ENGLISH NOTES FOR ORAL LITERATURE

ORAL NARRATIVES

Introduction To Oral Narratives

- An oral narrative is one of the genres of oral literature.

- A narrative is a prose that recounts events, people, and places.
- A narrative can either be fictional (non factual) or non-fictional
(factual).
- The terms used to mean the same as a narrative are tale, folk tale, or
a story.
- At its essence, an oral narrative is a story spoken to an audience.
- An oral narrative is handed down from generation to generation by word of
mouth.

Classification of Oral Narratives

(a) Myths
(b) Legends
(c) Ogre or monster stories
(d) Trickster stories
(e) Etiological Narratives
(f) Dilemma stories
(g) Fables
(h) Spirit tales
(i) Allegory

Myths
- Deal with origins.
- There is a supernatural being involved.
- They explain the origin of death, origin of a group of people, etc.

Characteristics of Myths

i. A story that is or was considered a true explanation of the natural world

(and how it came to be).
ii. Characters are often non-human – e.g. gods, goddesses, supernatural
beings, first people.
iii. Setting is a previous proto-world (somewhat like this one but also
different).
iv. Plot may involve interplay between worlds (this world and previous or
original world).
v. Depict events that bend or break natural laws (reflective of connection to
previous world).

Legends
- A legend is a story about an outstanding person who has participated in the
historical events of a community. and known to the people.
- Usually based on fact but also includes imagination material and an
element of exaggeration.
- Some well known legends are: Luanda Magere, Wangu wa Makeri, Mugo wa
Kibiru, Mekatilili wa Menza, Fumo Liyongo
- Youth are usually the target audience of legends so that they can emulate
the hero or heroine.

Characteristics of Myths

- There are extraordinary actions done by the hero.

- Facts in such stories are historical.
- Features mentioned are actual ones.
- In some, there is an aspect of betrayal.
- Element of exaggeration is common.
- Birth or death is associated with some mystery.
- Events are in the present world; the one we live in.

Ogre / Monster Stories

- An ogre usually represents an evil that is usually destroyed at the end. They
always have happy ending.

Functions of Ogre Stories

1. They warn against strangers.

2. They caution youth against marrying the people they don’t know.

Trickster Stories
A character makes up for a physical weakness with cunning and subversive
humour.
The trickster alternatives between:
i. Cleverness and stupidity;
ii. Kindness and cruelty;
iii. Deceiver and deceived; and
iv. Breaker of taboos and creator of culture.

Etiological Narratives
- They explain the origin of a certain phenomenon.
- An etiological narrative is an imaginative story triggered by question "how
or why" something came to be in the world.
- Examples are:
i) Why the hyena has shorter back legs
ii. Why rainbow appears in the sky after it rains.
iii. Why hare has a short tail.

Dilemma Stories
- A dilemma story shows a character or a group of characters faced
with two or more alternatives, none of which is easy to make.
- A dilemma story is a morally ambiguous story, thus allows the audience to
comment or speculate upon the correct solution to the problem posed in the
story.
- A dilemma story has a perplexing situation, which presents different
possibilities, and both of them seem practically acceptable.

Functions of Dilemma

1. Dilemma gives the audience an insight into characters' lives.

2. It also creates suspense. This is because the audience will be left
wondering which choice the character will make.

Fables
- Feature animal characters which speak as human beings.
Have you read a story about a rabbit and a hyena?

Spirit Tales
Ghosts or spirits feature in such stories.
Allegory
- Real life is represented by characters and events.
- Though embodies real life, it is presented as if it is fictional.

Setting in Oral Narratives

- An oral narrative give information on the following: a) The physical

environment. Features like lakes, mountains, forests, etc. are mentioned.
b) Economic activities such as Hunting, Livestock Keeping, Crop Farming,
Fishing etc.
c) Social Activities such as ceremonies, religious practices, and other forms
of entertainment.
d) Political activities including the the power structure and war activities

Features of Oral Narratives

i) Opening formula
This is used to indicate the beginning of a story. It also removes the audience
from the world of reality and take them to the world of fantasy. A world of
fantasy is where bones speak, a king is the lion, etc. some commonly used
opening formula phrases are 'A long time ago...', 'Once upon a
time,...', 'There once was .....', and 'Long, long ago, .....'
The opening Formula serves the following functions
a. Announces the coming of a narrative.
b. Gets the attention of the audience.
c. Removes the audience from the world of reality.
d. Identifies the narrator.

ii) Closing formula

It makes the end of a story. It also removes the audience from the world of
fantasy and take them back to the world of reality. Some examples are: 'And
that is why...', 'And there ends my story. 'From then onwards ...', 'To
come to the end of my story ...'
A closing formula serves such functions as:
a. Announcing the end of the narrative.
b. Momentarily releases the audience from concentration.
c. Brings back the audience to the world of reality.
d. Clears the way for the next narrative or activity.

iii) Use of idiophones

Use of words that imitate the movement or sounds made by characters in
the story. For example,
- The bees flew buzz buzzbuzz. - The woman laughed hahahahaha. - The
branch was cut kacha.

iv) Repetition
A word, phrase, a song, or even a sentence can occur more than once in a
story. The repetition is meant to:
a. Bring out the meaning.
b. Emphasize a point.
c. Maintain the rhythm.
d. Sustain the mood in the story.

v) Use of songs
The songs perform the following functions:
(i) Brings out the character traits.
(ii) Brings out the theme.
(iii) To entertain.

vi) Allusions
Complex problems are explained and clarified by referring to something the
audience is familiar with, eg.The bible, History, Famous people

vii) Suspense
Here, the audience is left wondering what will happen next since the climax
is delayed.

viii) Dialogue
A character speaks directly to the other. Dialogue is used to bring out the
theme, character traits as well as to develop the plot of the story.

ix) Fantasy
Imaginary and factually impossible things are created in the story.
Techniques of Story Telling

- Use of gestures. Gestures are meant to reinforce the idea. For example
when talking about a character going, you can stretch your arm to show that.
- Altering your facial expressions according to the emotion and feelings
in the story. Do not frown when the emotion happy.
- Varying the tone of your voice depending on what you are saying and
who is saying it. The tone should be low when for example a small animal
talks, and high when a big one speaks.
- Changing the pace of narration. There are those unimportant details
that can be said faster.
- Involving the audience in the narration. Asking them to join you when
singing will be okay.
- Use of mimicry. Here a narrator imitates the speech, action or other
mannerisms of the character, for example, the walking style of a character,
etc

ORAL POEMS OR SONGS

Introduction To Oral Poetry

Oral poetry refers to the verbal expression of feelings, ideas and thoughts
using words arranged in their best possible order. (If sung, it is a song.)

Features of Oral Poetry

(a) It is composed and delivered by word of mouth.
(b) Linguistic aspects such as tone and pitch are crucial in oral poetry in
varying the meaning and the mood .
(c) There is often solo and chorus pattern especially in sung poetry.
(d) Accompanied with movement and dance.
(e) The performer dresses in costumes in some sung poetry.
(f) Musical instruments such as drums, horn can accompany the
performance of poetry.
(g) Rhythm or beat. It is a regular repeated pattern of sounds. It can be slow,
fast, moderate, monotonous, or disjointed.
(h) Volume. This refers to whether the song/poetry should be loud or soft. A
lullaby should be sung softly while war song should be sung loudly as it
engenders courage and aggression.
Classification of Oral Poetry

Oral poetry can be classified based on the following criteria

(1) The performer of the poetry, for example: children's songs
(2) The theme, example: Love poetry
(3) Context of performance, examples: Dirges, Wedding songs War poetry
(4) Function examples: Praise songs/poetry, Teasing songs, lullabies

(a) Lullabies
They are sung in order to:
- Send the baby to sleep.
- Calm the crying baby.
- Give promise to the crying baby. The promise can be that one of the
parents is coming back.

Features of Lullabies

- They are normally sung softly so as to lull the baby.

- If you have to clap, or hum, or whistle to the rhythm, do it softly and slowly.
- In the case where a child cries, rock the baby as you sing.
- You can also gently tap the back of the baby.
- They are normally short.
- They are also repetitive.

(b) Children songs (Play Songs)

They are sung by children during their playtime.

Features of Children Songs

1. Repetition is used. A word, sentence, and even a whole stanza can be

repeated.
2. They are often short.
Functions of Children's Songs

1. They help in developing children's language skills as they listen to familiar

words in the songs.
2. Help develop children’s listen skills, thus concentrate.
3. Encourage creativity in children. At times you find children adding words
that were not initially mentioned in the original versions of the songs.
4. Some teaching counting of numbers.

(c) Teasing Songs

Sung to make fun of someone.

(d) Religious Poetry

- Sung and performed during religious occasions.
- Sung mostly at places considered holy grounds.
- Sung softly and slowly.

(e) Love Poetry/Songs

- They are based on romance.
- Sung by one to the loved one.
- They are sung softly and slowly as they should present romantic elements.
They are sung to:
1. Express romance.
2. Mend the damaged relationship between lovers.

(f) Cradle Songs/Poetry

- Performed to mark the birth of a child.
- In most cases, a child is wished a successful life in future.
- Mostly performed by women and girls.
- During this time, a child or child’s mother is presented with gifts.
(g) War Poetry
- Performed by warriors during war.
- Sung loudly to show bravery.
- During the singing, weapons are held in the hands of the performers.

(h) Hunting Songs

- Hunters perform hunting songs.
- Sung on the way to and from hunting trip.
- Hunting tools carried in the process.
- Just like war songs, they are sung loudly.
- They are on the way to hunt to encourage themselves on the possibility of
killing fatter and enough animals.
- Also to pass time on their way.

(i) Satirical Poetry

- One's folly is criticized in this song.
- They are meant to help the wicked in some areas to change.

(j) Epics/Heroic Poetry

- They are elaborate and talk about the lives of heroes and heroins known
to the community.
- The heroic deeds of the heroes are mentioned.

(k) Dirges
- Also referred to as funeral songs or funeral poems.
- They are sung after learning about the death of someone.
- Can also be sung during the funeral ceremony.
- Should also be sung softly to show the sadness that result from losing
someone’s beloved one.
- In some cases, weapons are held during the performance.
- There is the use of apostrophe. This is style of addressing an object or a
death as if it is alive and can respond.
 - While women sing, men chant.

(l) Panegyrics
- In its specialized form panegyric is a type of oral poetry and one meant
to praise someone.
- The praise song can be sung by someone else or sung by one for self
praises. Sometimes these are self-praises
- Formalized praises are directed publicly to kings, chiefs, and leaders,
composed and recited by members of a king's official entourage.
- One can be praised in case of a personal achievement in war or an
achievement such as hunting.

Stylistic Devices in Oral Poetry

An oral poetry can have textual poetic techniques like:

1. Satire - (Definition. the use of humour, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to
expose and criticize people's stupidity or vices)
2. Irony
3. Sarcasm
4. Figures of speech such as imagery, symbolism, etc.
5. Humour
6. Suspense
7. Allusion (Definition: is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place,
thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance without
describing in detail the person or thing to which it refers.)
8. Mnemonic features such as rhyme, assonance, alliteration, consonance,
etc,

PROVERBS

Introduction To Proverbs

- A proverb is a brief statement full of hidden meaning and which expresses

wisdom and truth.
- The term adage, or wise saying, is sometimes used to mean the same thing
as a proverb.
- It is one of the short forms of oral literature.
Classification of Proverbs

- Proverbs are classified according to:

a. The theme
b. Alphabetical letters
c. Function served
d. Styles used
(a) According to the Theme
Thematically, proverbs can be classified as:

i. Proverbs on fate
ii. Proverbs on authority
iii. Proverbs on greed
iv. Proverbs on love
v. Proverbs on marriage
vi. Proverbs on co-operation
vii. Proverbs on arrogance
viii. Proverbs on communal life, etc

(b) According to the Alphabetical Letters

Alphabetically, proverbs can be categorized as:

i. "A" proverbs if the first words begin with letter "A"

ii. "B" proverbs
iii. "C" proverbs, etc

(c) According to the Function served by the Proverb

Functionally, proverbs can be classified as:

i. Cautionary proverbs, which warn against what is undesirable

ii. Normative proverbs, which reinforce what the community considers
acceptable and desirable
iii. Summative proverbs. They summarize issues and even narratives

(d) According to Styles Used

Stylistically, classify proverbs as:
 i. Alliterative proverbs
ii. Onomatopoeic proverbs
iii. Repetitive proverbs
iv. Epigrammatic proverbs if they are longer, and consist of two parts

Consider this Kiswahili Proverb:

Wajua tamu yaua sumu umenipiani?
(You know that sweetness kills, why have you given me poison?)
It can be classified as:
Alphabetically : "W" Proverb
Stylistically : Interrogative
Thematically : Love
Functionally : Normative

Features of Proverbs

- Proverbs have features such as brief and contain wisdom.

Stylistic Qualities of Proverbs

-Proverbs possess unique stylistic qualities like:

 Mnemonic features
o Alliteration - e.g Forgive and forget
o Consonance - e.g Practice makes perfect
o Assonance - e.g Upendapo, uendapo
 Parallelism - This is a balance between two similar words, phrases, or
clauses
e.g Nothing ventured, nothing gained
 Ellipsis - Unneeded words are left out in order for us to fill what is
missing
e.g Penny wise, pound foolish
 Hyperbole - An idea is exaggerated in order to evoke strong feelings,
or to create a strong impression
e.g The half is more than the whole
  Paradox - It is an apparently true statement that leads to, or
intentionally expresses a contradiction or situation, which defies
intuition
e.g The longest way is the shortest way home
 Personification - the attribution of a personal nature or human
characteristics to something non-human, or the representation of an
abstract quality in human form.
e.g Love is blind

Functions of Proverbs
Proverbs play the following roles:

a. Normative functions. Proverbs usually:

o Congratulate
o Give suggestions
o Warn
o Advise
o Request
b. Aesthetic functions. When we use proverbs in speech, we make it more
appealing
c. Convey wisdom
d. Summarize experiences
RIDDLES

Introduction To Riddles

- A riddle is a short saying intended to make one to use his wits in

discovering the hidden meaning.
- Familiar objects or situations are referred to in a figurative terms for us to
figure out what is meant.

Classification of Riddles

- Riddles are classified according to:

a. Simplicity or complexity of the riddle

b. Objects mentioned in the riddle
c. Style and structure of the riddle
(a) Simplicity or Complexity
i. A simple riddle is brief and straightforward
ii. A riddle is complex when it is long and is presented in a series
of puzzles

(b) According to Objects Mentioned

- A riddle can be classified according to the object referred to in that riddle.
- A riddle can therefore be classified as:

i. Riddle on people
ii. Riddle on waste product, e.g. human waste
iii. Riddles on cultural objects
iv. Natural phenomena, like rocks
v. Domestic animals
vi. Plants
vii. Birds
viii. Parts of the body
ix. And others

(c) Style and Structure

- A style is also crucial in classifying riddles.
- According to the style and structure, riddles can be classified as:

i. Declarative riddles are presented as direct descriptions

ii. Epigrammatic riddles, which are presented as series of puzzles
iii. Idiophonic riddles use ideophones
iv. Interrogative riddles are posed as questions

Characteristics of Riddles

- Proverbs have features such as brief and contain wisdom.

Stylistic Qualities of Riddles

a. They are short and brief

b. Use personification
c. Use of metaphor
d. Use of ideophones
 e. Use of onomatopoeic words
f. Use repetition

Riddling Process

- There are two parties involved: the audience (respondents) and the
challenger(or the riddler).
- There are basically four stages of a riddling process, but at times six.
- The parts of the riddling process are:

a. The riddler challenges the audience. The challenge differs from

community to community. Some phrases used here include: riddle
riddle!, I have a riddle! Etc.
b. The respondents accept the challenge. The invitations include: riddle
come! Throw it! Etc.
c. The riddler then poses the riddle.
d. The guess or guesses. The audience tries to come up with the solution.
If they are unable, then the next part follows.
e. The challenger asks for a prize. The prize can be a town or city, or any
other thing. The challenger accepts the prize.
f. Then the solution is given by the challenger.

Functions of Riddles

a. They entertain. Entertainment arises from the objects they refer to.
b. They educate. Language is taught. The environment is also understood
better.
c. They teach values.
d. Help develop the ability to think faster.
e. Logical reasoning of participants are improved.

Examples of Riddles

1. Riddle: What has to be broken before you can use it?

Answer: An egg

2. Riddle: You walk into a room that contains a match, a

kerosene lamp, a candle and a fireplace. What would you
light first?
Answer: The match

3. Riddle: What can run but never walks, has a mouth but
never talks, has a head but never weeps, has a bed but
 never sleeps?
Answer: A river

4. Riddle: If you drop me I’m sure to crack, but give me a

smile and I’ll always smile back. What am I?
Answer: A mirror

5. Riddle: I have lakes with no water, mountains with no

stone and cities with no buildings. What am I?
Answer: A map

TONGUE TWISTERS
Introduction To Tongue Twisters

- It is a phrase or a sentence which is hard to speak fast because of

alliteration or a sequence of nearly similar sounds is the tongue twister.
- It is worth noting that there is usually the use of mnemonic feature (sound
devices or sound patterns) in the tongue twisters.

Examples of Tongue Twisters

1. She sells sea shells on the sea shore
2. Any noise annoys an oyster but noisy noise annoys an oyster
more.
3. Kindly kittens knitting mittens keep kazooing in the king’s
kitchen.

Sound Patterns in Tongue Twisters

Alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant sound in the nearby
words
Consider:
She saw a fish on the seashore and I am sure the fish she saw on the
sea shore was a saw-fish.
In the words: she, shore and sure, there is the repetition of the consonant
sound / ∫ / at the beginning of the words

Consonance
- It is the repetition of the inner consonant sound in the nearby words. An
inner sound is that which comes after the first.
Consider:
A skunk sat on a stump and thank the stump stunk, but the stump
thank the skunk stunk

Repetition
- Some words are repeatedly more than worse
Consider:
The sixth sick Sheik’s sixth sheep’s sick.

Assonance
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in the nearby words.
Consider:
How much wood could a wood chopper chop, if
a wood chopper could chop wood?
There is repetition of the /u:/ in the words, wood, could

Features of Tongue Twisters

- A tongue twister will have the following features:

1. It is short and brief.

2. It is alliterative
Functions of Tongue Twisters

1. They entertain. When one confuses the pronunciation of sounds, the

audience will laugh
2. They teach pronunciation. We can, for example, learn the
pronunciation of the sounds /f/ and /v/, /s/ and / ∫ / etc
3. Enhance creativity
WORDPLAY PUNS

Introduction To Puns / Word Play

- A pun is a form of word play that suggests several meanings, by

either exploiting the multiple meanings of a word, or substituting a
word for another similar sounding word, the result of which is
humorous.
- A pun is also known as paronomasia.
- There are two main types of puns:

(a) Homophonic puns

This is where a word is substituted for another similar sounding word
or word pronounced almost in the same way .
For example:
Fishermen are reel men.
Explanation: There is a twist on the word ‘reel’ which is originally
supposed to be spelt ‘real’.

(b) Homographic puns

- A homographic pun is formed by using a word that has multiple
meanings. You might not tell what exactly what the speaker means.
For example;
Rose is the flower of my life.
Explanation: The word ‘Rose’ is a female name. it could be the
person the speaker loves. It is also a type of flower.
Features of Puns

- Puns are characterized by:

a. They are short
b. They are humorous
Functions of Puns

a. Teaching pronunciation. For example, homophones

b. Enhancing creativity. One has to think in order to form their
puns
c. Entertaining. When said one wonders what the speaker
intends, the audience will laugh