Week1 IntroductiontoMetalForming Processes

Unit of study code Unit of study name Teaching Term/Semester & Year Contact Hours (hrs/wk) or total contact hours Prerequisites Corequisites Credit Points

HES3281 Materials and Manufacturing 2 Semester 1 / 2012 5 Hours / Week HES2281 Materials and Manufacturing 1 Nil 12.5

Aims The unit aims to provide students the understanding of a variety of metal and polymeric manufacturing processes and the importance of fatigue failure and failure of materials LearningObjectives Aftersuccessfullycompletingthisunit,youshouldbeableto: 1.To demonstrate an understanding in the manufacturing of plastic components by recognising the processes and calculating the forces required to produce such components 2.To develop an understanding in fatigue and failure by calculating the stress and strain involved 3.To demonstrate an understanding in the manufacturing of metal components by recognising the processes and calculating the forces required to produce such components

Content
Metal Forming Processes: Extrusion, wire drawing, strip forming, forging, rolling, sheet metal forming mathematical modelling and process parameters. Polymers and composite: manufacture and processes: Crystalline and amorphous microstructures, physical properties, Mechanical properties of polymers and composites. Forming and moulding techniques, extrusion and injection moulding: effect of process parameters. Blow moulding: output die requirements, parisons dimensions, swelling considerations. Fatigue Failure and Failure of Materials: Static failure of materials, Fatigue failure, fatigue/fracture, life estimation. Analysis and prediction of failure, Non destructive testing. Advanced Manufacturing Processes: Materials selection, powder metallurgy. Laboratory experiments: Cold rolling, stress concentration and polymer processing.

Assessment Thissubjectcontainsthefollowingassessments: Examination(50%) 3hrs.attheendofthesemester Tests(2writtentest)(10%) 5%each Casestudy(OralPresentation)(10%) Practicallaboratorywork(20%) attendance(5%)and labreports(15%). TutorialParticipation(10%) Attendanceiscompulsory.

Minimumrequirementstopassthisunitofstudy: In order to achieve a pass in this unit of study, you must: (a) at least 35% of the possible final marks for each Assessment Component plus (b) an aggregate mark for the subject of 50% or more. If you do not achieve at least 35% of the possible final marks for each Major Assessment Component you will receive a maximum of 44% as your mark for the subject concerned. The Major Assessment Components carries a weighting of at least 15% of the total mark available.

ResourcesandReferenceMaterial TEXT Thereisnospecifictextforthissubject.However,mostnotesareobtainedfromGroover, M.P.,FundamentalsofModernManufacturingMethods Materials,ProcessesandSystems, PrenticeHallInc,2007,andotherreferenceslistedbelow. Thistext(Groover,M.P.,Fundament.)isalsousedinthesubjectHES2281Materialsand Manufacturing1 REFERENCES Groover,M.P.,FundamentalsofModernManufacturingMethods Materials,Processesand Systems,PrenticeHallInc,2007 Tlusty,J.,ManufacturingProcessesandEquipment,PrenticeHall2000. Schey,J.A.,IntroductiontoManufacturingProcesses,3rdEdn.,McGrawHill,2000. ElWakil,S.D.,ProcessesandDesignforManufacturing,2ndEdn.,PWSPub.Company,1998 Crawford,R.J.,PlasticEngineering,3rdEdn.,MaxwellMacmillan,1997 Kalpakjian,S.,andSchmid,S.R.,ManufacturingEngineeringandTechnology,PrenticeHall, 5thEdition,2006 Jones,D.R.H.,Ashby,M.,EngineeringMaterials,Volume1,3rdEdn.,Elsevier,London,2005

1. Solidificationprocesses startingmaterialisa heatedliquidorsemifluid 2. Particulateprocessing startingmaterialconsistsof powders 3. Deformationprocesses startingmaterialisa ductilesolid(commonlymetal) 4. Materialremovalprocesses startingmaterialisa ductileorbrittlesolid

Largegroupofmanufacturingprocessesinwhich plasticdeformationisusedtochangetheshapeof metalworkpieces. Thetool,usuallycalledadie,appliesstressesthat exceedtheyieldstrengthofthemetal Themetaltakesashapedeterminedbythe geometryofthedie

Deformation processes exploit a remarkable property of metals, which is their ability to flow plastically in the solid state without deterioration of their properties. With the application of suitable pressures, the material is moved to obtain the desired shape with almost no wastage.

Forming Processes
Forming processes tend systems consisting to be complex

Independent variables, Dependent variables, and Independent-dependent interrelations.

 Stressestoplasticallydeformthemetalare usuallycompressive
Examples:rolling,forging,extrusion

However,someformingprocesses
Stretchthemetal(tensilestresses) Othersbendthemetal(tensileandcompressive) Stillothersapplyshearstresses

Independent Variables
Starting material
The engineer is often free to specify the chemistry
and condition. These may also be chosen for ease in fabrication or they may be restricted by the final properties desired for the product.

Starting geometry of the workpiece

This may be dictated by previous processing or it
may be selected by the engineer from a variety of available shapes. Economics often influence this decision.

Independent Variables
Tool or die geometry
a rolling mill roll, the die angle in wire drawing and the cavity details when forging. Since tooling will produce and control the metal flow, success or failure of a process often depends on tool geometry.

This are has many aspects such as the diameter of

Independent Variables
Lubrication
Since lubricants also acts as coolants, thermal barriers,
corrosion inhibitors, and parting compounds, their selection is an aspect of great importance. Specification includes type of lubricant amount to be applied and the method of application.

Independent Variables
Starting temperature
Many material properties vary greatly with temperature,
so its selection and control may well dictate the success or failure of an operation.

Speed of operation Since speed can

directly influence the lubricant effectiveness, the forces required for deformation and the time available for heat transfer. It is obvious that its selection would be significant in a forming operation.

Independent Variables
Amount of deformation
while some processes control this variable through die design, others, such as rolling permits its selection at the discretion of the engineer.

Dependent Variables
Force or power requirements Engineers
cannot directly specify the force or power; they can only specify the independent variables and then experience the consequences of the selection. The ability to predict the forces or powers however is extremely important for only by having this knowledge will the engineer be able to specify or select the equipment for the process.

Dependent Variables
Material properties of the product
The customer is not interested in the starting
properties but is concerned with our ability to produce the desired final shape with the desired final properties

Exit temperature
Engineering properties can be altered by both the
mechanical and thermal history of the material thus it is important to know and control the temperature of the material throughout the process

Dependent Variables
Surface finish and precision
Both are characteristics of the resultant product that are dependent on the specific details of the process.

Nature of the material flow

since properties depend on deformation history, control here is vital the customer is satisfied only if the desired geometric shape is produced with the right set of companion properties and without surface or internal defects.

Independent-Dependent Interrelations
Experience This requires long time exposure to the process and is
generally limited to the specific materials, equipment and products encountered in the realm of past contact.

Experiment
While possibly the least likely in error direct experiment is both time consuming and costly.

Independent-Dependent Interrelations
Process modeling
Here one approaches the problem with a high speed computer and one or more mathematical models of the process numerical values are provided for the various independent variables and the models are used to compute predictions for the dependent variables

 Desirablematerialproperties:
Lowyieldstrength Highductility

Thesepropertiesareaffectedbytemperature:
Ductilityincreasesandyieldstrengthdecreases whenworktemperatureisraised

Otherfactors:
Strainrateandfriction

1. Bulkdeformation
Rolling Forging Extrusion Wireandbardrawing Bending Deepdrawing Cutting Miscellaneousprocesses

2. Sheetmetalworking

 Characterizedbysignificantdeformationsand massiveshapechanges "Bulk"referstoworkpartswithrelativelylow surfaceareatovolumeratios Startingworkshapesincludecylindricalbillets andrectangularbars

Rolling

Figure 18.2 Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling

Forging

Figure 18.2 Basic bulk deformation processes: (b) forging

Extrusion

Figure 18.2 Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion

Wire and Bar Drawing

Figure 18.2 Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing

 Formingandrelatedoperationsperformedon metalsheets,strips,andcoils Highsurfaceareatovolumeratioofstarting metal,whichdistinguishesthesefrombulk deformation Oftencalledpressworking becausepresses performtheseoperations

Partsarecalledstampings Usualtooling:punch anddie

Sheet Metal Bending

Figure 18.3 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending

Deep Drawing

Figure 18.3 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (b) drawing

Shearing of Sheet Metal

Figure 18.3 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (c) shearing

 Plasticregionofstressstraincurveisprimary interestbecausematerialisplastically deformed Inplasticregion,metal'sbehaviorisexpressed bytheflowcurve:

K n
where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain hardening exponent Flow curve based on true stress and true strain

 Formostmetalsatroomtemperature,strength increaseswhendeformedduetostrain hardening Flowstress =instantaneousvalueofstress requiredtocontinuedeformingthematerial

Yf K n
where Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a function of strain

 Determinedbyintegratingtheflowcurve equationbetweenzeroandthefinalstrain valuedefiningtherangeofinterest

K n Yf 1 n
_

_ where=averageflowstress;and = Yf maximumstrainduringdeformationprocess

 Foranymetal,K andn intheflowcurvedepend ontemperature

Bothstrength(K)andstrainhardening(n)are reducedathighertemperatures Inaddition,ductilityisincreasedathigher temperatures

 Anydeformationoperationcanbe accomplishedwithlowerforcesandpowerat elevatedtemperature Threetemperaturerangesinmetalforming:

Coldworking Warmworking Hotworking

 Performedatroomtemperatureorslightly above Manycoldformingprocessesareimportant massproductionoperations Minimumornomachiningusuallyrequired

Theseoperationsarenearnetshape ornetshape processes

 Betteraccuracy,closertolerances Bettersurfacefinish Strainhardeningincreasesstrengthand hardness Grainflowduringdeformationcancause desirabledirectionalpropertiesinproduct Noheatingofworkrequired

 Higherforcesandpowerrequiredinthe deformationoperation Surfacesofstartingworkpiece mustbefreeof scaleanddirt Ductilityandstrainhardeninglimittheamount offormingthatcanbedone

Insomecases,metalmustbeannealedtoallow furtherdeformation Inothercases,metalissimplynotductileenoughto becoldworked

 Performedattemperaturesaboveroom temperaturebutbelowrecrystallization temperature Dividinglinebetweencoldworkingandwarm workingoftenexpressedintermsofmelting point:

0.3Tm,whereTm =meltingpoint(absolute temperature)formetal

 Lowerforcesandpowerthanincoldworking Moreintricateworkgeometriespossible Needforannealingmaybereducedor eliminated

 Deformationattemperaturesabove the recrystallizationtemperature Recrystallizationtemperature=aboutonehalf ofmeltingpointonabsolutescale

Inpractice,hotworkingusuallyperformed somewhatabove0.5Tm Metalcontinuestosoftenastemperatureincreases above0.5Tm,enhancingadvantageofhotworking abovethislevel

Capabilityforsubstantialplasticdeformationof themetal farmorethanpossiblewithcold workingorwarmworking Why?

Strengthcoefficient(K)issubstantiallylessthanat roomtemperature Strainhardeningexponent(n)iszero(theoretically) Ductilityissignificantlyincreased

 Workpart shapecanbesignificantlyaltered Lowerforcesandpowerrequired Metalsthatusuallyfractureincoldworkingcan behotformed Strengthpropertiesofproductaregenerally isotropic Nostrengtheningofpartoccursfromwork hardening

Advantageousincaseswhenpartistobe subsequentlyprocessedbycoldforming

 Lowerdimensionalaccuracy Highertotalenergyrequired(duetothe thermalenergytoheattheworkpiece) Worksurfaceoxidation(scale),poorersurface finish Shortertoollife

 Theoretically,ametalinhotworkingbehaves likeaperfectlyplasticmaterial,withstrain hardeningexponentn =0

Themetalshouldcontinuetoflowatthesameflow stress,oncethatstressisreached However,anadditionalphenomenonoccursduring deformation,especiallyatelevatedtemperatures: Strainratesensitivity

 Strainrateinformingisdirectlyrelatedto speedofdeformationv Deformationspeedv =velocityoftheram orothermovementoftheequipment Strain rate isdefined: . v

where = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous height of workpiece being deformed
.

 Inmostpracticaloperations,valuationofstrain rateiscomplicatedby
Workpartgeometry Variationsinstrainrateindifferentregionsofthe part

Strainratecanreach1000s1 ormoreforsome metalformingoperations

 Flowstressisafunctionoftemperature Athotworkingtemperatures,flowstressalso dependsonstrainrate

Asstrainrateincreases,resistancetodeformation increases Thiseffectisknownasstrainratesensitivity

Strain Rate Sensitivity

Figure 18.5 (a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated work temperature. (b) Same relationship plotted on log-log coordinates.

 Yf = C m

whereC =strengthconstant(similar butnotequaltostrengthcoefficient inflowcurveequation),andm = strainratesensitivityexponent

Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress

Figure 18.6 Effect of temperature on flow stress for a typical metal. The constant C, as indicated by the intersection of each plot with the vertical dashed line at strain rate = 1.0, decreases, and m (slope of each plot) increases with increasing temperature.

 IncreasingtemperaturedecreasesC and increasesm

Atroomtemperature,effectofstrainrateisalmost negligible + Flowcurveisagoodrepresentationofmaterial behavior Astemperatureincreases,strainratebecomes increasinglyimportantindeterminingflowstress

 Inmostmetalformingprocesses,frictionis undesirable:
Metalflowisretarded Forcesandpowerareincreased Toolingwearsfaster

Frictionandtoolweararemoresevereinhot working

 Metalworkinglubricantsareappliedto toolworkinterfaceinmanyformingoperations toreduceharmfuleffectsoffriction Benefits:

Reducedsticking,forces,power,toolwear Bettersurfacefinish Removesheatfromthetooling

 Typeofformingprocess(rolling,forging,sheet metaldrawing,etc.) Hotworkingorcoldworking Workmaterial Chemicalreactivitywithtoolandworkmetals Easeofapplication Cost