Module-1

Introduction to Automation
• Automation is defined as “The creation & application of technology to monitor &
control the production and delivery of products and services.”
• Automation refers to the use of technology to perform tasks with minimal human
intervention. This can involve machines, software, or systems designed to execute
processes automatically, enhancing efficiency, accuracy, and speed.

➢ Basic elements of an automated system

An automated system consists of three elements

1. Power: To accomplish process and operate the system
2. Program of instructions: To direct the process
3. Control system: To control and accurate the instructions
1. Power:
• Power is required to drive the process as well as the controls. The principal source of
power in automated systems is electricity. Electric power has many advantages in
automated as well as nonautomated processes
• Electrical power can be readily converted to alternative energy forms: mechanical,
thermal, light, acoustic, hydraulic, and pneumatic.
• Electrical power at low levels can be used to accomplish functions such as signal
transmission, information processing, and data storage and communication.
• Electrical energy can be stored in long-life batteries for use in locations where an
external source of electrical power is not conveniently available.
2. Program of instructions:
• The actions performed by an automated process are defined by a program of
instructions. The manufacturing operation involves low, medium, or high production.
Each part or product requires one or more processing steps are performed during a work
cycle. The particular processing steps for the work cycle are specified in a work cycle
program. Work cycle programs are called part programs in numerical control.
3. Control system
• The controls in an automated system can be either closed loop or open loop. A closed
loop control system, also known as a feedback control system. is one in which the
output variable is compared with an input parameter, and any difference between the
two is used to drive the output into agreement with the input.

➢ Closed loop system

• A closed loop control system consists of six basic elements:
• Input parameter, Process, Output variable, Feedback sensor, Controller, Actuator

• Input parameter: The input parameter, often referred to as the set point, represents the
desired value of the output.
• Process: The process is operation or function being controlled
• Output variable: The output variable is desired result of product
• Feedback sensor: A sensor is used to measure the output variable and closed loop
between input and output

➢ Open loop system

• The open loop control system operates without feedback loop. In this system the
controller operates without measuring the output variable, so no comparison is made
between the actual value of the output and desired value of input.
 ➢ Need or Reasons of automation

• Increased productivity: Automation of manufacturing operations holds the

promise of increasing the productivity of labour. This means greater output per hour
of labour input. Higher production rates (output per hour) are achieved with
automation than with the corresponding manual operations.
• High cost of labour: The trend in the industrialized societies of the world has
been toward ever-increasing labour costs. As a result, higher investment in
automated equipment has become economically justifiable to replace manual
operations. The high cost of labour is forcing business leaders to substitute
machines for human labour. Because machines can produce at higher rates of
output, the use of automation results in a lower cost per unit of product.
• Labor shortages: In many advanced nations there has been a general shortage of
labour. Labour shortages stimulate the development of automation as a substitute for
labour.
• Safety: By automating the operation and transferring the operator from an active
participationto a supervisory role, work is made safer.
• High cost of raw materials: The high cost of raw materials in manufacturing
results in theneed for greater efficiency in using these materials. The reduction
of scrap is one of the benefits of automation.
• Improved product quality: Automated operations not only produce parts at
faster rates but they produce parts with greater consistency and conformity to
quality specifications.
• Reduced manufacturing lead time: With reduced manufacturing lead time
automation allows the manufacturer a competitive advantage in promoting good
customer service.
• High cost of not automating: A significant competitive advantage is gained by
automating amanufacturing plant. The benefits of automation show up in intangible
and unexpected ways, such as, improved quality, higher sales, better labour relations,
and better company image. All of these factors act together to make production
automation a feasible and attractive alternative to manual methods of manufacture.
➢ Types of Automation System
Automated production systems can be classified into three basic types:
• Fixed automation,
• Programmable automation, and
• Flexible automation
➢ Fixed Automation
• It is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly) operations is fixed by
the equipment configuration. The operations in the sequence are usually simple. It is
the integration and coordination of many such operations into one piece of equipment
that makes the system complex.
• The typical features of fixed automation are:
a. High initial investment for custom–Engineered equipment;
b. High production rates; and
c. Relatively inflexible in accommodating product changes
➢ Programmable Automation
• In this the production equipment is designed with the capability to change the sequence
of operations to accommodate different product configurations.
• The operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions coded
so that the system can read and interpret them.
• New programs can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new
products.
✓ Some of the features that characterize programmable automation are:
1. High investment in general-purpose equipment;
2. Low production rates relative to fixed automation;
3. Flexibility to deal with changes in product configuration; and
4. Most suitable for batch production.
➢ Flexible Automation
• It is an extension of programmable automation. A flexible automated system is one that
is capable of producing a variety of products (or parts) with virtually no time lost for
changeovers from one product to the next.
• There is no production time lost while reprogramming the system and altering the
physical setup (tooling, fixtures, and machine setting). Consequently, the system can
produce various combinations and schedules of products instead of requiring that they
be made in separate batches.
• The features of flexible automation can be summarized as follows:
1. High investment for a custom-engineered system.
2. Continuous production of variable mixtures of products.
 3. Medium production rates.
4. Flexibility to deal with product design variations.

➢ Advanced Automation Functions

• In addition to the general automation functions there are some advanced automation
functions which are used for different processes. Generally, they are used for
maintaining and safety and performance of the system. Some of the advanced
automation functions are
1. Safety monitoring
2. Maintenance and repair diagnostics
3. Error detection and recovery
1. Safety monitoring:
One of the main reasons of using Automation is to remove the workers form doing
hazardous operations which can lead to the loss of the life. However, the workers are
needed to operate the machines instead of doing that hazardous work. The automated
machines are designed safely in order they should not be self-destructive. Thus, there
are reasons to monitor the system safely. They are:
1. To protect the workers
2. To protect the system which is associated with it.
• Safety monitoring of a system involves safety tracking of the system using the
sensors. If there is a hazard then the safety monitoring system responds in either of
the ways:
• By giving an alarm sound (or)
 • By reducing the speed of the system (or)
• By turning off the automated system.

2. Maintenance and repair diagnostics:

• Modern automation systems are becoming more complex by using the maintenance and
repair components. Actually, they are the components which are used for the
maintaining and reducing the failures. There are three modes of operation which are
used for performing this task.
✓ Status Monitoring: Initially in this mode the status of the present system is estimated.
It monitors over it by using the sensors or by using the parameters of the system. By
using them the current status of the system is being monitored.
✓ Failure notification: This mode comes under procedure when the failure occurs. It
compares the present values and the previous values before and after failures.
✓ Recommending for the repair: Here after noting the repair, this mode takes the
decision how to repair and what are the parts which are to be repaired
3. Error detection and recovery
• The error detection can be done using the sensors. The different types of errors can be
formed in the production system they are: random errors and systematic errors etc.
These can be detected by using the detecting systems and the recovering system is
used for recovering the errors. Thus, these are the advanced functions which are
necessary for making a system automate.
• Error detection – functions:
✓ Use the system’s available sensors to determine when a deviation or malfunction has
occurred
✓ Correctly interpret the sensor signal
✓ Classify the error
• Error recovery – possible strategies:
✓ Make adjustments at end of work cycle
✓ Make adjustments during current work cycle
✓ Stop the process to invoke corrective action
✓ Stop the process and call for help
➢ Levels of automation
• The automated system can be applied to various levels of operations, normally
automation with the individual machines. In production the machines itself is made up
of subsystems that may be themselves automated.

Fig: Five levels of automation and control in manufacturing.

1. Device level:
• It is the lowest level in our automation. It includes the actuators sensors and
other hardware components that consists of the machine level.
• The devices are combined into an individual control loops to form next level of
machine.
• Ex: The feedback control loop for one axis of CNC machine, Single joint of an
industrial robot.
2. Machine level:
• The hardware at the device level is assembled into individual machines like
CNC machine tools and similar production equipment, industrial robots,
material handling equipment.
3. Cell or System level:
• It is the manufacturing cell or system level which operates under instruction
from the plant level. It is a group of machines or workstations connected by
material handling system, computer and other equipment’s
 4. Plant level.
• This is the factory or production systems level. It receives instructions from the
corporate information system and translates them into operational plans for
production. Likely functions include order processing, process planning,
inventory control, purchasing, material requirements planning, shop floor
control, and quality control.
5. Enterprise level.
This is the highest level, consisting of the corporate information system. It is
concerned with all of the functions necessary to manage the company:
marketing and sales, accounting, design, research, aggregate planning, and
master production scheduling. The corporate information system is usually
managed using Enterprise Resource Planning.

➢ Process Industries:
• In the discussion of industry types, industries and their production operations
were divided into two basic categories:
❖ Process Industries
❖ discrete manufacturing industries.

❖ Process Industries
• The process industry contains a wide range of sectors that transform raw materials into
finished products through various chemical, physical, or biological processes. This
industry is crucial for producing everyday goods, from fuels and chemicals to food and
pharmaceuticals.
• Key Characteristics:

1. Continuous vs. Batch Processing:

▪ Continuous Processing: Involves ongoing production, where materials are

constantly fed into the process and products are continuously removed. This is
common in oil refining and chemical manufacturing.
▪ Batch Processing: Involves producing goods in specific amounts or batches,
allowing for flexibility in production.

2. Raw Materials:
▪ The industry dependent on various raw materials, including crude oil, minerals,
agricultural products, and synthetic materials. The choice of raw materials
significantly impacts the final product and process efficiency.
3. Equipment and Technology:

Key equipment includes reactors, distillation columns, heat exchangers, and separators.
Advanced technologies like automation, process control systems, and data analytics are
increasingly integrated to enhance efficiency and safety.

4. Sustainability:

▪ Here is a growing special importance on sustainable practices, including waste

reduction, energy efficiency, and the use of renewable resources. The transition to
greener processes is reshaping the industry.

❖ Major Sectors

▪ Chemical Manufacturing: Produces chemicals for various applications, including

fertilizers, plastics, and solvents.
▪ Petrochemicals: Converts crude oil and natural gas into products like gasoline,
diesel, and chemical feedstocks.
▪ Food and Beverage: Processes raw agricultural products into consumable goods,
ensuring quality and safety standards are met.
▪ Pharmaceuticals: Involves the synthesis and formulation of medications, focusing
on precision and compliance with strict regulations.

❖ Discrete Manufacturing Industries:

• Discrete manufacturing refers to the production of different items that can be

counted and assembled, such as automobiles, electronics, and machinery. As
industries strive for greater efficiency, quality, and adaptability, automation has
become an integral part of discrete manufacturing.

❖ Key Characteristics of Discrete Manufacturing

1. Production of Individual Items:

• Discrete manufacturing involves creating identifiable products that are often assembled
from multiple components. Examples include vehicles, consumer electronics, and
industrial machinery.

2. Flexibility and Customization:

• The ability to produce customized (modified) products in response to market demands
is a hallmark of discrete manufacturing. Automation enables quick adjustments to
production processes, accommodating various designs and specifications.
 3. Use of Bill of Materials (BOM):

• A detailed BOM outlines the components and materials needed for each product,
facilitating effective inventory management and assembly processes.

4. Production Methods:

• Common methods include assembly lines, job shops, and project-based production.
These methods can vary based on the complexity and volume of production.

❖ Difference between Process Industries and Discrete Manufacturing

Industries

1. Nature of Automation

• Process Industries:

▪ Automation is often focused on controlling continuous processes and managing

complex chemical or physical transformations.
▪ Systems such as Distributed Control Systems (DCS) and Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) are commonly used to monitor and control processes in real-
time.

• Discrete Manufacturing Industries:

▪ Automation tends to focus on assembly line processes and discrete operations where
individual items are produced.
▪ Technologies like Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) and robotics are employed
to streamline assembly, handling, and quality control.

2. Process Control vs. Production Control

• Process Industries:

▪ Special importance precise process control to maintain specific conditions

(temperature, pressure, flow rates) to ensure product quality and consistency.
▪ Automation systems are designed for continuous feedback loops and real-time
adjustments to optimize the process.

• Discrete Manufacturing Industries:

▪ Focus on production control, where automation is used to manage workflows,

coordinate assembly lines, and track inventory levels of parts.
▪ Automation may involve scheduling and sequencing tasks to maximize efficiency and
minimize downtime.
3. Data Management and Analytics

• Process Industries:

▪ Heavy reliance on data collection from sensors and instruments to monitor process
variables. This data is often used for process optimization and predictive maintenance.
▪ Advanced analytics tools may be employed to analyse complex data streams for real-
time decision-making.

• Discrete Manufacturing Industries:

▪ Data management focuses on tracking individual units through the production process,
monitoring quality at specific checkpoints.
▪ Data analytics may be used to improve assembly processes, optimize inventory
management, and enhance product design.

4. Flexibility and Customization

• Process Industries:

▪ Automation systems are typically designed for specific processes and are less flexible.
Changing a product often requires significant adjustments to the system.
▪ Batch processes can accommodate some variation, but continuous processes usually
require dedicated setups.

• Discrete Manufacturing Industries:

▪ Automation systems are generally more flexible, allowing for rapid reconfiguration to
produce different products or variants.
▪ Technologies like robotic arms can be easily programmed to handle various tasks,
enhancing adaptability in production.

5. Safety and Compliance

• Process Industries:

▪ Automation plays a crucial role in ensuring safety by monitoring hazardous processes

and automatically shutting down systems in emergencies.
▪ Compliance with safety and environmental regulations is heavily supported by
automation systems that provide documentation and monitoring capabilities.

• Discrete Manufacturing Industries:

▪ Automation enhances safety by reducing human involvement in dangerous tasks and

providing safety interlocks in machinery.
▪ Compliance is often focused on product safety standards, and automation systems help
ensure quality and traceability in production.
▪
 6. Continuous Versus Discrete Control

• Just as there are two basic types of variables and parameters that characterize
production operations, there are also two basic types of control:
✓ Continuous control, in which the variables and parameters are continuous and analog
✓ Discrete control, in which the variables and parameters are discrete, mostly binary
discrete.

Comparison Factor Continuous Control in Process Industries Discrete Control in Discrete

Manufacturing Industries
Typical measures of Weight measures, liquid volume measures, Number of parts, Number of products
product output Solid volume measures
Typical quality Consistency, concentration of solution, Dimensions, surface finish, appearance,
Measures absence of contaminants, conformance to absence of defects, product reliability
specification
Typical variables and Temperature, volume flow rate, Pressure Position, velocity, acceleration, force
Parameters

Typical sensors Flow meters, thermocouples,pressure sensors Limit switches, Photoelectricsensors,

Strain gages, Piezoelectric sensors
Typical actuators Valves, heaters, pumps Switches, motors, pistons
Typical process time Seconds, minutes, hours Less than a second
Constants
➢ Hardware Components for Automation and Process Control
❖ Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) with Block Diagram

 The continuous analog signals from the process must be converted into
digital values. The procedure for converting an analog signal from the
process into digital form consist of following steps

• Sensor and transducer: This is measuring device that generates the

analog signal

• Signal conditioning: The continuous analog signal from the transducer may require
conditioning to provide or give it into more suitable form
• Common signal conditioning includes
✓ Filtering to remove random noise
✓ Conversion from one signal to another
• Multiplexer: The multiplexer is a switching device connected in series with each input
channel from the process. It is used to share the analog to digital converter among the
input channels.
• Amplifier: Amplifiers are used to increase amplitude of the incoming
signal up or down to be compatible with the range of the analog to digital
converted.

• ADC (Analog to Digital Converter): As the name indicates the function

of ADC is to convert the incoming analog signal into its digital signal.
➢ Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) Block Diagram

• DAC or Digital to Analog Converter is an electronic circuit or device that converts a

digital signal into an analog signal. A digital signal is discrete in time and amplitude or
mostly available in the form of binary such as 0 or 1.

The main blocks or parts of a Digital to analog conversion system are,

• Input Circuit: It receives the binary digital inputs safely and does some process or
filtration if required.
• Voltage Switching Circuit: It switches voltages between input digital signals and
reference voltage sources and passes to the main resistive circuit.
• Resistive Network: It is the main part of the digital-to-analog converter circuit. It
basically helps with multiple digital inputs processing before the amplifier circuit.
• Amplifier: Generally, a differential or operational amplifier is used in the DAC system.
That not only amplifies the signal even it also makes a differentiate signal or process
signal such as summation, etc.
➢ Sensors in Automation

• Sensors are devices that detect and measure physical properties, conditions, or events
in the industrial environment. They convert these measurements into electrical signals
or digital data that control systems can process. Some common types of sensors used
in industrial automation include:
• Proximity Sensors: These sensors detect the presence or absence of an object or
the proximity of an object to a specified point. Examples include inductive sensors,
capacitive sensors, and ultrasonic sensors.
• Temperature Sensors: These sensors measure temperature and are crucial for
monitoring and controlling temperature-dependent processes. Examples include
thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs).
• Pressure Sensors: Pressure sensors measure pressure levels in various industrial
processes to ensure safety and efficiency. Examples include piezoelectric pressure
sensors and strain gauge pressure sensors.
• Flow Sensors: Flow sensors measure the rate of fluid or gas flow in pipes or
channels, enabling precise control of material flow. Examples include
electromagnetic flow meters and ultrasonic flow sensors.
• Level Sensors: Level sensors determine the height or level of liquid or solid
materials in tanks or containers. Examples include float switches, capacitance level
sensors, and ultrasonic level sensors.
• Position Sensors: Position sensors provide information about the position and
movement of objects, which is essential in robotics and automation. Examples
include encoders and potentiometers.
• Vision Sensors: Vision sensors use cameras and image processing techniques to
detect and identify objects, inspect quality, and guide robots in manufacturing
processes.

➢ Actuators:

• Actuators receive control signals from the automation system and perform physical
actions or movements in response. They translate electrical or digital commands into
mechanical motion, making it possible to control industrial processes. Common types
of actuators used in industrial automation include:
• Electric Motors: Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical
motion and are used for driving conveyors, pumps, fans, and various machinery.
• Pneumatic Actuators: Pneumatic actuators use compressed air to generate linear
or rotary motion. They are often used in applications where fast and precise
movements are required.
• Hydraulic Actuators: Hydraulic actuators use pressurized hydraulic fluid to
generate mechanical motion. They are suitable for heavy-duty applications that
require high force.
• Solenoid Valves: Solenoid valves control the flow of fluids or gases by opening
or closing passages when an electrical signal is applied.
• Servo Motors: Servo motors are specialized electric motors that offer precise
control over position, velocity, and torque, making them ideal for robotics and
CNC machines.
➢ Input / Output Devices for Discrete Data

• Discrete data can be processed by a digital computer without needing the kinds of
conversion procedures required for continuous analog signals. As indicated earlier,
discrete data divide into three categories: (a) binary data, (b) discrete data other than
binary and (c) pulse data.

❖ Contact Input/Output Interfaces:

• Contact interfaces are of two types input and output. These interfaces read binary data
from the process into the computer and send binary signals from the computer to the
process, respectively. The terms input and output refer to the computer.
• A contact input interface is a device by which binary data are read into the computer
from some external source (e.g., the process).
• It consists of a series of simple contacts that can be either closed or open (on or off) to
indicate the status of binary devices connected to the process such as limit switches
(contact or no contact), valves [open ur closed), or motor push buttons (on or off).
• The contact output interface can be used to transmit a discrete data value other than
binary by assigning an array of contacts in the interface for that purpose.

➢ Pulse Counters:

• A pulse counter is a device used to convert a series of pulses into a digital value. Pulse
counters can he used for both counting and measurement applications.
• The most common type of pulse counter is one that counts electrical pulses. It is
constructed using sequential logic gates, called flipflops. which are electronic devices
that possess memory capability and hence can be used to store the results of the
counting procedure.

➢ Pulse Generators:

• A pulse generator is a device that produces a series of electrical pulses whose total
number and frequency are specified by the control computer.
• A pulse generator operates by repeatedly closing and opening an electrical contact, thus
producing a sequence of discrete electrical pulses. It can be used to control the rotational
speed of a stepper motor.
➢ Computer Process Control

• Computer Process Control is a critical aspect of modern industrial automation that

leverages computer technology to monitor and manage various processes.
• It involves the use of computers and software systems to ensure that industrial
operations run efficiently, safely, and with minimal human intervention.

❖ Concepts of Computer Process Control

• Process Control: This refers to the methods and technologies used to maintain a
desired output of a specific process by controlling input variables. Processes can range
from simple temperature control to complex chemical reactions.
• Feedback Mechanism: Most control systems use feedback loops, where the output is
continuously monitored and compared to a desired setpoint.
• Control Algorithms: Various algorithms are employed to determine how to adjust the
inputs based on feedback. Common types include:

❖ Components of Computer Process Control

• Sensors: Devices that measure physical parameters (e.g., temperature, pressure, flow)
and convert them into signals that can be processed.
• Actuators: Mechanisms that carry out control actions based on signals received from
the control system (e.g., valves, motors).
• Controllers: Devices or software systems that receive data from sensors, apply control
algorithms, and send commands to actuators.
• Human-Machine Interface (HMI): The user interface that allows operators to monitor
the process, receive alerts, and manually adjust settings if necessary.
• Communication Networks: Protocols and technologies that enable data exchange
between different components of the control system (e.g., Ethernet, Modbus).