Introduction to Geography and Environment

Introduction to Physical Geography and Environmental

Science:

❖ What do you mean by atmosphere?

The term atmosphere refers to the layer of gases that surrounds a planet, star, or
celestial body. Here are a few key aspects:

1. The atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding the Earth.

2. It is held by gravity and extends about 600 km above the Earth's surface.
3. Composed mainly of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and trace amounts of other
gases.
4. Protects life by filtering harmful UV radiation and regulating temperature.
5. Essential for respiration, weather, and climate.
6. Divided into layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere,
and exosphere.
7. Helps maintain life on Earth by providing oxygen and enabling the water
cycle.

❖ How does physical geography differ from human geography?

Physical geography and human geography are two major branches of geography,
each focusing on different aspects of the Earth and its inhabitants. Here’s a
comparison highlighting their key differences:

Aspect Physical Geography Human Geography

Focus Natural features and processes Human activities, cultures, and
interactions
Key Elements Landforms, climate, Population, economy,
ecosystems, water bodies urbanization, migration
Methods Scientific observation and Social sciences and spatial
analysis analysis
Examples of Mountains, rivers, weather Cities, cultural landscapes,
Study patterns trade networks
 Interaction with Limited to impacts of nature Focuses on human impact on
Humans on humans the environment

❖ Define geography.
Geography is the study of the Earth's physical features, environment, and human
activities, exploring the relationships between people, places, and their
surroundings. It examines spatial patterns, connections, and interactions on local,
regional, and global scales.

Geography is often divided into two main branches:

1. Physical Geography: Focuses on the natural world and physical features of

the Earth (mountains, rivers, climate, etc.).
2. Human Geography: Focuses on human societies, their cultures, activities,
and how they organize and use space.

❖ Discuss the main themes and approaches in geography

Main Themes in Geography:
1. Location: Where things are.
2. Place: What makes a location unique.
3. Human-Environment Interaction: How people and the environment affect
each other.
4. Movement: How people, goods, and ideas travel.
5. Region: Areas grouped by shared features.

Approaches in Geography:
1. Physical Geography: Studies natural features (e.g., landforms, climate).
2. Human Geography: Focuses on human activities (e.g., cities, cultures).
3. Geospatial Techniques: Uses maps, GIS, and data to analyze patterns.
 ❖ What is the relationship between physical geography and
environmental science.

Aspect Physical Geography Environmental Science

Focus Natural features and processes Interaction between nature,
(landforms, climate) humans, and ecosystems
Key Understanding Earth's natural Solving environmental problems
Purpose systems
Scope Land, water, air, and ecosystems Human impact on the
environment and sustainability
Methods Observation, mapping, and Interdisciplinary research and
spatial analysis applied science
Relationship Provides knowledge of natural Uses this knowledge to address
systems environmental issues

The Earth’s Crust and Lithosphere:

❖ Give the composition of Earth’s Crust with figure.

The Earth's crust is the outermost, solid layer of the Earth. It is forming the thin
and hard surface on which we live. It is primarily composed of rocks and minerals.
It is rich with several elements, but the most abundant are oxygen, silicon,
aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. These elements
combine to form silicate minerals, which make up most of the Earth's crust.
Here’s a breakdown of the major elements of Earth's crust:
1. Oxygen (O): ~46.6%
2. Silicon (Si): ~27.7%
 3. Aluminum (Al): ~8.1%
4. Iron (Fe): ~5.0%
5. Calcium (Ca): ~3.6%
6. Sodium (Na): ~2.8%
7. Potassium (K): ~2.6%
8. Magnesium (Mg): ~2.1%
9. Others (trace elements): ~1.5%
These elements form minerals like quartz,
feldspar, mica, and others, which make up the
rocks of the Earth's crust.

❖ Describe about Earth crust

The Earth's crust is the outermost, solid layer of the Earth. It is forming the thin
and hard surface on which we live. It is primarily composed of rocks and minerals.
The crust is divided into two main types based on its composition and thickness:
continental crust and oceanic crust.

1. Continental Crust:
• Thicker (30–70 km).
• Composed mainly of granite.
• Less dense than oceanic crust.
 • Forms landmasses (continents).

2. Oceanic Crust:
• Thinner (5–10 km).
• Made primarily of basalt.
• Denser than continental crust.
• Forms the ocean floors.

❖ Discuss the internal structure of the earth with facts and figures
The Earth's internal structure consists of several layers. From the outermost layer to
the innermost layer. These layers are typically categorized into three major types:
the crust, mantle, and core. The Earth's internal structure is divided into four main
layers:

1. Crust:
o Thin outer layer (5–70 km thick).
o Composed of rocks and minerals like granite and basalt.
o Two types: Continental (thicker, less dense) and Oceanic (thinner,
denser).

2. Mantle:
o Extends 2,900 km
beneath the crust.
o Made of semi-solid rock
(silicate minerals).
o Divided into the upper
mantle (which is partially
molten) and lower
mantle.
o The movement of mantle
materials drives tectonic
plate movement.

3. Outer Core:
o Located beneath the mantle, 2,200 km thick.
o Made of liquid iron and nickel.
o Responsible for generating the Earth’s magnetic field through convection
currents.
 4. Inner Core:
o The innermost layer, about 1,200 km thick.
o Composed mainly of solid iron and nickel.
o Extremely hot (over 5,000°C) but remains solid due to high pressure.

Facts:
• The Earth's core is mostly iron and nickel.
• The mantle is the largest layer, making up 84% of the Earth's volume.
• The core's extreme heat helps maintain Earth's magnetic field.
• The Earth’s layers are separated by boundaries, like the Moho (between the
crust and mantle) and the core-mantle boundary.

❖ Describe briefly about Rocks

Rocks are naturally occurring solid materials made up of one or more minerals.
They are classified into three main types:
1. Igneous Rocks: Formed from cooled and solidified magma or lava (e.g.,
granite, basalt).
2. Sedimentary Rocks: Formed from the accumulation of sediments, like
sand, mud, and minerals (e.g., sandstone, limestone).
3. Metamorphic Rocks: Formed when existing rocks are changed by heat,
pressure, or chemical reactions (e.g., marble, slate).
Rocks are the building blocks of the Earth's crust and can change from one type to
another through natural processes.

Earth Movement and Geomorphic Processes:

❖ What do you mean by geomorphic processes/features?

Geomorphic processes refer to the natural processes that shape the Earth's
surface, including the movement and transformation of materials. These processes
are responsible for the formation of various geomorphic features (landforms).
Key geomorphic processes include:

1. Erosion: The wearing away of rocks and soil by wind, water, or ice.
 2. Weathering: The breakdown of rocks into smaller particles due to chemical,
physical, or biological factors.
3. Deposition: The accumulation of sediments in a new location, forming
features like deltas and beaches.
4. Tectonic Activity: Movements of Earth's plates that create mountains,
earthquakes, and volcanoes.

❖ Differentiate between exogenic and endogenic forces

Ans: Exogenic and endogenic forces are two fundamental geological processes
that shape the Earth’s surface. Here are the key differences between them:

Aspect Exogenic Forces Endogenic Forces

Origin External (surface processes) Internal (within the Earth)
Examples Weathering, erosion, deposition Tectonic movements, volcanic
activity, earthquakes

Effect Shape the surface by breaking Shape the Earth's interior and
down and moving materials surface, forming mountains, valleys

Processes Wind, water, ice, biological Plate movements, magma, mantle

activity convection

❖ Discuss the exogenic and endogenic changes in the earth’s crust.

The Earth's crust undergoes continuous changes due to both exogenic and
endogenic processes. These processes are fundamental in shaping the Earth's surface
and involve different mechanisms and forces.

Exogenic Changes (Surface Processes):

• Weathering: Breakdown of rocks due to physical, chemical, or biological

factors (e.g., freeze-thaw cycles, plant roots).
 • Erosion: Removal of rock and soil by wind, water, or ice, wearing down the
landscape (e.g., river valleys, coastal
erosion).
• Transportation and Deposition:
Movement and settling of sediments,
forming features like deltas, beaches, and
sand dunes.
• Effect: These processes tend to flatten
and smooth the Earth's surface over time.

Endogenic Changes (Internal Processes):

• Tectonic Movements: Movement of

Earth's plates, causing earthquakes,
mountain building, and volcanic activity.
• Volcanism: Magma reaching the surface,
forming volcanoes and new crust.
• Earthquakes: Shaking of the Earth's surface due to sudden release of energy
along faults.
• Effect: These processes create new landforms, such as mountains, volcanoes,
and rift valleys, and change the Earth’s structure internally.

❖ Describe in brief different types of exogenic processes in the

earth.

Exogenic processes are external forces that shape the Earth's surface. They include:

1. Weathering: The breakdown of rocks into smaller particles due to physical,

chemical, or biological processes.
o Example: Rocks cracking due to temperature changes or plant roots.
2. Erosion: The removal of weathered rock and soil by wind, water, or ice.
o Example: River erosion creating valleys or coastal erosion shaping
beaches.
3. Transportation: The movement of eroded materials (sediments) by natural
forces like rivers, glaciers, or wind.
o Example: Sediments being carried by rivers and deposited in new areas.
 4. Deposition: The settling of eroded materials to form landforms such as
beaches, dunes, or deltas.
o Example: Sand deposition forming sand dunes or river deltas.

The Earthquake:
❖ Define earthquake
An earthquake is a natural phenomenon characterized by a sudden release of energy
in the Earth's crust. It is leading to the shaking of the ground. This release of energy
is typically the result of the movement of tectonic plates, volcanic activity, or other
geological processes.

❖ Express your ideas about “Plate Tectonics Theory”.

Plate Tectonics Theory explains that the Earth's outer layer (lithosphere) is divided
into large plates that move slowly on the softer layer beneath them (asthenosphere).
Key points:
1. Plate Boundaries:
o Divergent: Plates move apart (e.g., mid-ocean ridges).
o Convergent: Plates collide, forming mountains or causing earthquakes
(e.g., Himalayas).
o Transform: Plates slide past each other (e.g., San Andreas Fault).
2. Movement: Plates move because of heat inside the Earth that causes the
mantle to flow.
3. Effects: Plate movement causes volcanoes, earthquakes, and the creation of
mountains and oceans.

❖ Describe Earthquake waves

Earthquake waves are vibrations caused by the sudden release of energy within the
Earth's crust during an earthquake. There are two main types:

1. Body Waves: Travel through the Earth’s interior.

o P-Waves (Primary Waves): Fastest waves, move in a compressional
(push-pull) motion. They can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
o S-Waves (Secondary Waves): Slower, move in a side-to-side motion.
They can only travel through solids.

2. Surface Waves: Travel along the Earth’s surface and cause the most damage.
 o Love Waves: Move in a horizontal, side-to-side motion.
o Rayleigh Waves: Move in an up-and-down, rolling motion, similar to
ocean waves.

❖ Describe the factors causing earthquake

Earthquakes are caused by sudden movements in the Earth's crust due to various
factors:
1. Tectonic Plate Movements: The most common cause, where plates collide,
slide past, or pull apart. This causes stress along faults, which is released as
seismic energy.
o Example: Convergent boundaries (colliding plates) or transform
boundaries (sliding plates).
2. Volcanic Activity: Earthquakes can occur when magma moves through the
Earth's crust, creating pressure that is released as seismic waves.
o Example: Earthquakes occurring before or during volcanic eruptions.
3. Faults: Cracks in the Earth's crust where two blocks of rock can slide past
each other. The movement along these faults releases energy, causing
earthquakes.
o Example: The San Andreas Fault.
4. Human Activities: Activities like mining, reservoir-induced seismicity (due
to large dams), and underground nuclear tests can also trigger earthquakes.
o Example: Earthquakes caused by mining operations or hydraulic
fracturing (fracking).

❖ Define the following term -Magma, Lava, Craters, Calder and

Hot Spring
Magma: Molten rock beneath the Earth's surface. It forms in the mantle and can
rise to the surface through volcanoes.
Lava: Magma that has reached the Earth's surface, where it cools and solidifies to
form rocks.
Craters: Bowl-shaped holes on the top of a volcano or caused by an impact, like a
meteor.
Caldera: A big, sunken area formed when a volcano collapses after an eruption.
Hot Spring: A pool of warm water that comes from underground, heated by
Earth's heat.
The Volcano:

❖ What is volcanism
Volcanism is the process through which magma from inside the Earth erupts to the
surface, forming volcanoes and releasing lava, ash, and gases. It can create new
landforms and change the Earth's surface over time. Volcanism is the activity related
to the movement of magma from the Earth's interior to the surface. It involves
several stages:
1. Magma Formation: Magma forms deep in the Earth's mantle due to heat and
pressure.
2. Eruption: Magma rises through cracks or volcanoes, reaching the surface as
lava, ash, and gases.
3. Volcanic Landforms: Over time, repeated eruptions can build volcanic
mountains, calderas, or lava plateaus.
4. Types of Eruptions: Eruptions can be explosive (releasing ash, gases) or
effusive (lava flows).

❖ Write down the consequences of volcanic activities.

The consequences of volcanic activities include:

1. Destruction of Property: Lava flows, ash, and pyroclastic flows can destroy
buildings, roads, and infrastructure.
2. Loss of Life: Explosive eruptions and related hazards like lahars (mudflows)
and tsunamis can cause casualties.
3. Climate Impact: Ash and gases released into the atmosphere can affect
climate, leading to cooling or air pollution.
4. Soil Fertility: Volcanic ash can enrich soil, making it fertile for farming in
the long term.
5. Formation of New Landforms: Volcanoes create new land features like
mountains, craters, and islands.
6. Displacement: Eruptions can force people to evacuate, leading to temporary
or permanent displacement.

❖ Elucidate different types of Volcanos

Volcanoes are classified based on their shape, size, and eruption style.
There are three main types of volcanoes:
 1. Shield Volcanoes:
o Shape: Broad, slightly domed.
o Eruption: Non-explosive, with slow, steady lava flows.
o Example: Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
2. Stratovolcanoes (Composite Volcanoes):
o Shape: Steep, cone-shaped.
o Eruption: Explosive, with alternating layers of lava and ash.
o Example: Mount St. Helens (USA), Mount Fuji (Japan).
3. Cinder Cone Volcanoes:
o Shape: Steep, cone-shaped, smaller than stratovolcanoes.
o Eruption: Explosive, ejecting ash, gas, and volcanic debris.
o Example: Parícutin (Mexico).

❖ What are the major features created due to volcanic eruption

Major features created by volcanic eruptions include:

1. Craters: Bowl-shaped depressions at the volcano's top.

2. Lava Plateaus: Flat areas formed by large lava flows.
3. Volcanic Islands: Islands formed by lava building up underwater.
4. Calderas: Large craters formed when a volcano collapses after an eruption.
5. Lava Domes: Steep, dome-shaped hills formed by slow lava eruptions.
6. Fissure Eruptions: Cracks in the Earth where lava erupts, creating lava fields.
7. Tuff Cones: Small hills formed by ash and debris from eruptions.

❖ Give the abbreviated modified Mercalli intensity scale.

The Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale measures the intensity of an
earthquake based on its effects on people, buildings, and the Earth's surface. It
ranges from I to XII, with each level describing increasing levels of damage and
impact:
• I: Not felt except by a few people under special conditions.
• II: Felt only by a few people at rest, especially on upper floors.
• III: Felt indoors, but not by many outdoors.
• IV: Felt by many indoors; some objects may fall.
 • V: Felt by most people; small damage to buildings.
• VI: Felt by everyone; damage to buildings.
• VII: People have difficulty standing; considerable damage.
• VIII: Some buildings may collapse; large cracks in the ground.
• IX: Well-built buildings suffer severe damage; visible ground movement.
• X: Many buildings and bridges destroyed; ground cracks large.
• XI: Few buildings remain standing; widespread ground cracks.
• XII: Total destruction; visible ground movement and waves.

Factors and Elements of Climate:

❖ Describe the factors affecting Climate on earth.

Factors affecting climate on Earth include:
1. Latitude: Places near the equator are warmer.
2. Altitude: Higher places are cooler.
3. Ocean Currents: Warm or cold ocean water affects temperature.
4. Distance from the Sea: Coastal areas have mild weather, while inland areas
have more extreme temperatures.
5. Winds: Winds move heat and moisture, affecting weather.
6. Mountains: Mountains can block wind and rain, creating different climates
on each side.
7. Human Activities: Things like pollution and deforestation can change the
climate.
8. Sunlight: The amount of sunlight a place gets affects its temperature.

❖ Describe about the elements of climate.

The elements of climate are:
1. Temperature: How hot or cold the air is.
2. Humidity: The amount of moisture in the air.
3. Precipitation: Water falling from the sky as rain, snow, etc.
4. Air Pressure: The weight of the air, which affects weather and winds.
5. Wind: Moving air from high to low pressure areas.
6. Cloudiness: The amount and type of clouds in the sky.
 ❖ Describe the factors affecting climate variation on earth.
Climate variation refers to changes in the long-term weather patterns of Earth, which
are influenced by several natural and human factors. Factors affecting climate
variation on Earth:
1. Latitude: Places near the equator are warmer.
2. Altitude: Higher places, like mountains, are cooler.
3. Ocean Currents: Warm or cold ocean water can change temperatures.
4. Distance from Water: Areas near oceans or lakes have mild weather, while
inland areas can be hotter or colder.
5. Winds: Winds move warm or cold air, affecting the weather.
6. Mountains: Mountains can block winds and rain, creating different climates
on each side.
7. Human Activities: Pollution, cutting down trees, and cities can change the
climate.
8. Sunlight: Places that get more sunlight are warmer.

❖ Salt Weathering
Salt weathering is a type of physical weathering that happens when salt crystals
grow inside rock cracks and cause the rock to break apart. Here's how it works:
1. Water with Salt: Rain or seawater seeps into cracks or porous rocks.
2. Evaporation: When the water evaporates, the salt stays behind and forms
crystals.
3. Crystal Growth: As the crystals grow, they expand and create pressure inside
the rock.
4. Breaking of Rocks: This pressure weakens the rock, causing it to crack,
crumble, or flake off.
This process is especially common in coastal areas, deserts, and places with high
evaporation rates, where salt is abundant. It can break down rocks like limestone,
sandstone, or granite over time.
 ❖ Write down the difference between weather and climate.
Here’s a comparison between weather and climate:

Factor Weather Climate

Definition Short-term atmospheric Long-term average of weather
conditions. patterns.

Duration Changes daily or even hourly. Stays the same over many years or
decades.

Focus Temperature, humidity, rainfall, General weather patterns over a

wind, etc. long period.

Example It’s raining today or it’s hot The climate of the Sahara is hot
tomorrow. and dry.

Measurement Measured in hours, days, or Measured over long periods,

weeks. typically 30 years.

Economic Activities:

❖ Define economic activities.

Economic activities are actions that involve the production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services. They play a key role in the economy and can be
divided into different types:
1. Primary Activities: Involve extracting natural resources from the Earth.
o Example: Farming, fishing, mining, and forestry.
2. Secondary Activities: Involve turning raw materials into finished goods.
o Example: Manufacturing, construction, and processing industries.
3. Tertiary Activities: Provide services to people and businesses.
o Example: Teaching, healthcare, banking, and retail.
 4. Quaternary Activities: Focus on knowledge-based services like research and
information technology.
o Example: Education, research, IT services, and consulting.

❖ What are different types of economic activities? Describe

them.
There are four main types of economic activities:
1. Primary Activities:
o Involve using natural resources directly from the Earth.
o Examples: Farming, fishing, mining, and forestry.
o These activities form the base of all other economic activities.
2. Secondary Activities:
o Involve processing raw materials into finished goods.
o Examples: Manufacturing, construction, and processing (like turning
wood into furniture or raw materials into clothing).
o These create products that are sold in markets.
3. Tertiary Activities:
o Involve providing services rather than goods.
o Examples: Teaching, healthcare, banking, transportation, and retail.
o These services support primary and secondary activities and improve
people's quality of life.
4. Quaternary Activities:
o Involve knowledge-based work that requires specialized skills.
o Examples: Research, IT services, education, and consulting.
o These activities focus on intellectual services and are often linked to
technology and innovation.

❖ Discuss the main characteristics/features of primary

economic activities.
Primary economic activities involve getting natural resources from the Earth. Here
are the main features:
1. Depend on Nature: These activities use land, water, plants, and minerals.
o Example: Farming needs good land and water.
 2. Produce Raw Materials: They provide basic materials used in other
industries.
o Example: Mining gives minerals used in construction.
3. Require Lots of Labor: These activities often need many workers to gather
or process resources.
o Example: Farming needs people to plant and harvest crops.
4. Location-Specific: They are tied to specific areas where resources are found.
o Example: Fishing happens in oceans, rivers, or lakes.
5. Important for the Economy: They provide the basic goods that other
industries need.
o Example: Logging gives wood for furniture.
6. Affected by Seasons: Some activities depend on weather or seasons.
o Example: Farming depends on good weather for crops.

❖ Explain the Classification of Economic activities

Economic activities are classified into four main types:
1. Primary Activities:
o Involve using natural resources directly from the Earth.
o Examples: Farming, fishing, mining, and forestry.
2. Secondary Activities:
o Involve processing raw materials into finished goods.
o Examples: Manufacturing, construction, and industries that create
products like clothes or cars.
3. Tertiary Activities:
o Provide services rather than goods.
 o Examples: Teaching, healthcare, banking, transport, and retail.
4. Quaternary Activities:
o Focus on knowledge and information-based work.
o Examples: Research, IT services, education, and consulting.
These classifications help understand how different activities contribute to the
economy.

Settlement:

❖ What is human settlement?

Human settlement refers to the process of people living together in one area. It
includes the buildings, homes, and communities that form where people live. Here
are the points about human settlement:
1. Definition: People living together in one place, forming communities.
2. Types: Can range from small villages to large cities.
3. Location Factors: Settlements are often built near resources like water,
land, or minerals.
4. Purpose: Provide shelter, work, and services for people.
5. Growth: Settlements grow based on population, economy, and
infrastructure.
6. Urban and Rural: Settlements can be urban (cities) or rural (villages,
farms).

❖ Differentiate between rural and urban settlement.

Here’s the difference between rural and urban settlements:

Factor Rural Settlement Urban Settlement

Size Smaller in size Larger in size
Population Low population density High population density
Density
Location Found in villages, countryside, Found in cities and towns
or farms

Economy Based on agriculture, farming, Based on industries, services,

and natural resources and commerce

Lifestyle Simple and less developed Modern, fast-paced, with

advanced infrastructure

Services Limited services like schools More access to schools,

and healthcare hospitals, and businesses

Infrastructure Fewer roads, buildings, and Well-developed roads,

public facilities buildings, and services

❖ Classify different settlement patterns and highlight major

features of rural settlement in aspects of Bangladesh.
Settlement patterns are the ways in which human settlements are arranged in a
region. They are generally classified into three types:
1. Nucleated Settlements:
o Buildings and homes are clustered together in one area.
o Common in areas with limited land, like near rivers or roads.
2. Dispersed Settlements:
o Homes are spread out over a wide area, with large spaces between them.
o Often found in rural or agricultural regions.
3. Linear Settlements:
o Settlements are built along a line, usually following a road, river, or
coastline.
o Common in areas with transportation routes or along waterways.

Features of rural settlements in Bangladesh:

1. Farming: Most people live near their farms and work on the land.
2. Small Villages: Villages are small with close communities.
3. Houses: Houses are made from mud, bamboo, or metal sheets.
4. Culture: Strong family and community traditions.
 5. Near Water: Many villages are near rivers or ponds for water and farming.
6. Basic Services: Few services like schools or clinics; roads and electricity can
be limited.
7. Linear Settlements: Some villages are built along roads or rivers.

❖ Factors affecting human settlement.

Factors affecting human settlement include:
1. Climate: People prefer areas with moderate weather, not too hot or cold.
2. Water Availability: Access to fresh water for drinking, agriculture, and daily
needs is crucial.
3. Soil Fertility: Fertile land supports farming and encourages settlements.
4. Topography: Flat land is easier to build on than mountainous or hilly areas.
5. Economic Opportunities: Areas with jobs, markets, and industries attract
people.
6. Transport: Easy access to roads, railways, and ports encourages settlement.
7. Safety: People settle in areas that are safe from natural disasters and conflicts.
8. Resources: Access to natural resources like minerals, forests, or fish
encourages settlement.
9. Government Policies: Government plans and incentives can influence where
people settle.

Short Notes:

❖ Tundra
Tundra: A cold, treeless area where the ground is frozen most of the time. It is
found near the Arctic or on high mountains. Only small plants like mosses and
shrubs can grow there.

❖ Denudation
Denudation: The process by which the Earth's surface is worn away by natural
forces like wind, water, and ice. It includes erosion, weathering, transportation, and
deposition. Over time, it lowers landforms and exposes underlying rocks.

❖ Factors affecting population distribution

Factors Affecting Population Distribution:
1. Natural Factors:
 o Climate: People like mild weather, not too hot or cold.
o Land: Flat areas are easier to live in than mountains.
o Water: Places near rivers or lakes have more people.
o Soil: Good soil for farming attracts people.

2. Human Factors:
o Jobs: People move to places with work opportunities.
o Facilities: Roads, schools, and hospitals attract people.
o Safety: Peaceful areas have more people.
o Culture: Some places are important for religion or history.

❖ Man-environment relationship
Man-Environment Relationship: How humans and nature affect each other.
• Humans depend on nature: We need air, water, food, and resources like
wood and minerals.
• Humans change nature: We build cities, farms, roads, and dams.
• Nature affects humans: Weather, floods, earthquakes, and other natural
events shape how we

❖ P and S waves
P and S Waves: These are types of earthquake waves.
• P Waves (Primary Waves):
o The fastest waves.
o Travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
o Move like a push-pull motion (back-and-forth).
• S Waves (Secondary Waves):
o Slower than P waves.
o Travel only through solids, not liquids or gases.
o Move side-to-side, shaking the ground.

❖ Cinder cone volcanoes

Cinder Cone Volcanoes:
• Small, cone-shaped volcanoes with steep sides.
• Formed by explosive eruptions of ash, cinders, and lava fragments.
• Usually short-lived and erupt for a short time.
• Example: Parícutin in Mexico.
 ❖ Latitude and Altitude
Latitude and Altitude:
• Latitude:
o Refers to how far north or south a place is from the equator.
o The closer to the equator, the warmer it is.
o Farther from the equator, the colder it gets.

• Altitude:
o Refers to how high a place is above sea level.
o The higher the altitude, the cooler it gets.

❖ Shadow regions of the earthquake waves

Shadow Regions of Earthquake Waves:
• These are areas where earthquake waves don’t reach.
• P Waves can travel through both solids and liquids, but S Waves can only
travel through solids.
• When earthquake waves pass through the Earth’s core, S Waves can't go
through the liquid part, so they don’t reach certain areas.
• P Waves also bend around the core, so some areas don’t feel them.

❖ Tropical rainforest
Tropical Rainforest:
• A hot, wet forest found near the equator.
• Gets heavy rain all year round.
• Has many different plants and animals.
• Examples: Amazon Rainforest (South America) and Congo Rainforest
(Africa).