Database Architecture, Data Models, Conceptual Modeling, and DBMS

Functions

1. Three-Level Database Architecture

The ANSI-SPARC three-level architecture provides an abstract framework for database
systems. It defines three levels at which data can be viewed, stored, and managed.

Levels of Database Architecture

1.​ External Level: The users' view of the database, showing only relevant data.
2.​ Conceptual Level: A unified view of the entire database, independent of physical
storage.
3.​ Internal Level: The physical storage of data, including file structures and indexing
methods.
Objectives of Three-Level Architecture

✅ Allow multiple user views without affecting storage.

✅ Provide data independence, ensuring system changes do not impact applications.

2. Data Independence
Data independence ensures changes at one level do not impact other levels.

Types of Data Independence

1.​ Logical Data Independence: Changes in the conceptual schema (e.g., adding/removing
attributes) do not require changes in application programs.
2.​ Physical Data Independence: Changes in physical storage (e.g., using different
indexing methods) do not require changes in the conceptual schema.

This enhances flexibility in managing databases.

3. Database Languages
A database language is used to define and manipulate data. It includes:

●​ Data Definition Language (DDL): Used to define the structure of a database (tables,
constraints).
●​ Data Manipulation Language (DML): Used for querying and modifying data (INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE).
●​ Fourth-Generation Languages (4GLs): High-level languages designed for easy
interaction with databases.
4. Data Models
A data model provides a conceptual framework for defining data, relationships, and
constraints in an organization. It determines how data is structured, stored, and
manipulated within a database system. Data models ensure that information is consistently
represented across different systems and applications.

Types of Data Models

1.​ Object-Based Data Models: Represent data as real-world objects that contain
attributes and behaviors. These models are widely used in Entity-Relationship (ER)
modeling and Object-Oriented Databases.
2.​ Record-Based Data Models: Organize data into predefined structures such as tables
or records. Examples include:
○​ Relational Model: Uses tables (relations) to store data.

○​
○​ Hierarchical Model: Uses a tree-like structure to represent relationships.

○​
○​ Network Model: Uses interconnected records, allowing more flexible
relationships than the hierarchical model.
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3.​ Physical Data Models: Describe how data is physically stored, indexed, and accessed
on storage devices such as hard drives or SSDs.

5. Conceptual Modeling
Conceptual modeling is the process of developing a high-level representation of data that is
independent of any specific database implementation. It provides a clear structure for how data
is related and helps in database design.

Conceptual Schema

●​ Defines entities, attributes, and relationships within the database.

●​ Serves as the foundation for logical and physical design.

Importance of Conceptual Modeling

✅ Helps in understanding the business requirements before implementation. ✅ Ensures

data consistency and accuracy. ✅ Provides a blueprint for database developers and
designers.

6. Functions of a DBMS
A database management system (DBMS) provides essential functionalities that help manage
and maintain a database effectively.

Key DBMS Functions

 1.​ Data Storage, Retrieval, and Update:
○​ Stores large amounts of data efficiently.
○​ Provides fast retrieval using indexes and queries.
○​ Allows updates while maintaining data integrity.
2.​ Transaction Support:
○​ Ensures ACID properties:
■​ Atomicity: Transactions are either fully completed or not executed at all.
■​ Consistency: Data remains accurate and valid before and after a
transaction.
■​ Isolation: Transactions occur independently of each other.
■​ Durability: Once a transaction is committed, it remains permanent.
3.​ Concurrency Control:
○​ Manages multiple users accessing the database simultaneously.
○​ Prevents issues like deadlocks and lost updates.
4.​ Recovery & Integrity Services:
○​ Prevents data corruption and ensures data consistency.
○​ Supports backup and disaster recovery mechanisms.

7. System Catalog (Metadata Repository)

A system catalog (also called a metadata repository) is a database containing information
about the database itself. It is one of the fundamental components of a DBMS.

What Does a System Catalog Store?

✅ Names and types of data items (tables, columns, data types).​

✅ Constraints (primary keys, foreign keys, uniqueness constraints).​
✅ User privileges and access rights.​
✅ Indexing information for performance optimization.
This metadata helps in query optimization, security enforcement, and data consistency.
8. Multi-User DBMS Architectures
Multi-user architectures allow multiple users to access the database concurrently. These
architectures help in distributing database processing efficiently.

Types of Multi-User Architectures

1.​ Teleprocessing:
○​ A single mainframe with multiple terminals connected.
○​ Outdated architecture, replaced by modern client-server systems.

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2.​ File-Server Architecture:
○​ A file server stores database files.
○​ Each workstation runs a local copy of the DBMS.
○​ Disadvantages: High network traffic, complex concurrency control.

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3.​ Client-Server Architecture:
○​ More efficient and scalable than file-server models.
○​ Two types:
■​ Two-Tier: Client handles the user interface, while the server handles
the database.
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■​ Three-Tier: An additional application server handles business logic,
improving scalability and performance.

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9. Transaction Processing Monitors (TPM)

A Transaction Processing Monitor (TPM) is a specialized middleware that ensures reliable
execution of transactions in a multi-tier database environment.

Functions of a TPM

✅ Manages communication between clients and database servers.​

✅ Ensures data consistency and isolation in Online Transaction Processing (OLTP).​
✅ Load balances requests to optimize database performance.​
✅ Prevents transaction failures and ensures recovery.

Final Thoughts

Understanding database architecture, data models, conceptual modeling, DBMS

functions, and multi-user architectures is crucial for efficient database design and
management. The system catalog ensures metadata storage, while TPMs help in handling
transaction consistency. These fundamental concepts enable businesses to build reliable and
scalable database systems.