CHAPTER - 1
Introduction
Presented By~
Dr. Apurba Adhikary
Assistant Professor
ICE, NSTU
1.1 Data Communications
When we communicate, we are sharing information.
This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communication usually
occurs face to face, while remote communication takes
place over distance.
2
Cont.
Data communications are the exchange of data between
two devices via some form of transmission medium such
as a wire cable.
For data communications to occur, the communicating
devices must be part of a communication system made
up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment)
and software (programs).
3
Cont.
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on
four fundamental characteristics:
(1). Delivery, (2). Accuracy, (3). Timeliness, (4). Jitter.
Delivery:
The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data
must be received by the intended device or user and only by that
device or user.
Accuracy:
The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have
been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
4
Cont.
Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered
late are useless.
Jitter:
Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the
uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.
For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every
3 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and
others with 4 ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the
result.
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Components
A data communications system has five components.
6
Cont.
Message:
The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures,
audio, and video.
Sender:
The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so
on.
Receiver:
The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
7
Cont.
Transmission medium:
The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of
transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
Protocol:
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
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Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex,
half-duplex, or full-duplex.
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Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as
on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a
link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex
devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can
only accept output.
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Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive,
but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can
only receive, and vice versa.
The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed
in both directions. When cars are traveling in one direction, cars
going the other way must wait.
For example, Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are
both half-duplex systems.
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Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit
and receive simultaneously.
The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing
in both directions at the same time.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
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1.2 Networks
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
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Distributed Processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task
is divided among multiple computers.
Instead of one single large machine being responsible for
all aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a
personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.
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Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The
most important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance:
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time
and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response.
The performance of a network depends on a number of factors,
including the number of users, the type of transmission medium,
the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the
software. 15
Cont.
Factors that affect Response Time are:
Number of Users: More users on a network - slower the
network will run
Transmission Speed: speed that data will be transmitted
measured in bits per second (bps)
Media Type: Type of physical connection used to connect nodes
together
Hardware Type: Slow computers such as XT or fast such as
Pentiums
Software Program: How well is the network operating system
(NOS) written
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Cont.
The performance of the network depends on the following factors:
Number of Users - Performance of the network may degrade when
the number of users connected to the network increases.
Transmission medium - It connects elements in the network and is
used to transmit data over the network. The data transmission speed
varies with the type of transmission medium. The bandwidth
requirement and the type of transmission media can be decided
depending on the size and the application of the network.
Hardware - The different types of hardware can be used in a network.
It affects both the speed and capacity of the system in a network.
Software - The software is a program or set of instructions which
controls the operation of a networking device. It is used to process
data at the sender, receiver and intermediate nodes in a network.
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Cont.
Reliability:
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a
link to recover from a failure, and the network's
robustness in a catastrophe.
Security:
Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures
for recovery from breaches and data losses.
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Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some
network attributes.
Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through
links. A link is a communications pathway that transfers
data from one device to another. For visualization
purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line
drawn between two points. For communication to occur,
two devices must be connected in some way to the same
link at the same time.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-
point and multipoint. 19
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link
between two devices.
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
When you change television channels by infrared remote
control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection
between the remote control and the television's control
system.
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Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in
which more than two specific devices share a single link .
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel
is shared, either spatially or temporally.
If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a
spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is
a timeshared connection.
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Cont.
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Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a
network is laid out physically.:
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links
form a topology.
The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus,
and ring.
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1.4 Protocols and Standards
Protocol:
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications.
A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated.
The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and
timing.
25
Cont.
Syntax:
The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented.
For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address
of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the
stream to be the message itself.
Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based
on that interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be
taken or the final destination of the message?
Timing:
The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent
and how fast they can be sent.
For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data
at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be
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lost.
Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an
open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and
international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes.
Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies, and other service providers to
ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's
marketplace and in international communications.
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Cont.
Data communication standards fall into two categories:
1. de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention")
2. de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").
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Cont.
De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an
organized body but have been adopted as standards
through widespread use are de facto standards.
De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an
officially recognized body are de jure standards.
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Standards Organizations
Standards are developed through the cooperation of
standards creation committees, forums, and government
regulatory agencies.
Standards Creation Committees:
a. International Standards Organization (ISO)
b. International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
c. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
d. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
e. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
f. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
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International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
The ISO is a multinational body whose membership is
drawn mainly from the standards creation committees
of various governments throughout the world. The ISO is
active in developing cooperation in the realms of
scientific, technological, and economic activity.
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International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication
Standards:
Sector (ITU-T). By the early 1970s, a number of countries were
defining national standards for telecommunications, but there was
still little international compatibility. The United Nations
responded by forming, as part of its International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), a committee, the Consultative
Committee for International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT).
This committee was devoted to the research and establishment of
standards for telecommunications in general and for phone and
data systems in particular. On March 1, 1993, the name of this
committee was changed to the International Telecommunication
Union Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T).
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American National Standards Institute (ANSI): Despite its
name, the American National Standards Institute is a completely
private, nonprofit corporation not affiliated with the U.S. federal
government. However, all ANSI activities are undertaken
with the welfare of the United States and its citizens occupying
primary importance.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): The
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is the largest
professional engineering society in the world. International in
scope, it aims to advance theory, creativity, and product
quality in the fields of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio
as well as in all related branches of engineering. As one of its
goals, the IEEE oversees the development and adoption of
international standards for computing and communications. 33
Electronic Industries Association (EIA):
Aligned with ANSI, the Electronic Industries Association
is a nonprofit organization devoted to the promotion of
electronics manufacturing concerns. Its activities include
public awareness education and lobbying efforts in
addition to standards development. In the field of
information technology, the EIA has made significant
contributions by defining physical connection interfaces
and electronic signaling specifications for data
communication.
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Forums
Telecommunications technology development is moving faster
than the ability of standards committees to ratify standards.
Standards committees are procedural bodies and by nature slow-
moving. To accommodate the need for working models and
agreements
and to facilitate the standardization process, many special-interest
groups have developed forums made up of representatives from
interested corporations. The forums work with universities and
users to test, evaluate, and standardize new technologies. By
concentrating their efforts on a particular technology, the forums
are able to speed acceptance and use of those technologies in the
telecommunications community. The forums present their
conclusions to the standards bodies.
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Regulatory Agencies
All communications technology is subject to regulation
by government agencies such as the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) in the United
States. The purpose of these agencies is to protect the
public interest by regulating radio, television,
and wire/cable communications. The FCC has authority
over interstate and international commerce as it relates to
communications.
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