Study Session 1: The Concept of Philosophy

Expected Duration: 1 week or 3 contact hours

Introduction
Philosophy as a concept is one of the most controversial disciplines as people
wonder about what it is all about. There is thus curiosity, on the part of
students who are having a contact with it as an academic field of study for
the first time about what Philosophy entails. This study session is dedicated
to revealing the nature of the course known as Philosophy. Etymologically, it
is derived from two Greek words- philos which means love and sophia, which
means wisdom. Thus, Philosophy means the love of wisdom. But there is
more to understanding a word than its etymology, because history of a
discipline has a way of throwing up events that shape the nature of the
discipline in new dimensions. The focus below is on projecting an
understanding of what Philosophy is. The study session is in three sub-
sessions. The first deals with some attempts at defining Philosophy. The
second looks at the issue of controversies in Philosophy. This is necessary as
part of the clarification of what Philosophy is because many people wonder
why there are so many perennial problems of Philosophy that have not been
resolved. Thus, the sub-session addresses the issue of why there seems to
be so many controversies in Philosophy. Third, there is need for the
consideration of what the importance of Philosophy is.

1.0 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 1

When you have studied this Session, you should be able to:
1.1 explain the concept of Philosophy (SAQ 1.1);
1.2 discuss the importance of controversies to the discipline of Philosophy
(SAQ 1.2); and
1.3 explain the importance of Philosophy (SAQ 1.3).

1.1 Definition of Philosophy

Box. 1.1 Meaning of Philosophy
Philosophy is an academic discipline which subjects to rigorous
evaluation ideas with which humans organise their lives, institutions and
society. It is a rational inquiry into the fundamental nature of
phenomena.
Philosophy has been defined by Stanilands (2000) as “the criticism of ideas
that we live by.” This makes philosophy a rigorous engagement of the basic
concepts with which humans organise their lives. The aim of Philosophy is to
unearth hidden assumptions in the various ideas with which people have
come to organise themselves while at the same time improving on those
ideas. As Socrates says, an unexamined life is not worth living. Many of the
ideas taken for granted in our relations with the environment will have to be

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subjected to rigorous evaluation. Take for instance the anthropocentric view

of life that man is the centre of creation.
This put environment as a means to the end of development which man can
relate with anyhow. But the error in this thinking is now obvious, especially
due to the fact that humans in themselves are now at risk if we do not curb
our actions, given the many consequences of global warming.
Philosophy is an academic discipline in which all ideas are subjected to
critical interrogation. It is done through the asking of questions, in the search
for understanding, about human beings and their relationship with the world
around, and about the universe in which we have found ourselves. Asking
questions lead to the production of rational answers in an attempt to provide
guides to how one should perceive and relate to the phenomena one
engages in the world. Philosophy is a rational inquiry into the fundamentals.
It questions and provides answers regarding the basis and foundations of
phenomena around us and the universe we inhere in.
In undertaking rational inquiry, philosophy requires us to box our prejudices.
And there are a lot of them: religion, which sets certain limits on what can be
questioned or not; ideologies, which shapes our perspectives about our
outlook to the world; ethnicity or race, which constrain how we perceive
others; emotion, which reveals our predisposition to things; and even
education, which has given us some orientation and views of life.
There is no limit to what the subject-matter of Philosophy can be. It raises
questions about celestial beings; wondering about the origin and possibility
of their existence, the relationship among them, and their relationship to the
universe and terrestrial beings. Questions are raised about all facets of
human life and endeavours, about our relationship to the world around us,
and about our destiny and purpose here on earth and in the hereafter.
Philosophy concerns itself with the origin, the nature, and the problems
confronting our knowledge claims. “Why should I be moral? How should I
conduct myself, in the workplace, in society, in relation to other living things
and the environment?” are questions raised and answered in Philosophy.
There are also concerns with rules guiding our thought process in order to
guard against fallacies.
The history of Western Philosophy is usually traced to Miletian Philosophers.
Thus, the discipline started in the 6th Century BC in Miletus, Greece. The
Milesian philosophers - Thales, Anaximader, and Anaximenes- had as their
main preoccupation speculating about the basic constituent of nature and
explaining change in nature. Prior to this first set of philosophers, there were,
no doubt, some set of explanations, but these explanations were mythical,
mysterious, or religious in nature. The Milesian philosophers departed
radically from the kind of explanations that prevailed in their society at the
time and gave rational ones by adducing reasons in support of their

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positions. The Milesian philosophers gave natural explanations to

phenomena as opposed to supernatural ones that dominated the scene
before their arrival. They described nature by postulating observable entities
as basic stuffs making up reality.
These philosophers generated ideas that are meant to help people
understand better the nature of their environment in order to relate better
with it. The answers that these three philosophers gave in their attempts to
account for change and in their aspiration to name the fundamental entity
making up things differ. For Thales, it is water; for Anaximander, it is Apeiron
(infinite or boundless); for Anaximenes, it is air (See Stumpf 2003:5-11;
Onigbinde 2009:243-249).

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.1

1. Philosophy as a rational inquiry requires that we box some of our
prejudices which may arise from what?
2. Mention the names of the Milesian Philosophers who are the first set of
Philosopher.

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.1

1. Philosophy requires that we box prejudices arising from religion,
ideology, ethnicity, race, emotions, and education.
2. The first set of philosophers are: Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes

1.2 Controversies and Philosophy

The answers to philosophical questions are always subjects of debate as they
are always surrounded by one controversy or the other. Consequently, to
the layman, philosophers are confused practitioners who are never able to
agree about the best answer to any philosophical question. A proof of this,
for the layman, is that philosophers are not even in agreement about the
definition of philosophy itself, neither are they in agreement about the best
method for addressing philosophical problems. The layman asks: “How can
practitioners of a discipline be unable to provide answers, acceptable to all
and sundry, to such basic inquiries about their discipline?” But then
controversies have some importance in philosophy. In this essay, it is held
that controversies are important to the discipline of philosophy because they
encourage debates of high quality to go on in the interrogation of human
experience and ideas put forward to enable humans cope with such
experience.
Controversies in philosophy do not just arise because philosophers love hair-
splitting or “as the result of any artificial set effort to find something to argue
about” (Moore, 1941:68). Rather, the controversies “spring in the most
natural manner out of the difficulties inherent in ordinary experience”
(Moore, 1941:68). Human experiences throw up a lot of problems that must
be resolved. Consequently, ideas are put forward that will enable us
understand better the nature of these problems and the best possible

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solutions to them. However, in some instances, there are loopholes in the

description or understanding of these problems and these necessitate the
reaction of the philosopher in positing that there is yet something more
fundamental about the nature of the problems than what is presented.
Even, when the philosopher agrees that the problems have been rightly
identified and described, he/she may disagree with the solutions proffered to
the problems. The result is the attempt, on the part of the philosopher, to
seek other ways in which the problem can be addressed.
There are controversies in philosophy because there are diverse opinions
regarding issues and problems confronting humans in their relationship with
other humans or with nature or celestial beings. However, philosophy “is not
mere expression of unsupported opinion” (Moore & Bruder, 2002:7). Rather,
the diverse opinions are views backed by sufficient reasons. This means that
“…philosophers distinguish philosophy from mere opinion, the difference
being that philosophy at the very least involves opinions supported by good
reasoning” (Moore & Bruder, 2002:6). The reason why philosophers support
their views or opinions with reasons is to appeal to the sense of reasoning
which humans possess. The belief is that some arguments or reasons are
more persuasive or tenable than others and that when these arguments or
reasons are encountered, human beings possess the capacity to give rational
assessment in determining which is superior. In philosophy, arguments are
employed to push ideas forward. Eliminative arguments and counter-
arguments are advanced to show that the view which we hold is to be
preferred to another or others. Onigbinde is right then when he says that
despite all the controversies surrounding what philosophy is:
One thing we can say, with a fair degree of truth and accuracy, is
that philosophers try to get you to accept what they have to say
by thinking with you, by giving you arguments, by considering the
pros and the cons and the reasons behind their position. They ask
you to clarify your thoughts, or they will consider what somebody
else proposes, and will say: “Let’s examine it! Is it really so? Is it
consistent? Is it clear? Does it agree with other things we want to
accept [?] And in offering their own views they will also normally
strive to argue their case, to offer reasons in support of their
conclusion (Onigbinde, 2006:3-4).
The question to ask, however, is “what counts as sufficient reason?” This
question is important because that which is sufficient reason for one person
may not be for another. This then leads some to conclude that “in philosophy
one person’s opinion is as correct as the next person’s and that any opinion
on a philosophical question is as good or valid or correct as any other
opinion” (Moore & Bruder, 2002:7). However, it is not the case that “in
philosophy anything goes, that one can say anything and make any

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speculation that one likes. On the contrary, precisely because we lack

established empirical or mathematical methods for investigating
philosophical problems, we have to be all the more rigorous and precise in
our philosophical analyses” (Oladipo, 2008:11). Unlike scientific claims that
can be empirically tested and confirmed, claims in philosophy rely on the
reasons adduced for them. What is required of a philosopher is the
presentation of arguments of high quality and clarity of expression.
The acceptance of the point of view of the philosopher will depend, to a large
extent, on the profundity and the logical force of the arguments put forward
regarding an idea. Whether people or other philosophers accept the
arguments depends on their intellectual outlook and, sometimes, on their
ideological leanings.
At the heart of the various positions put forward in philosophy, however, is
the strife to get an understanding of that which is fundamental with
fundamental issues regarding reality, knowledge, conduct, and thought
dominating the discourse of philosophy since inception in Ancient Greece.
When philosophers ruminate and debate about ideas like God, death,
destiny, political obligation, democracy, change, truth, good, and a whole lot
more that characterise human experience, the aim is to get an
understanding of that which is basic about these ideas. The implication is
that when a philosopher has superior arguments to show that an earlier
position put forward by another philosopher, or even by him/herself, in some
cases, misses the mark he/she raises an objection and tries to show what is
defective in the other philosopher’s (or his/her earlier) position and why
his/her (new) position is better.
Philosophy then is a field of study where ideas, beliefs and assumptions are
“tested, examined, and subjected to very intense debate” (Onigbinde,
2006:4) in an attempt to discover the basic principle regarding reality.
Philosophy presents us with “a new interpretation and a new awareness of
the basic assumptions that underlie our everyday life” (Bodunrin, 1981:23).
It requires of us to question and challenge all assumptions and beliefs until
we find beliefs that are sacrosanct. In the process, the philosopher is able to,
through critical engagement with ideas, reveal the wrong assumptions
informing ideas. Such critical engagement may lead to jettisoning ideas that
are not worthwhile. The philosopher is able to do this because the
philosophical enterprise is informed by what may be referred to as the
“philosophic spirit.” This is a “‘spirit’ of inquiry, a general attitude toward
things” (Moore, 1941:68). This is the spirit which “leaves no valuations and
aspirations unexamined and no piece of knowledge isolated; it seeks the
grounds for the validity of whatever is valid” (Rickman, 1979:129). This spirit
continues to demand the continuous inquiry into the grounds of our
knowledge claims regarding a phenomenon or reality.

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Apart from refutation of ideas, however, philosophy also deals with

supporting ideas. Philosophers advance arguments in support of positions
they find convincing. Hence, it is not unusual to find, in philosophy,
adherents of one philosophical posture or the other. The convictions of these
philosophers end up becoming “isms,” “neo-isms,” or philosophical
traditions. For example, we have Platonism, Aristotelianism, Kantianism,
Marxism; neo-Platonism, neo-Aristotelianism, neo-Thomism, neo-Kantianism,
and neo-Hegelianism, the liberal tradition, the analytic tradition, the
empiricist tradition, the pragmatist tradition of American philosophy, and so
on (Gyekye, 1997:11-12). However, these adherents are not like religious
zealots who have emotional attachments to, and may have no genuine
reason for holding, their beliefs or doctrines. In other words, philosophers do
not hold any position dogmatically. Philosophy detests dogmatism. In it,
“nothing is taken for granted and nothing is accepted without proper
scrutiny” (Owolabi, 2000:11). Subscribing to any of the aforementioned
“isms,” “neo-isms,” or philosophical tradition is not because someone said
so, as it is the case in religion; rather, it is due to the intellectual outlook of
philosophers subscribing to such views. In philosophy, that someone said a
thing does not make it right. The only authority in philosophy is the authority
of reason. As such the philosopher is ready to abandon his most cherished
beliefs if reason so demands.
The philosopher is not just interested in “rubbishing” ideas or discarding
them as lacking merit or in advancing arguments in support of views they
find convincing. They also commit themselves to the reconstruction of ideas
by trying to separate the wheat from the chaff. The philosopher throws the
bath water away while saving the baby by identifying the part of a
philosophical tradition, or “isms, or “neo-isms,” or any view that need
modification. The philosopher is normative in his approach and is ultimately
interested in how things ought to be and not just how they are.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.2

1. What do you understand by the idea of the Philosophic Spirit?
2. Why do we have controversies in Philosophy?

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.2

1. This is the spirit which “leaves no valuations and aspirations
unexamined and no piece of knowledge isolated; it seeks the grounds
for the validity of whatever is valid.”
2. There are controversies in philosophy because there are diverse
opinions regarding issues and problems confronting humans in their
relationship with other humans or with nature or celestial beings.

1.3 The Importance of Philosophy

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We have looked at the controversies in relation to philosophy, we will now

discuss the importance of philosophy. Hence, the importance of philosophy
are:
1.3.1 Acting as a guard of other Disciplines
First, in reflecting about the importance of Philosophy, it is important to
reiterate the value it has for other discipline. As the Queen of all discipline
from which other academic disciplines came out of, directly or indirectly, it
has remained a guard. Its principal duty in this regard is to ensure that
practitioners of disciplines are kept from derailing of its essence and that the
products of such academic disciplines are interrogated to ensure their purity
and that they are in furtherance of the ultimate goal of providing solutions to
problems. In this regard, Owolabi posits that “philosophy, by its very nature
avoids those ideas that are mysterious, dogmatic and complicated. It is true
that philosophy mingles with religion and science. But not for the purpose of
adopting their subjects and methodology but for the simple reason of
supplying rational arguments for the justification or rejection of those
aspects that deserve either acceptance or rejection” (Olu-Owolabi, 2000:10).
Philosophy is therefore interested, as a second order enterprise, in criticising
and justifying the grounds of the knowledge claims made in other disciplines.
It is interested in interrogating how knowledge is acquired and justified in
these other areas. This is why there are various second order disciplines
dedicated to the interrogation of what is going on in these fields of
knowledge. Thus, we have Philosophy of Science, Philosophy of Social
Science, and Philosophy of Language among others. These areas of the
discipline are dedicated to engaging the fields of science, social science and
language.
1.3.2 The Enhancement of Problem-Solving Capability
One of the strong points of Philosophy is its ability to produce the student to
be rigorous in reasoning. By impacting this capability, Philosophy develops in
the student problem-solving skills. The problem in question could range from
personal to ethical to social. It could touch on the metaphysical or have to do
with epistemic claims. Through critical thinking students of Philosophy are
able to address a wide-range of problems and proffer solutions. They are
impacted with a spectrum of tools that aid in the analysis of concepts,
problems, arguments, and conceptualisations. The evaluation of facts,
comparing of proffered solutions or arguments could enable the student to
distinguish between ideas that will work and those that will not.
1.3.3 Development of a Questioning Disposition to Life
Philosophy is not only a critical discipline, it is one pursued with a sceptical
outlook. Nothing is taken for granted. Everything is questioned, until such
time that certainty is established. This attitude requires that with sufficient
justification given we abandon whatever belief or opinion that we hold, no
matter how dear those views are to us, and embrace reason. The Philosopher
is however not an unrepentant sceptic. He/she only needs proof to let go of

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his doubts. Nothing is taken at face values for he knows that appearance can
be deceptive; and that cherished ideas for decades could be proven false in
the light of new evidences. Another genesis of philosophical problem is
doubt. “In the specific case of philosophical inquiry, the central motivation
derives from the observation that things are not usually what they appear to
be and the realisation that many of the assurances of common sense can be
mistaken” (Oladipo 2008:31-32). Because of the difference between the
noumena and the phenomena, the way things are in themselves and the way
they appear to us, philosophical reflection springs up in the bid to supply
rational explanations to dispel doubt.
1.3.4 The Consideration of the Big and Important Questions
There are questions that will be resolved in the laboratories. With the
scientific method so much progress has been made and more will be made.
But there are big and important questions that their answers cannot be
found scientifically. Questions about the best form of government, about
human rights, the purpose of life, the best means that guarantee happiness,
rights of future generations, among other such questions can only be
answered from a philosophical angle.

Philosophers also address themselves to certain questions which are general

in nature. By being general in nature is meant that these questions “are
beyond the scope of specific areas of knowledge, for example, physics,
chemistry, biology, psychology, history, political science, and so on”
(Oladipo, 2008:20). It entails also that, even though these problems had
their origin in human experience, they cannot be tackled by resort to
empirical methods.
As Moore and Bruder (2002:3) have rightly held “one important feature of
philosophical questions is that they cannot be answered, in any
straightforward way, by the discovery of some fact or collection of facts…
facts are often relevant to a philosophical question, but they cannot
themselves provide an answer.” Oladipo also reiterates that these problems
are not problems that can be tackled through the accumulation of facts.
Instead, “they involve a careful consideration of how best to describe the
facts that are available, with a view to generating insights about them, which
although tentative, are, nonetheless, clear and self-consistent” (Oladipo
2008:32-33).
1.3.5 Normative and Ethical Evaluation of Actions
Socrates’ dictum- “Man know thyself”- shifts the focus of Philosophy from
contemplation about the natural environment to that of evaluation of human
nature and human actions. Since then a major preoccupation of Philosophy
has been devoted to ethical appraisal of the conducts of persons in order to
determine if they are good, bad, just, unjust, moral or immoral. In this

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regard, principles and theories, over time, have been developed to guide
how people should behave. Philosophy thus recommends actions that are
worth pursuing and those that should be avoided in order to guide against
society atrophying. It is not only society, at the larger level, that Philosophy
seeks to guide, ethical appraisal of actions in the various disciplines have
also been performed in order to ensure that actions of practitioners in these
fields are not self-serving, but that they are moral and aimed at the ultimate
furtherance of the good of society.

In-Text Questions (ITQs) 1.3

1. Mention one importance the Philosophy has.
2. The aspect of philosophy that requires critical thinking is referred to
as……..

In-Text Answers (ITAs) 1.3

1. Philosophy acts as a guard of other disciplines, development of a
questioning disposition to life
2. Problem-solving capacity/problem-solving skills

Summary of Study Session 1

In Study Session 1, you have learned that;
1. philosophy is an academic discipline that subjects to critical
interrogation various ideas;
2. philosophy is done through the asking of questions;
3. the history of philosophy is traced to the Milesian philosophers who are
Thales, Anaximender and Anaximenes in the 6th century BC;
4. there are a lot of controversies in Philosophy because philosophers are
trying to ensure that only the best ideas survive rigorous scrutiny;
5. etymological meaning of philosophy;
6. a philosopher is not just interested in rubbishing ideas, but committed
to separating wheat from the chaff; and
7. the only authority in philosophy is the authority of reason.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 1

Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well
you have achieved the learning outcomes by answering the questions
following. You can check your answer with the Notes on Self-Assessment
Questions at the end of the sessions.

SAQ 1.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.1)

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1. Define Philosophy
2. How is Philosophy done?
3. Comment briefly on the history of Philosophy

SAQ 1.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.2)

What is the role that controversies play in Philosophy?

SAQ 1.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 1.3)

List the importance of Philosophy.

Glossary of Terms
Philosophy is the rigorous reflective engagement of ideas with which
humans organise their lives, institutions, and society.
Controversy has to do with having a debate or heated discussion, in the
case of Philosophy, regarding philosophical subjects.
Eliminative argument is a form of argument casts doubt on, or punctures
loophole in an argument being evaluated such that the argument in question
can be rejected
Counter-argument is an Argument or reason put forward to oppose
another argument.
Argument is a point of view held with reasons given for such view.
Philosophic spirit is a spirit of inquiry which leaves no valuation and
aspiration unexamined. This spirit requires that we question everything.
Dogmatism is described as holding on to a view as being unquestionable
and true, even in the face of arguments showing the need to reject such
views.
Metaphilosophy is an area of Philosophy which deals with investigating the
nature of Philosophy itself.
Philosophical Questions are questions that cannot be answered by putting
together facts, but that require a careful reflective consideration of how to
describe the facts so that insight can be generated about the facts.

References
Bodunrin. P. O. (1981). “Philosophy: Meaning and Method,” Ibadan Journal of
Humanistic Studies.

Gyekye, K. (1997). Tradition and Modernity: Philosophical Reflections on the

African Experience. New York: Oxford University Press.

Moore, Brooke Noel and Kenneth Bruder. (2002). Philosophy: The Powers of
Ideas, fifth edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

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Moore. Jared S. (1941). The Methods and Problems of Philosophy. Philosophy,

Vol. 16.
Oladipo, O. (2008). Thinking about Philosophy: A General Guide. Ibadan:
Hope Publications Ltd. Olu-Owolabi, K. A. (2011). My People Perish for
Lack of Philosophy. An inaugural lecture delivered at the University of
Ibadan on Thursday, 11 August, 2011.
Olu-Owolabi, K A. (2000). Introduction. In K. A. Olu-Owolabi (eds.), Issues and
Problems in Philosophy. Ibadan: GROVACS Network.
Onigbinde, A. (2006). Philosophy and the Rest of Us. Ibadan: Frontline Books.
Onigbinde, A. (2009). What is Philosophy? A Readr’s Digest in Philosophy
Inquiry. Ibadan: Frontline Resource Limited.
Owolabi, K. A. (2000). Introduction. In K. A Owolabi (ed.), Issues and
Problems in Philosophy. Ibadan: GROVACS Network.
Owolabi, K. A. (2007). The Nature and Problems of Epistemology. In K. A. Olu-
Owolabi (eds.), Issues and Problems in Philosophy. Ibadan: GROVACS
Network.
Rickman, H. P. (ed.), Dilthey: Selected Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, (1979).
Staniland, H. S. (2000). “What is Philosophy?” in K. AOwolabi (ed.), Issues
and Problems in Philosophy. Ibadan: GROVACS Network.
Stumpf, S .E and James F. (2003). Philosophy: History and Problems, 6th
Edition. Boston: McGraw Hill.

Additional Readings
Oladipo, T.D. (2015). Understanding Philosophy and its Branches. In
Ademowo, A.J. and. Oladipo, T.D (eds.), Engaging the Future in the
Present: Issues in Culture and Philosophy Ibadan: Hope Publications.
Jimoh, A. K. (2021). Philosophy: A Guide for Beginners. Ibadan: Ebony Books
& Kreations.
Honderich, Ted. (2005). Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Hales, S. D. (2021). This is philosophy: An introduction. John Wiley & Sons.
https://books.google.com.ng/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=wM4iEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR10&dq=The+concept+of
+Philosophy.+pdf&ots=aRK3OSThMj&sig=Y-iQUv-
e42caLrqGvLF_IlIyMhg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=The%20concept
%20of%20Philosophy.%20pdf&f=false
Uher, J. (2015). Conceiving “personality”: Psychologist’s challenges and basic
fundamentals of the Transdisciplinary Philosophy-of-Science Paradigm

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for Research on Individuals. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral

Science, 49, 398-458. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12124-
014-9283-1

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