CIV8304

ADVANCED TIMBER STRUCTURES

ENGR. PROF. NURUDDEEN MUHAMMAD MUSA
[email protected]
08037881713
COURSE OUTLINE
Properties of different types of timber. Modern
connections and development in use of joints, glued
members. Design of composite beams. Design of plane
and space trusses. Types of timber structures in
development. Examples of modern use of timber in
structures. Treatment of timber for structural use.
REFERENCES
1. 1. Nigerian Standard Code of Practice NCP2 (1973) – The
use of timber for construction.
2. Structural Timber Design – Abdy Kermani
3. Practical design of timber structures to Eurocode 5 - Hans
Larsen and Vahik Enjily
4. Structural Timber Design to Eurocode 5 - Jack Porteous and
Abdy Kermani
5. Student's Guide to Structural Design - S. A. Lavan and B. G.
Fletcher
6. The Nigerian Timber Structures – Aguwa James Isiwu
COURSE OUTCOMES
.
Assessment/
No Course Outcomes Delivery
Evaluation
1 At the end of this course the student  Lecture  Assignment
should be able to characterize Timber in  Test
accordance with code requirements  Final Examination

2 At the end of this course the student  Lecture  Assignment

should be able to analyse and design  Test
Timber structural elements in bending,  Final Examination
compression and also in tension

3 At the end of this course the student  Lecture  Assignment

should be able to design timber  Test
connections  Final Examinatio

4 At the end of this course the student  Lecture  Assignment

should should have Ability to design  Test
composite beams and trusses  Final Examinatio
INTRODUCTION
• Timber from well-managed forests is one of the most
sustainable resources available and it is one of the oldest known
materials used in construction. It has a very high strength to
weight ratio, is capable of transferring both tension and
compression forces, and is naturally suitable as a flexural
member.
• Timber is a material that is used for a variety of structural forms
such as beams, columns, trusses, girders, and is also used in
building systems such as piles, deck members, railway sleepers
and in formwork for concrete
THE STRUCTURE OF TIMBER
a tree has three subsystems: roots, trunk and crown.

1. Roots, by spreading through the soil as well as acting as a foundation, enable

the growing tree to withstand wind forces. They absorb moisture containing minerals
from the soil and transfer it via the trunk to the crown.
2. Trunk provides rigidity, mechanical strength and height to maintain the crown,
also transports moisture and minerals up to the crown and sap down from the crown.
3. Crown provides as large as possible a catchment area covered by leaves. These
produce chemical reactions that form sugar and cellulose which cause the growth of
the tree.

As engineers we are mainly concerned with the trunk of the

tree.
.
THE STRUCTURE OF TIMBER
.
.

Fig. 1: Cross-section of a trunk of a tree.

TYPES OF TIMBER
Trees and commercial timbers are divided into two types: softwoods and
hardwoods.
Softwoods
Softwoods, characterized by having naked seeds or as cone-bearing trees,
are generally evergreen with needle-like leaves (such as conifers) Examples
of the softwoods include Araba, Ara etc.
Softwood characteristics
• Quick growth rate (trees can be felled after 30 years) resulting in low-
density timber with relatively low strength.
• Generally poor durability qualities, unless treated with preservatives.
• Due to the speed of felling they are readily available and
comparatively cheaper
TYPES OF TIMBER
Hardwood
Hardwoods are generally broad-leaved (deciduous) trees, which often lose
their leaves at the end of each growing season. Examples of the hardwoods
include oak, Iroko, Ekki, Mahogany etc.
Hardwood characteristics
• Hardwoods grow at a slower rate than softwoods, which generally
results in a timber of high density and strength, which takes time to mature,
over 100 years in some instances.
• There is less dependence on preservatives for durability qualities.
• Due to the time taken to mature and the transportation costs of
hardwoods, as most are tropical, they tend to be expensive in comparison
with softwoods.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Owing to the fact that wood is a material which is naturally
occurring, there are many defects which are introduced during the
growing period and during the conversion and seasoning process.
Any of these defects can cause trouble in timber in use either by
reducing its strength or impairing its appearance.
Defects may be classified as:
 natural defects,
 chemical defects,
 conversion defects and
 seasoning defects
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
NATURAL DEFECTS
These occur during the growing period. These may include:
• Cracks and Fissures: They may occur in various parts of the tree and may even
indicate the presence of decay or the beginnings of decay.
• Knots. These are common features of the structure of wood. A knot is a
portion of a branch embedded by the natural growth of the tree, normally originating
at the centre of the trunk or a branch.
• Grain defects. Wood grain refers to the general direction of the arrangement
of fibres in wood. Grain defects can occur in the form of twisted-grain, cross-grain,
flat-grain and spiral-grain, all of which can induce subsequent problems of distortion
in use.
• Fungal decay. This may occur in growing mature timber or even in recently
converted timber, and in general it is good practice to reject such timber.
• Annual ring width. This can be critical in respect of strength in that excess
width of such rings can reduce the density of the timber.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
CHEMICAL DEFECTS
These may occur in particular instances when timber is used in
unsuitable positions or in association with other materials.
Timbers such as oak and western red cedar contain tannic acid
and other chemicals which corrode metals. Gums and resins can
inhibit the working properties of timber and interfere with the
ability to take adhesives.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
CONVERSION DEFECTS
These are due basically to unsound practice in the use of milling
techniques or to undue economy in attempting to use every
possible piece of timber converted from the trunk. A wane is a
good example of a conversion defect.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
SEASONING DEFECTS
Seasoning defects are directly related to the movement that
occurs in timber due to changes in moisture content. Excessive or
uneven drying, exposure to wind and rain, and poor stacking and
spacing during seasoning can all produce defects or distortions in
timber.
All such defects have an effect on structural strength as well as on
fixing, stability, durability and finished appearance
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER
Due to the fact that timber is such a variable material, its strength is
dependent on many factors which can act independently or in
conjunction with others, adversely affecting the strength and the
workability of the timber. Among many physical properties that
influence the strength characteristics of timber, the following may
be considered the most important ones.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER
Moisture content
The strength of timber is dependent on its moisture content, as is the
resistance to decay. Most timber in Nigeria should be air-dried to a
moisture content of between 18% and 22% which is generally below
fibre saturation point at which the cell walls are still saturated but
moisture is removed from the cells. Any further reduction will result in
shrinkage. Further increases in moisture content have no influence on
either strength or stiffness. It is also to be noted that as the moisture
content decreases, shrinkage increases. Timber is described as being
hygroscopic which means that it attempts to attain an equilibrium
moisture content with its surrounding environment, resulting in a
variable moisture content. This should always be considered when using
timber, particularly softwoods which are more susceptible to shrinkage
than hardwoods.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER
Density
Density is the best single indicator of the properties of a timber and
is a major factor determining its strength. Specific gravity or relative
density is a measure of timber's solid substance. It is generally
expressed as the ratio of the oven-dry weight to the weight of an
equal volume of water.
Since water volume ' varies with the moisture content of the
timber, the specific gravity of timber is expressed at a certain
moisture content. specific gravity of commercial timber ranges
from 0.29 to 0.81, most falling between 0.35 and 0.60.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER
Slope of Grain
Grain is the longitudinal direction of the main elements of timber, these
main elements being fibres or tracheids, and vessels in the case of
hardwoods. In many instances the angle of the grain in a cut section of
timber is not parallel to the longitudinal axis. It is possible that this
variation is due to poor cutting of the timber, but more often than not
the deviation in grain angle is due to irregular growth of the tree. This
effect is of lesser consequence when timber is axially loaded, but leads
to a significant drop in bending resistance. The angle of the microfibrils
within the timber also affects the strength of the timber, as with the
effects of the grain, if the angle of deviation increases the strength
decreases
STRENGTH GRADING OF TIMBER
The strength capability of timber is difficult to assess as often there
is no control over its quality and growth. The strength of timber is a
function of several parameters including the species type, density,
size and form of members, moisture content, duration of the
applied load and presence of various strength reducing
characteristics such as slope of grain, knots, fissures and wane. To
overcome this difficulty, the strength grading method of strength
classification has been devised.
STRENGTH GRADING OF TIMBER
Several design properties are associated with a strength grade;
these include modulus of elasticity and bending strength parallel to
the grain, strength properties in tension and compression parallel
and perpendicular to the grain, shear strength parallel to the grain
and density. The design properties of timber are determined non-
destructively through visual strength grading criteria or by machine
strength grading via measurements such as the following: flatwise
bending stiffness, using a three-point loading system; density, using
x-rays or gamma rays techniques; and modulus of elasticity, by
means of resonant vibrations (dynamic response) using one or a
combination of these methods.
STRENGTH GRADING OF TIMBER
Visual grading
Visual grading is a manual process carried out by an approved
grader. The grader examines each piece of timber to check the size
and frequency of specific physical characteristics or defects, e.g.
knots, slope of grains, rate of growth, wane, resin pockets and
distortion.
STRENGTH GRADING OF TIMBER
Machine grading
Machine grading of timber sections is carried out on the principle
that stiffness is related to strength; where the relationship between
the modulus of elasticity, E, and the modulus of rupture of a
species of timber from a certain geographical location is
determined from a statistical population, based on a substantial
number of laboratory-controlled tests.
STRENGTH GRADING OF TIMBER
Strength classes
This concept involves grouping timber into strength classes.
Strength classes offer a number of advantages both to the designer
and the supplier of timber. The designer can undertake the design
without the need to check on the availability and price of a large
number of species and grades that might be used. Suppliers can
supply any of the species/grade combinations that meet the
strength class called for in a specification. The concept also allows
new species to be introduced to the market without affecting
existing specifications for timber.
STRENGTH GRADING OF TIMBER
…Strength classes
In Nigeria Timber code NCP2, the strength group is
divided into 7 groups designated N1, N2….... N7 into
which it has been found convenient to divide Nigerian
timbers. The strongest timbers fall into N1 group and
the weakest into N7 group.
STRENGTH GRADING OF TIMBER
…Strength classes
In UK and Europe, BS EN 338:2003 defines a total of 18
strength classes: 12 for softwoods – C14, C16, C18, C20, C22,
C24, C27, C30, C35, C40, C45 and C50; and six for hardwoods
– D30, D35, D40, D50, D60 and D70. The letters C and D refer
to coniferous species (C classes) or deciduous species (D
classes), and the number in each strength class refers to its
‘characteristic bending strength’ in N/mm2 units; for
example, C40 timber has a characteristic bending strength of
40 N/mm2. It ranges from the weakest grade of softwood,
C14, to the highest grade of hardwood, D70, often used in
Europe.
ENGINEERED WOOD PRODUCTS (EWPs)
The readily available sawn sections of softwood are limited in size and
quality. The largest section sizes available are 75 mm thick × 225 mm
wide and at most 5 m in length. Any larger section sizes would suffer
from both conversion and seasoning defects. EWPs are developed to
overcome the limitations of sawn timber and are produced, in
combination with adhesives, in a variety of forms:
• dried thin planks of wood are glued together to form glued-
laminated timber or glulam;
• veneered, by peeling logs, and bonded together in different layouts
to produce plywood or laminated veneer lumber (LVL);
• chipped, to different sizes, to produce fibreboards, chipboards or
oriented strand board (OSB); and
• sliced in different forms to produce parallel strand lumber
GLUED-LAMINATED TIMBER (GLULAM)
Glued-laminated timber, glulam, is fabricated from small sections
of timber boards (called laminates) bonded together with
adhesives and laid up so that the grain of all laminates is
essentially parallel to the longitudinal axis.
Glued-laminated members can be constructed with variable
sections to produce tapering beams, columns, arches and portals.
PLYWOOD
Plywood is a flat panel made by bonding together, and under
pressure, a number of thin layers of veneer, often referred to as
plies (or laminates). Plywood was the first type of EWP to be
invented. Plywood is produced in many countries from either
softwood or hardwood or a combination of both.
OTHERS…
 Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)
 Laminated strand lumber (LSL)
 Parallel strand lumber (PSL)
 Oriented strand board (OSB)
 Particleboards
.
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT FOR TIMBER
Under ideal conditions timber should not deteriorate, but when
timber is used in exposed (outdoor) conditions, it becomes
susceptible to degradation due to a variety of natural causes. It will
suffer rot and insect attack unless it is naturally durable or is
protected by a preservative. In general, timber with a moisture
content of over 20% is susceptible to fungal decay; timber of any
species kept in dry conditions will remain sound; however, dry
timber maybe subjected to insect attack.
Timber can be protected from the attacks by fungi, harmful insects
or marine borers by applying chemical preservatives.
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT FOR TIMBER
There are a number of widely used methods of application of
preservative treatments.
Pressure impregnation with a water-borne agent is appropriate for
timber in ground contact or high hazard conditions.
Double vacuum impregnation with a solvent-based organic
preservative is a preferred method for treating joinery timbers.
Micro-emulsion treatments, which are water borne, with new more
environmentally acceptable products, are now available in the
market.
Preservatives should be applied under the controlled conditions of
an authorized wood treatment plant.
FIRE SAFETY AND RESISTANCE
Timber and wood-based materials comprise mainly cellulose and lignin,
which are combustible and will burn if exposed to an ignition source
under suitable conditions. But this does not mean that due to its
combustibility timber is an unacceptable material for construction use.
Often the opposite is true. Due to its good thermal insulation properties,
when timber burns a layer of char is created, which helps to protect and
maintain the strength and structural integrity of the wood inside. This is
why timber in large sections can often be used in unprotected situations
where non-combustible materials such as steel would require special
fire protection. The treatments used are based on formulations of
water-soluble inorganic salts such as ammonium phosphate or water-
soluble humidity-resistance formulations and organic resins.