledge of the
they learn best, the way in which they respond
achievements of their cultures and the traditions of
to particular subject matter, and the like.
their heritage. Instructors who incorporate these
Knowing about other learning styles can
achievements in their curricula not only build on
broaden their understanding of others with
their students’ sense of pride and self-esteem but
whom they interact.
also enrich the scope of knowledge available to all
students in the course. It is important, however, for
❖ When assigning group projects or tasks, it is
the instructor to avoid assuming that a student
often a good idea to mix students of different
with a given cultural background is able or willing
styles in one group so that students learn to
to serve as the representative of that culture when
collaborate with others and appreciate differ-
classroom discussions occur. Calling on an African
ences in style.
American student to talk about slavery or a Native
American to talk about life on an Indian reserva-
❖ Respecting individual differences, avoiding
tion puts the student in a sensitive position, even if
thinking about students in terms of stereotypes,
the teacher’s motivation is student involvement. In
and keeping channels of communication open
other words, one student cannot speak or address
are invaluable approaches toward dealing with
the issues and concerns of an entire race or ethnic
differences.
group.

20 Chapter 2
❖ Instructors can be vigilant in avoiding sexist, 8. Provide frequent opportunities for students to
racist, and homophobic behaviors and humor in comment on the instruction. One way is the
their own actions and in correcting these “minute paper,” an exercise that involves asking
behaviors if they are displayed by students. students to take the last five minutes of class to
comment on one main concept that they
Determining Which learned and questions they would like ad-
dressed in the next class, or on their assessment
Approach Is Appropriate of how well the course is going and their
suggestions for change.
In order to determine which approach is appropri-
9. Obtain student evaluations of instruction at
ate for a class, instructors can take the following
midterm and at the end of the term to provide
measures.
direction for the remainder of the term or for
the next time the course is taught.
1. Talk to others who have previously taught a
course about what can be reasonably expected
10. Make use of print resources, workshops,
of the students in that course.
roundtables, and seminars that are available
through the Faculty and TA Development.
2. Use the first class session to obtain informa-
tion, either on cards or orally, on the back-
In summary, effective instruction entails paying
grounds of the students (major, home town,
attention to the “people” dimensions of the
age, etc.), their prior preparation for the course
learning situation. Instructors who make some
(previous related coursework, previous degrees
effort to get to know their students’ backgrounds
or work experiences in the area, etc.), expecta-
and learning styles and to establish a good relation-
tions for the course (personal goals and career
ship with them will find that the efforts are well
goals) and the ways they learn best (preferred
rewarded in the quality of learning that results.
learning activities or teaching styles).
Chapter 4 begins with a discussion of Universal
Design, an approach to course construction which
3. Administer a pretest at the beginning of the
ensures accessibility for all students.
course or unit to determine students’ entry
levels.
Recommended Readings on
4. Watch students’ facial expressions and other
nonverbal signs of understanding, confusion,
How Students Learn
or emotional response in class. Items preceded with an asterisk (*) can be found in
the FTAD resource suite.
5. Encourage students to speak with them outside
class or routinely arrive early and talk with *Adams, M., Bell, L., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1997).
students before class. Instructors can make a Teaching for diversity and social justice. New York:
point of speaking with a wide range of students Routledge.
and not only the high achievers.
Baxter-Magolda, M. (1992). Knowing and reasoning in
6. Provide for early feedback through a test or college: Gender-related patterns in students’ intellectual
development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
paper that will count only marginally, if at all,
toward the final grade. *Grasha, T. (1990). The naturalistic approach to
learning styles. College Teaching, 38, 106–113.
7. Administer a learning style inventory to assess
differences in the students or ask students to *Perry, W. (1970). Forms of intellectual and ethical
provide a self-report on the ways in which they development in the college years. New York: Holt,
learn best. Perhaps the two most popular such Rinehart and Winston.
assessments are Kolb’s 1994 Learning Style
Inventory and Grasha’s 1997 Psychological
Type Index. Both are available through Faculty
and TA Development.

How Students Learn 21