SQL Made Easy

The Ultimate Guide for

Beginners on Data Querying,
Manipulation, and Analysis
Using Real-World Context to
Advance Your Career in Data
Analytics

Alex Wade
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 Contents

Introduction

1. Data and SQL

What Is Data?
What Is SQL?
SQL vs…
Quick Overview
2. SQL Dialects and Databases
A Closer Look at SQL
SQL Databases
Quick Overview
The Bottom Line
3. Sql 101
SQL Syntax
SQL Data Types
Oracle Data Types
MySQL Data Types
MS SQL Server Data Types
PostgreSQL Data Types
SQL Data Structures
Data Structure Types
SQL Operators
Quick Overview
4. Basic SQL Techniques
Command vs. Query
Basic SQL Commands and Queries
Exercises

5. Intermediate SQL Techniques

Intermediate SQL Commands and Queries
A Few Words
Exercises
6. Advanced SQL Techniques
Advanced SQL Techniques
Optimizing Performance
Exercises
7. Putting It All Together
Finding Your Niche
Why Do You Need a Portfolio?
Crafting Your Portfolio Project
Conclusion
References
Introduction

In a time when we're generating an incredible amount of data every day, the
need for better tools to manage this data has never been more important.
Structured Query Language (SQL) is the ideal language to learn for this
purpose, enabling you to work easily with large amounts of data. The
language was "first developed by IBM in the 1970s to allow access to
databases using an easy-to-learn, English-like language. It was quickly
adopted by other software vendors and soon became the industry standard
for working with relational databases" (Thornhill, 2022). Even as time went
by, it remained the go-to language for extracting data and maintaining
databases efficiently.
Even with all the advances in technology we have today, major technology
companies such as Google, Facebook, and Uber still use SQL in their
systems, and it was considered the third most-used technology in 2022
(Thornhill, 2022). Because it is such a simple and easy-to-understand
language, it is the perfect place to start learning if you do not have an IT
background and are looking for a career change. By learning how to use
SQL, you will see that many opportunities in the market will open up to you
even if you have a basic understanding.
On the other hand, if you are already an IT professional that works with
another coding language, you will see that by learning SQL you will
discover that it adds value to your coding skills, especially when dealing
with large amounts of data. Its ability to transform, extract, and interact
with databases will enhance your skills and make them even more attractive
to future employers. It does not matter if you are a business analyst, a
software developer or architect, or a data analyst—knowing SQL will add
to your skill set and enable you to find more attractive opportunities.
As you embark on your SQL journey, you will find these key benefits
waiting for you:

data consistency and integrity

tools for data recovery and backup for system failures
efficient and time-tested data operations
user-friendly language
no prior coding knowledge required

You might be wondering if this means there are no challenges at all for the
beginner who is starting to work with the language. No, not at all. Learning
SQL can come with some challenges that you might need to overcome. One
of the most commonly mentioned among professionals is the lack of a user-
friendly interface and its increasing complexity as you start dealing with
more data and queries. In addition to this, there is the fact that there are two
different types of SQL: ANSI SQL, which is the most common version
used, and ISO SQL, which is based on an international standard. While they
both have similarities, you might find some variations between the two
versions.
Nevertheless, these should not be impediments to your learning process and
ability to start working with SQL. In fact, as you read this book, you will be
given all the information you will need to give you a great start in the
language or to enhance the skills you already have. For those who are
beginning, you are going to learn about the basic techniques and structures
you must know to thrive when using the language. If you are already a
seasoned professional looking to increase your abilities, you will also
benefit from the content in this book, not only because you are going to
refresh some concepts, but you will also be given some intermediate and
advanced techniques as well.
This will be one of the main differences you will find in this book when
compared to the other resources available online—you will learn what you
need to know and be shown how to do it straightforwardly. As you read,
some exercises will be proposed to test what you have learned and help
fixate on the concepts that were taught in each chapter. By doing this, you
will see that SQL syntax and operations will soon become second nature to
you. Finally, at the end of the book, you will get to work on a real-world
portfolio project, preparing you to display in the market your new skill.
As the book progresses, you will encounter exercises designed to test your
knowledge and reinforce the concepts introduced in each chapter. Through
these exercises, SQL syntax and operations will naturally become second
nature, enabling you to work with queries independently and instinctively.
Think about the wide range of opportunities that will open up: transitioning
to a new career, acquiring a valuable skill, enhancing existing coding
abilities, negotiating for a raise, pursuing higher-paying job opportunities,
and even contributing to data-driven decision-making in your organization.
In essence, by engaging with the topics covered in this book, you will gain
the fluency in SQL necessary to thrive in your career.
Therefore, if you are ready to embark on a journey of acquiring essential
skills and reshaping the trajectory of your career, you should continue
reading! It will provide comprehensive resources to ensure a successful
start or skill refinement. Join me in this educational adventure of mastering
SQL, and witness how it transforms your future!
Chapter 1
Data and SQL

To understand the importance of learning SQL, we must first understand

where it is used and why. If you think about the amount of information that
is generated daily, organizations must find alternatives to structure and
organize this data in a manner that is easily accessible and comprehensible.
In addition to this, the need for finding solutions that are cost-effective in
the long run and that support the organizations' needs for speed and
accessibility makes SQL an interesting alternative in the market.
One of the advantages of using SQL is that it is easily available in several
cloud storage services such as Microsoft Azure, AWS, and Google Cloud.
Although this service is offered at an hourly rate, the cost is relatively lower
than when you compare to tableless methodologies, which are charged on a
pay-per-use system. While the second alternative might seem like a good
option, if the data in your tableless system is not structured, it can lead to
more use time and consequently, a significantly higher bill to pay (Wesley,
2023).
However, before we start looking further into the uses, advantages, and
disadvantages of SQL in the market, it is essential that we take a step back
and understand the bigger picture. For this reason, in this first chapter, you
are going to learn the basic principles related to SQL: what data is, what
databases are, types of databases, and why SQL should be considered as an
option in comparison to more modern languages such as Python and R.
Learning what these are, and their differences will give you the necessary
foundation to understand other concepts that will be explained further along
in the book. Lastly, and perhaps most importantly, this information will be
essential to help you make an informed decision regarding your choice to
learn and use SQL.

What Is Data?
Suppose you are in the supermarket, shopping according to a grocery list
you wrote up the day before. Everything you have written on this list is
data, or units that without being placed together or without context have no
meaning. Once you have them organized in a list that makes sense to you
and refers to the items you need, it will become information, since it is
going to carry a logical meaning. While in this example I have used a
grocery list to illustrate the concept, data can refer to practically any fact or
unit, such as numbers, files, symbols, graphs, images, texts, observations,
and so much more.
This means that if you have a list of numbers on a paper without explaining
what they are, you will have data. However, if you say that these are the
heights of all the children in a classroom, you will be giving it context and
it will become information. When we transfer this representation to a
business, it is possible to understand why data is so important: It will be the
list of clients, prices, access to the website, purchases made, billing
addresses, and everything that the business needs to function efficiently.
But what happens if this data is not cleaned and organized, and the business
cannot work or draw conclusions from it? This means that it will be useless,
and you will not be able to transform it into relevant information from
which conclusions can be extracted. For this reason, most companies
choose to organize this data into a database, where it will be collected and
stored in an organized manner.
Each organization will structure their databases according to their needs and
type of business. This means that not all databases are the same. In fact, if
you think about the different types of databases available in the market, you
will see there are many types to choose from. There are specific databases
used for objects and others used for graphs, those used for operations, and
also for personal information. In addition to this, we also have centralized,
distributed, on-the-cloud, and on-premises. For this book, we are going to
focus on one specific type, which is also the most popular: the relational
database.

Relational Databases

A relational database can also be considered a table since the data is

organized into rows and columns. This data is going to be spread across
different tables, which will have one unique common identifier that will
connect the information between all of them. "Analysts use SQL queries to
combine different data points and summarize business performance,
allowing organizations to gain insights, optimize workflows, and identify
new opportunities" (IBM, 2023).
Let's suppose you are going to create a database with data on the students in
one class. You are going to have the name of the student and, in each table,
the grades pertaining to a certain discipline such as math, science, English,
social studies, physical education, arts, and music. While each of these
tables will have different numbers according to the student's performance in
the discipline, they can all be connected because you have the unique
identifier which is the student's name, which can be found in all tables. This
means that if you're a teacher and need to discuss a student's progress with
their parents, you can easily retrieve all their grades from the relational
database by simply searching for their name.
All relational databases have four characteristics that enable transactions to
be carried out efficiently. These are represented by the acronym ACID,
which, according to IBM (2023), can be defined as follows:

Atomicity: All changes to data are performed as if they are a single

operation. That is, all the changes are performed, or none of them
are.
Consistency: Data remains in a consistent state from state to finish,
reinforcing data integrity.
Isolation: The intermediate state of a transaction is not visible to
other transactions, and as a result, transactions that run concurrently
appear to be serialized.
 Durability: After the successful completion of a transaction,
changes to data persist and are not undone, even in the event of a
system failure.

However, despite all these characteristics, you might be wondering how this
information is managed and what enables the queries to be carried out. This
management process is carried out by a specific software called the
relational database management system (RDBMS), which enables the users
to access, store, modify, structure, and organize the data within their tables
as well as perform queries. Essentially speaking, the RDBMS is the
interface the user will have to access and manage the data. Some popular
examples include SQLite, Oracle, MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL
Server, and MariaDB.

Relational vs. Nonrelational Databases

Although relational databases are the most commonly found structures in

organizations, there is a counterpart to it known as a nonrelational database.
The main difference between them is how the data is stored: While the
relational database will have the data organized in tables, the nonrelational
database stores the information in a nontabular form. "Non-relational
databases are sometimes referred to as 'NoSQL,' which stands for Not Only
SQL" (MongoDB, n.d.). Here is an example of how the data would be
stored in each of these different databases:
Relational Database
Nonrelational Database

Student first name: John

Student last name: Smith
Address: 1234, Pacific Drive
City: Summerset
Birthdate: 02/28/1994
Teacher name: Mary Jones

As you can see, both of these databases store data, but the way they will be
accessed and organized will differ, especially in structure. One of the
advantages of a nonrelational database when compared to a relational one is
that the first will allow you to handle data faster, since it has fewer tables to
extract the information from, making the process more dynamic. However,
there is a reason (in fact, a few) as to why relational databases are more
commonly used in the market, and we are going to look at what they are
now.

Benefits of Relational Databases

The first advantage of using relational databases can be seen when you
analyze the structure they use to store the data. It is a straightforward
approach that does not require complex designs or a specific architecture.
However, this simplicity does not mean these databases have a rigid
structure that does not enable changes. On the contrary, relational databases
are flexible and allow the size of the database to be easily up or downscaled
according to the needs. "A data analyst can insert, update or delete tables,
columns, or individual data in the given database system promptly and
efficiently, to meet the business needs" (Pedamkar, 2023).
In addition to the flexibility and the scaling possibilities the relational
database offers the user, another advantage is the easy access to data while
still maintaining its integrity. This is because when exploring the data in a
relational database, queries can be carried out by any person who has SQL
knowledge. Furthermore, because the data is organized into specific and
targeted fields of the table, it is easier to establish a relationship between the
different records contained in the tables, ensuring results with more
precision and reliability.

How Do Relational Databases and SQL Work Together?

When considering the relationship between relational databases and SQL,

there are a few analogies that can be made that will make the understanding
clearer. Let's look back into the example of the school database, in which
each discipline has a list of the students in the class and their grades. When
the report cards are going to be generated, the user will need to give the
system a command to retrieve the information based on the unique criteria
that is contained in all the tables. In this case, if you remember well, we are
talking about the student's name. This means that a command in SQL will
be given to search for each of the students' names and bring back all the
registered grades in the database for that unique identifier.
But there are other circumstances in which this can be applied. Think about
a library. There, you will have different books (data) that are organized into
different sections (tables) based on their theme. You will have romance,
suspense, medicine, and science, to name a few random examples. Now, to
search for the book you want, you need a system, or it will be impossible to
find what you are looking for. To solve this, the library offers a catalog, in
which you can search for each book based on their different characteristics.
In this example, the catalog system would be the SQL or the means that you
will use to retrieve the information and find the book you want. However,
in this structure, the information contained is more complex, since each
book has different characteristics they can be identified by, such as author,
number of pages, category, and even publication language.
To put it simply, SQL is going to be the tool you will use to make sense of
all the data contained in the database. It will help you manage and
manipulate the data, making it understandable and enabling conclusions to
be drawn from it.

What Is SQL?
As you already know, SQL is short for Structured Query Language, and it
was developed in 1974 as an easy way to retrieve information from
relational databases, which were created a few years prior, in 1970. The
language was initially created by IBM specialists, and "became a standard
of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987" (Tutorials
Point, 2019). As such, SQL and its different dialects are the standard used
when working with data queries in RDBMS.
When managing relational databases, SQL enables you to filter, select,
group, join, and sort data according to your needs. These characteristics
make it a versatile option for those working with databases of different
sizes, ranging from small to big, and to help organize the information in a
way that it can be understood and analyzed. Furthermore, it presents one
significant advantage when compared to other languages: It is a standard
simple to use and understand, and requires no previous coding experience.
But you might be wondering if there are other advantages in learning SQL,
or even if there are any disadvantages at all for its use. To better understand
what makes it such a popular language despite its shortcomings, let's take a
look into the main characteristics that attract developers to work with SQL
and its best applications.

SQL Advantages and Disadvantages

To better illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of learning and using

SQL, here is a table that summarizes its main characteristics:
As you can see, there is a balance between its advantages and
disadvantages, although if you look closely, you will identify that the
disadvantages will depend on how the relational database is used. It is
because of some of these limitations that some professionals, such as data
scientists and engineers, business analysts, and others who work with data
sometimes opt for a different and more versatile language, such as Python
and R. However, are they really the best option? Read on to find out!

SQL vs…
When we are talking about managing data, it has become commonplace that
the first languages that come to mind are Python or R. This is because
several companies have incorporated them into their systems, and also
because they offer some benefits when compared to SQL. However, SQL
wouldn't be alive for so long if it didn't have its own advantages when
compared to these more modern languages.
Many people who are just starting their data journey often have doubts
about what language to use and which one to learn. To ensure that you are
aware of the differences and have sufficient knowledge to make an
informed decision, in this final section of the chapter, you are going to learn
more about the characteristics of each of these. A comparison will be made
between all three languages, and you will understand why, in the end, SQL
is still the go-to choice for many.

Python

Python is an open-source language created in the 1980s and made popular

for its versatility, especially when using different libraries. Due to this, it is
no wonder that Python has become one of the most popular languages in the
present, with large companies such as Spotify, Uber, and Netflix using it for
their software. "Python is a favorite for working with data because its easy
integration with multiple libraries and flexibility make it easy to adapt to
various formats (text, video, audio, Comma Separated Values [CSV], and
web) involved with working with data" (Buuck, 2022).
One of the advantages that Python has over SQL is the fact that it presents
more functionalities and possibilities for the engineer to create code and
exploratory analysis. However, this does come with the disadvantage that it
makes Python slower when compared to SQL, both in creating the query
and in processing time. Although Python is an object-oriented language, it
is just as easy to understand as SQL, despite needing to have coding
experience to program efficiently. However, this process is easily managed
with the thousands of different libraries available for Python, something
that SQL does not have.
Challenges that are usually presented with SQL that are not found in Python
are the ease of testing and debugging code. While both actions are possible
to carry out in SQL, Python provides a more user-friendly manner to do
this. The main reason for this is because "SQL testing libraries limit
themselves to testing the data but not the code. These database testing
libraries most often get executed on production as a last resort to break the
data pipeline if the data is incorrect" (Pelgrim, 2022).
Finally, we must look at the scalability of each of these languages. Here,
SQL has a greater advantage by having the possibility to up or downscale
by adding or removing tables from the database, while this will require
more effort and coding when using Python. This means that if you are
dealing with a simple database that requires less or more structured queries,
the way to go would be SQL since the concepts are easy to learn, and you
won't have the hassle of having to execute several lines of code for one
action.
Essentially speaking, Python is used for some functions and more
complicated analysis, but it is unlikely to replace SQL knowledge,
especially for those who are starting out with managing data. "While it may
be tempting to frame the debate between SQL and Python as a stand-off, the
two languages in fact excel at different parts of the data-processing
pipeline" (Pelgrim, 2022).

Although less common than Python, R is also one of the main choices for
those who are looking to explore and manage data. This language was
created in the 1970s, having as its main characteristic a heavy mathematical
background. For this reason, most of those who are looking to run statistical
or data analysis choose R as their preferred language. However, similarly to
Python, R presents a few disadvantages when compared to SQL, especially
when considering database management.
One of the main disadvantages of R when compared to SQL is the speed of
processing when dealing with large amounts of data. SQL will usually carry
out the queries faster, especially when there are several rows and columns
to be processed. R is also not designed to deal efficiently with database
management. While it is an excellent language for statistics, data
visualization, and data analysis, the coding required for handling the
information for simple approaches makes it complicated because of all the
coding and layers that are needed.
At the same time, R will provide the user with more alternatives for
calculations and a better visualization experience. If you remember what
was mentioned earlier, SQL can have quite an unfriendly interface in some
cases, and in this aspect, R is significantly better. The dialects in R are also
more comprehensive than those in SQL. You might require more command
lines in SQL for a query when compared to R, even though it is a more
user-friendly language.
According to Peck (2020), R is ideal for performing local analysis and
exploring data—the tools and varied syntax enable the user to create a large
range of simulations and studies. On the other hand, if what you are looking
for is to transform and make the data ready to be presented, then your
option should be SQL for the easy approach it presents. Finally, you should
remember that SQL will have optimal performance in cloud applications
and warehouses, making it easier to manage the data from anywhere.

Quick Overview
To make the differences between Python, R, and SQL even clearer, let's take
a look at this comparative table with all their characteristics:
Now that you have learned the comprehensive basics of SQL and its
advantages, it is time that we start our journey to explore more of its
characteristics in depth. As we move on to the next chapter, you will learn
about the SQL dialects, the different types of databases that can be used,
and what operational systems they are compatible with. Read on to see what
the best options for your project are and how each can be applied.
Chapter 2
SQL Dialects and Databases

As you have read before, when considering SQL, it is important to keep in

mind that there is not only ANSI SQL, but also ISO SQL, and several other
dialects that change according to the company or database you are using.
Understanding these differences is important, so you can identify which
variation of SQL you are going to need and apply to the database you will
use. Remember that databases can have different sizes: from those that are
small and can be stored in a computer or a file system, to large ones that
will be held in a database server or the cloud.
Whether the DBMS is being used for marketing, finance, data science, or
even social media, you will see that there are several options when looking
for an efficient way to extract, modify, and manage data. In this chapter,
you are going to learn about some of the different SQL dialects used in the
market, as well as the SQL DBMS they are compatible with. Once you are
done reading this chapter, you will be able to identify the best database to
fulfill your project's needs—the first step into starting to build your own
portfolio!

A Closer Look at SQL

To understand the concept of SQL dialects, let's suppose for a minute that
you do not know how to speak English, but want to learn for several
reasons. Just as any other language widely spoken, English has its
differences between, for example, the United Kingdom and the United
States. If you think about it, even within these, there are certain terms and
slang words that are characteristic of a region.
This same analogy can be applied to SQL dialects. First, you have the
ANSI/ISO standards, which would represent the "basic" English, with terms
and expressions that are used independently of where you are. This is the
type of English that anyone would understand since it is made of universal
terms and commonly used vocabulary. However, if you go to a specific
region in either location, they might still use the main English structure but
add their own jargon and vocabulary to certain things. In this case, these
regional dialects would be the same as the SQL dialects.
This means that the language you are using is still English (SQL), but it has
variations according to the location (DBMS) where you are (you are using).
To complete the analogy, we can say that if you learn English (SQL) you
will be able to understand most of the people who speak the language in
whichever country you go to (databases). However, it is important to
understand that each of these countries will have their own variation of
English (dialect) and to fully understand what they are saying, you will
need to learn a new "version" of the language (databases using their own
SQL version).

SQL vs. NoSQL

Now that you have a clear idea of how SQL and its dialects relate to each
other (and we will get back to that in a minute), it is also important that you
take a minute to refresh your memory about something that has already
been mentioned. You already know that SQL is used for relational databases
or RDBMS. However, it is also common to hear in the market the term
NoSQL, which means "not only SQL." When this term is used, it is usually
referring to nonrelational databases, or at least a DBMS that does not only
have relational databases.
This language is generally used for databases that do not have a fixed
structure, meaning that the data is not distributed between rows and
columns. In addition to this, when referring to SQL, you have a general
standard and other dialects that vary from it, and learning the basic structure
will enable you to have a certain understanding of the specific dialects. On
the other hand, when we are speaking about NoSQL, the dialects can
greatly vary between each database that is being used, meaning that there is
no specific standard or consistency among them.
Although they differ in structure, properties, scalability, query language,
and support, the decision will ultimately be based on how they are going to
be applied to the data gathered by a business. While SQL will be ideal for
smaller and structured data, NoSQL should be used when the data is
constantly changed and there is the need to carry out a deeper analysis of
the data you are using. Many companies decide to use both languages,
depending on the objective of the analysis.
The best option will depend on your choice, although you should remember
that ultimately, SQL is a language that has been largely tested, has amazing
support, and is incredibly time-efficient. Due to this, according to Talend
(n.d.), "When in doubt, SQL is usually more appropriate, as RDBMSs are
better supported and fault-tolerant."

Understanding SQL Dialects

Knowing that SQL has different dialects is crucial to identifying which

standard should be applied to your RDBMS. Essentially speaking, your
dialect choice will directly depend on the database you are going to use.
Although they all stream from the same SQL ANSI/ISO standard, "it is rare
to write SQL that will perfectly work across many database platforms.
There will be variations that exist among different databases" (Berry, 2021).
While these differences are usually small or relate only to certain keywords,
knowing when to use each one will be the determining factor for efficient
database management.
While "learning an entire dialect could take years to master, we should keep
in mind that syntax basics are all the same" (Berry, 2021). This means that
by learning the basic keywords for ANSI/ISO SQL, you will already have a
significant advantage in having a better understanding of the specific
dialects. Some examples that can be named that are used in the market
include SQLAlchemy, DQSL, Jet SQL, and DQSL. However, the
previously mentioned are not as common as the three dialects that will be
discussed in more depth in this book. These are PL/SQL, T-SQL, MySQL,
and PL/sgSQL, which have the following characteristics:

PL/SQL: Procedural Language for SQL is the SQL dialect used by

Oracle databases. It has more functionalities than the original SQL
and allows for a more versatile and comprehensive management of
SQL functions.
T-SQL: is the short for Transact-SQL, the version of SQL for
Microsoft databases and software. Here, the only exception is
Access, which has a SQL dialect of its own.
MySQL: The name of the dialect is the same as the database. This
dialect of SQL is the most similar to ANSI/ISO SQL, with just a few
modifications and differences.
PL/sgSQL: Also known as Procedural Language/PostgreSQL, this
dialect is used by the PostgreSQL databases. It has a similar
structure and functions to PL/SQL.

Now that you are aware of the SQL dialects we will be looking deeper into
in this book, it is time to see some of the main characteristics of the DBMS
that use them. As you move on to the next section, you will learn about the
most popular database systems currently used, their main characteristics,
and their best applications. As mentioned earlier, since these are the most
commonly used RDBMS, they will be the ones we will focus on in this
book, although this does not mean that there aren't other available options
you can choose from in the market.

SQL Databases
Recent research has shown that the top three currently most used RDBMS
in the market are Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft SQL Server (Taylor,
2023). While all of these are paid RDBMS managed by a specific
corporation, there are also a few open-sourced management systems that
can be used, such as MariaDB and PostgreSQL. This might make you
wonder which of them is the best to use and to adopt for your company.
That is a very good question—although paid databases are usually the go-to
solution for many companies, looking at PostgreSQL can be an alternative
to saving money for business operations.

Oracle

To start understanding the difference between each RDBMS, we are going

to first look into the Oracle databases. One of the reasons for this specific
DBMS to be widely used by companies is that it has an extremely high
performance when compared to others. Another feature that attracts many
of its users is the ability it has to carry out data backup and recovery,
although this will require payment for additional storage. However,
according to Singh (2019), "the best advantage that users get when they
make use of the Oracle database is that it easily manages the multiple
databases within the same transaction."
Other features we could mention are the large range of client support
offered and innovation processes to improve its DBMS and portability
capacity. "The Oracle database is ported to all different platforms than all
other its competition. It easily runs on almost 20 networking protocols and
also on more than 100 hardware platforms" (Singh, 2019). However, when
considering implementing or creating a project in an Oracle DBMS, it is
also important to think about the disadvantages it has, which should also be
noted.
The two greatest points that should be mentioned are the cost and the
difficulty of operating the system. Because it is backed by a company, there
is the need to pay for licenses, operating fees, storage costs, and additional
services. According to Sullivan (2015), this cost can be as much as 10 times
higher when compared to other competitors, without considering how much
you will need to pay for a specialized administrator to run the database.
Because of the difficulty of learning PL/SQL, professionals who can
efficiently operate the DBMS can be costly to the employer when compared
to other professionals.
Since PL/SQL was mentioned, let's take a closer look into the challenges
and possibilities this dialect offers the user and what are the main elements
you should keep in mind. Although this is not intended to be an exhaustive
list of features, syntax, and details that characterize the dialect, you will be
given some of the main aspects of PL/SQL, as well as the most important
advantages, differences, and features that make it up. In case you are
interested in learning more, it is possible to look up the official
documentation on the Oracle website.
Some of the main features of PL/SQL include the possibility to use different
data types and check errors, the support for object-oriented programming,
and the ability to apply different programming structures to it (Tutorials
Point, n.d.-a). The language is highly portable and allows addressing the
database with large blocks of code at once. It is also a secure and productive
language, enhanced by its portable characteristics and design variation
possibilities.
To start using PL/SQL, you will need to download a tool that is called the
PL/SQL developer. If you are going to install the program, you should be
aware that there are certain requirements your computer should have.
According to Component Source (n.d.), the software is compatible with
"Windows XP, 2003, 2008, Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10 and
Windows 11. The supported Oracle Server versions are 7.x, 8.x, 8i, 9i, 10g,
11g, 12c, 18c, 19c, 21c, and 23c on any platform."
Speaking specifically about the language, there are three main elements you
should know:

1. All the codes will start with the keyword "DECLARE," which is
optional. In this case, you are going to state the classes, variables,
subprograms, and any other elements you are going to use in the
code.
2. Next, you will have the code in itself and the commands you want it
to execute. It will be written between the keywords "BEGIN" and
"END."
3. If there are any exceptions or errors you want the program to
handle, you will then use the last keyword, "EXCEPTION," which
is also optional for the code you are creating. In case you decide to
use this keyword, it should be applied between the BEGIN and END
keywords so that it can be recognized as part of the code's
execution.
For all the above instances, it is important to remember that all the
statements you declare need to be finalized with a semicolon to be
recognized by the program. In PL/SQL, the semicolon is a delimiter, which
means that it is a character with a specific function within the program.
Each language will have its own delimiters, and it is important to study
them and memorize as best as possible what they are to ensure your code
has no errors. Two of the other delimiters that are worth mentioning are the
double dash (--) used to add comments to the code that occupy one line, and
the /* and */, which are used to begin and end comments in the code that
have more than one line.
The last thing you should know when referring to PL/SQL is that there are
four types of data that are accepted by the code. They are numbers (that are
used to perform operations), alphanumeric characters, date and time, and
Boolean statements for logic operations. While there are other subtypes
after these that are also important, getting into detail for each of these is
rather extensive and, therefore, will not be described in detail in this book.
You should also know that in PL/SQL (as well as in other dialects) you will
need to understand concepts such as variables, constants, and literals. It is
also important to be familiar with the mathematical operators that can be
used, as well as how to apply procedures, packages, and cursors. These will
all be different according to the dialect you use, and it is no different in
PL/SQL.
A comprehensive guide with all the relevant information is available on the
Oracle.com website, which contains the official documentation for PL/SQL
in different languages. On the website, you will find resources that explain
the different structures, collections, packages, triggers, and more. If this
dialect is the one that interests you, I encourage you to access the free
content available and learn about its specificities and details to enhance
your programming experience.

MySQL

As the name of this RDBMS suggests, MySQL is a relational database

created to be used with SQL as its main query language, although today it is
possible to use with other languages such as C+, PHP, and Java. One of the
main reasons many users are attracted to this system is because it is open
source, meaning there is no cost to implement it despite having its rights
owned by Oracle. If the user wants to use this RDBMS, all they have to do
is access MySQL.com and download the program on their computer for no
cost.
Another feature that makes it attractive is its increased speed when
compared to other RDBMS, even when dealing with larger amounts of data.
This makes it an ideal solution for using larger data sets with millions of
rows. In addition to this, since this RDBMS was created for the specific
purpose of warehousing and managing large data sets, you will be able to
easily upscale its capacity if needed. It is also important to consider that
because it is open-source software, you will have two great advantages: a
large community for online support and troubleshooting and the increased
availability of repositories with code you can reuse.
Its flexibility to be used on several operational systems (OS), such as
Windows, macOS, Ubuntu, and Linux, makes it versatile and adaptable to
the current setup you have available. This portable feature makes it an
attractive option for businesses, along with an architecture characteristic
that enables programs to connect to the database and manage the
information. Lastly, you should know that MySQL is considered the most
secure and reliable DBMS in the market, used by large companies such as
Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), and WordPress (Techstrikers, 2019).
You should also know that MySQL has a simple system that is easy to
understand. In addition to this, the SQL dialect that can be used in this
database is the one that most resembles the ANSI/ISO SQL, with minor
changes and adjustments, making the learning process easier and simpler
for the first-time user. "MySQL makes many concessions to supporting the
widest possible variety of data structures, from the standard but rich logical,
numeric, alphanumeric, date, and time types, to more advanced JSON or
geospatial data" (Talend, 2023).
However, regardless of all the attractive features that MySQL has, there are
also a few disadvantages that should be considered if this is going to be
your choice of RDBMS. The first is that most of the information you will
need to rely on is going to be based in communities, since the debugging
and development of the database is not as efficient when compared to others
that are paid and have prompt support. In addition to this, if there are any
constraints with SQL, checks are not supported, leading to errors in the
code you are developing.
It is also considered a limited software, susceptible to handling certain
transactions, which may lead to corruption of the data being used. There is
also the need for node maintenance manually, since there is no support for
auto sharding, making it challenging for some scaling procedures
(Mayankanand2701, 2022). Finally, you should be aware that there might
be some restrictions for versions previous to the 5.0 (the current version is
the 8.0), and that you might need to pay for additional features such as
memory increase, support services, larger backup capabilities, and out-of-
scope analytic tools.

Microsoft SQL Server

The Microsoft SQL Server, also known as MS SQL Server, is also an

RDBMS that was developed by the company for database management and
continues to be one of the pieces of software available in their product
portfolio. Much like the previous two RDBMSs that you have seen, it is
mainly operated with a SQL dialect, although this is a specific one for this
RDBMS known as T-SQL. MS SQL Server is a paid database, with the
price starting at approximately $14,000 per license for the premium version.
One of the main advantages of this RDBMS is that it has different editions,
each designed for a specific purpose. On the Microsoft website, you will
find from the express version, which is free and is suitable for learning
processes and for small data-driven applications, to the enterprise version,
which is the premium service offered by the company and has remarkable
characteristics such as speed, enhanced performance, business intelligence
tools, and another wide range of services that are perfect for companies who
critically use data.
Another positive point of MS SQL Server is the possibility of using the
express version to learn and test the tool for free while having access to all
its enterprise features. In addition to this, if you consider that MS SQL
Server can be integrated with other Microsoft applications, this makes its
attractiveness increase, especially if you consider its collaboration,
visualization, data model, and information management tools. Among those
that can be used in association with it are Power BI and Azure Data Studio,
both of which enable the development of dashboards and reports with the
data it contains.
Microsoft also provides comprehensive documentation for the MS SQL
Server features online and free of charge. This means that apart from the
customer service it offers, it enables the database manager to troubleshoot
online on the website for its different versions and uses. Lastly, you should
know that this RDBMS not only runs in Windows versions, but it is also
supported by some versions of Linux starting in SQL Server versions after
2017. Nevertheless, even if you are going to run it on Windows, it is
important to check the version you are going to use, since there might be
compatibility limitations.
When speaking about documentation, the same availability is true when
referring to T-SQL. On the official Microsoft page, it is possible to find a
reference guide for the dialect that includes the supported data types, how to
manage date and time, the functions accepted, the best alternatives to carry
out queries, and how to create statements, among other resources. While the
syntax has its differences when compared to other dialects, it will bring
similar results when the queries are carried out (Microsoft Learn, 2023).
One example is a feature that enables all commands to be submitted to the
server at once, instead of using individual queries as used by other dialects.
One of the unique features that T-SQL offers the developer is the ability to
carry out data and string processing with several support functions. These
include six main functions and several additional sub-functions or
categories, which provide versatility to the user regardless if they are
working with a collection or one single value. When combined in the
statements with the relevant keywords, operators, variables, and other
dialect elements, the developer will find it enables countless opportunities
to manage and work with the database.

PostgreSQL

The last RDBMS that will be mentioned is PostgreSQL. This RDBMS,

which was previously known as Postgres, is free and open source and
supports both relational and nonrelational queries. It is usually applied for
several industries, especially those that have websites dealing with a large
amount of data or need to analyze and create dynamic interactions and
extract complex analysis from the data set. It is also for these reasons that it
is widely applied in the scientific industries that deal with research and need
to carry out complex queries with the available data (Peterson, 2023a).
While being free is definitely an advantage for such a powerful RDBMS,
there are other reasons why developers and companies select this database
for use. First is the compatibility with different OS including Windows,
Linux, Unix, macOS, and Solaris. This is a positive point from the
portability aspect and the versatility to be applied to different organizations.
The next advantage is the ability to use different programming languages
with tools such as Java, Go, Ruby, Python, and C+ and the large online
community that has been working with it for the past 20 years, since its
development.
PostgreSQL is also considered to have all the ACID properties required
from an RDBMS, making it highly reliable. It should also be mentioned
that it provides the developer with the possibility to use and support
geographic objects and information, enabling the processing of complex
geospatial data to create location-based services. Lastly, despite its robust
structure and complex processing abilities, PostgreSQL is easy to use,
understand, and learn. This makes it the perfect alternative for some
companies who are willing to structure their data with low costs and
maintenance while still ensuring quality.
On the other hand, PostgreSQL has some disadvantages when compared to
the other popular databases in the market. One of them is that since there is
no company backing up the program, it is difficult to "market" its usability
and find support for certain open-source apps that work with other types of
RDBMS. Being free and not owned by a specific company also means that
there is no specific client service for troubleshooting and client support,
although the community has several online groups with experienced
developers and documentation.
It should also be mentioned that PostgreSQL has its own dialect of SQL, as
mentioned earlier. Known as PL/pgSQL, this dialect is very similar to the
one used by Oracle and comes embedded with the RDBMS once it is
installed. Since it is a native dialect, it means that it is trusted by the
PostgreSQL database server, making it one of the most accessible options
for those looking to start using the database even without prior knowledge
of coding. As with most of the SQL dialects, it is an easy-to-learn option
with comprehensive online documentation that can be accessed on the
PostgreSQL.org website.

Quick Overview
After reading about the main RDBMS used in the market, here is a quick
reference table that will help you compare and analyze their characteristics.

The Bottom Line

You now have a complete overview of the main RDBMS and the SQL
dialects that can be used with them. While the previous description of these
is not comprehensive, it gives you the main highlights that will help you
better understand the applications, advantages, and disadvantages they each
have. As you might have noticed, there is no right or wrong option to
choose from. This decision will exclusively depend on your needs, budget,
OS, and preference according to the project you are working on and the
objective you are trying to achieve.
It is also understandable if you are unable to make this decision right now.
There is still so much more to learn and to understand before you can
choose which path to take. For this reason, as we move on to the next
chapter, you are going to learn about the SQL basics, which are the data
types and structures, something I like to call SQL 101. As you read, it will
be possible to take a closer look into the characteristics of each mentioned
dialect and their applications. While this will likely not be the determining
factor that will guide your selection, it will certainly help you obtain some
insight into the differences, challenges, and possibilities each of them can
provide for your future project.
Chapter 3
Sql 101

Understanding the basics of SQL and the differences between each of the
main dialects will be the starting point of your learning journey. This will be
the foundation that will allow you to carry out queries and build statements
and structures that will be used to manage the database. For this reason, you
will learn all about data types, data structures, and tables.
Think about it as driving different types of vehicles. Theoretically speaking,
driving a car, a bus, or a truck is essentially the same. They will all have the
gear, the acceleration pedal, and the brakes. However, each of them will
require a specific type of knowledge that is unique to the transportation
method you are driving. When driving each of these transportation means,
you will have to consider the differences between automatic and manual
shifting, the size of the vehicle, and the speed limitations.
The same can be applied to the SQL dialects. While we have the general
standard of SQL, ANSI/ISO SQL, which would be the common point for all
the SQL languages, each of these dialects will have its own particularities
and specificities that should be taken into consideration. This means there
will be variations between the syntax, data types, and keywords each of
them uses. They will all come from the "universal" standard, but each of
them will have their own adaptation of how to be used.
For this reason, in this chapter, you will be taught not only the general
ANSI/ISO standard, but also the different variations that can be found
within the four main SQL dialects: PL/SQL, MySQL, T-SQL, and
PL/pgSQL. As you will see, despite having their differences, they all have
"SQL" as part of their name.
SQL Syntax
All programming languages have a specific structure, or syntax, which sets
the standard and the guidelines on how they should be used. In ANSI/ISO
SQL, when you ask the program to perform a command, you must create a
statement (or command) that will tell it what you want it to do. These
statements usually begin with keywords such as "delete," "select," "update,"
and others.
One of the essential characteristics you should know about SQL is that,
differently from other programming languages, it is not case-sensitive,
which means that writing "DELETE" will be the same as "delete." This is
an important piece of information to have, since some dialects will have this
distinction and it may affect the query you are going to carry out. In
addition to this, you should also know that after these commands, you will
need to add a semicolon (;) so the action can be recognized.
If you wanted to use a specific database (in this case, named
"my_database"), for example, you would use:

USE my_database;

Or if you wanted to insert data in a specific table (in this case, named
"fruit"), you would use the code:

INSERT INTO FRUIT (ID,TYPE,PRICE) VALUES

(1, 'apple', 5.00),
(2, 'pear', 3.00),
(3, 'orange', 4.00);

In the above example, it is possible to identify that we are giving the

command (making the statement) in upper case letters with the command
"INSERT" and that we are telling the database to insert into the "FRUIT"
table three elements into empty rows with the names "apple," "pear," and
"orange," each with their own price. You will also notice that after the last
element, there is the semicolon, which means that this is the end of the
statement. If you wanted to add more elements to the list, then all you
would need to do is to continue adding the ID number, the fruit, and the
price, and finalize it with a semicolon.
Each of the statements in SQL will have its own characteristics and
particularities depending on the keyword you are going to use. For a quick
reference guide on the statement structure, including the keyword that
would be used and the syntax that should be applied, here is a table you can
use with the most common elements:
These are some of the most common keywords and syntaxes used in SQL,
although several others can also be used for distinct purposes. Learning
these and knowing how to apply them is a great place to start and will
significantly impact your journey in learning how to manage these
RDBMS. However, it is not all about the syntax: The administrator must
also learn what are the types of data that can be used in these databases.
As we move along to the next section of this chapter, you are going to learn
about the different SQL data types and how they differ in each of the
dialects we have talked about. You will see that there are different ways to
store the information in the database such as numbers, alphanumeric
characters, and even the specific application of date and time. It is by using
these data types that you will determine the characteristics of each column
and store the necessary values accordingly.

SQL Data Types

A data type is the format in which the values will be stored in the database.
Since these RDBMS can be used in the most diverse industries, this means
that they should also be able to use different "formats" of the information.
For example, a supermarket might need to store letters and prices, while a
factory might need to register the time and date an employee enters and
leaves the premises. To make these distinct applications possible and to
enable SQL to interact with them, you will need to define what is expected
in each of the cells in the columns.
Most specialists divide these data types into three categories, each with
their own subcategories. They are string, numeric, and date and time data
types. There are also some data types that do not fit into any of these
previous categories, so we are going to call them "miscellaneous data
types."

String Data Types

The first data types we are going to look into are what are known as string
data types. These will usually accept alphanumeric characters and will be
used to store information that is not specifically related to numbers.
Character String
The data types belonging to this subcategory have a maximum length
accepted for the number of characters (although they can be fixed or
variable).

Binary String
The binary string types are used to store binary data in the database and can
be fixed or varied lengths. They are divided into the following:

Boolean
These are used to store values that use logic by defining the column name
as BOOLEAN, in which the possible answers can only be TRUE or
FALSE.

Numeric Data Types

As the name suggests, these data types are those that are composed of
numbers. These are composed of five formats for exact numbers and four
for approximate numbers. They are the following:
Date and Time Data Types

The last of the structured data types are those belonging to the date and
time. These will be used to store this specific information, most of the time
formatting according to the standard established by the database. Here are
the five variations that can be used to store these data types:
Miscellaneous Data Types

Lastly, we have the miscellaneous, or other data types, which are those that
do not fit into any of the previous categories. These include, but are not
limited to, the following:

Array data types: Used to store array values.

Interval data types: Used to specify a range of dates or times
within the database by using INTERVAL DAY and INTERVAL
YEAR.
JSON data types: Used for storing data in JSON format in the
database.
Multiset: Used to store an unordered collection of elements with
variable length.
XML data types: Used to store data in XML format in the database.

While in this section you have been presented with the different data types
available in SQL, it is important to remember that this ANSI/SQL
vocabulary may not apply to all the databases available in the market since
each RDBMS will have its own interpretation and application. For this
reason, in the following sections, you are going to learn about the difference
in vocabulary when using each dialect for the databases we have seen
before.
However, in order to avoid information that you already have, the focus of
these will be on the data types that are different or that can be converted.
This means that you will be reading about the data types that are different
between the ANSI/ISO SQL standard and the dialect for each database. At
the end of the chapter, a table will be provided with the comparison
between all four dialects to enhance the learning process and
comprehension of the differences among them.

Oracle Data Types

When we refer to Oracle databases, we are speaking about those that use
the PL/SQL dialect. This means that it is composed of data types native to
the RDBMS and those that can be converted. In this section, you are going
to learn about these built-in datatypes, those that can be supplied by Oracle,
and finally, the data types that are comparable to ANSI/ISO SQL. It is
important to know that despite having its own language, Oracle uses
precompilers to recognize other data types that come from other dialects
also commonly used in RDBMS, known as external data types by the
organization (Oracle Help Center, n.d.).
According to Oracle's official documentation, the data types used in their
databases can be divided with the following structure:

Oracle built-in data types

○ character data types

○ number data types
○ long and raw data types
○ datetime data types
○ large object data types
○ ROWID data types

ANSI-supported data types

 User-defined data types
Oracle-supplied data types

○ any data types

○ XML data types
○ spatial data types

Just as you have seen in the previous section, you will be provided with
tables that contain the main data types in Oracle PL/SQL and a final
explanation of which ANSI/ISO SQL data types are converted when using
the dialect. Although the list will not be exhaustive, you will find it to be
comprehensive with the main data types that can be used with these
RDBMS. In this section, the user-defined data types will not be approached,
since their application will vary according to each user. All the information
in this section was extracted from the official Oracle documentation in
Oracle Help Center (n.d.).

Oracle Built-in Data Types

In this first section of the Oracle PL/SQL data types, we are going to look
into those that are built-in for Oracle, which means they belong to the
native dialect and might not work for other databases apart from those in
Oracle. It is important to remark that while some of them might have the
same name as those in the ANSI/ISO SQL standard, they might have a
different functionality or length from these. Below, you will find the
different subcategories for each of these data types.
Character Data Types
Number Data Types
When you want to express numbers in an Oracle database, it might be
required that you insert into the syntax of the number the precision (the
number of integral digits that can range from 1 to 38), or "p," and the scale
(the number of decimal points the number can have), or "s." Here are the
numeric data types you should consider for PL/SQL:
Long and Raw Data Types
These data types are used to store binary data in the database. They have a
size limit of storage size and are commonly used to store audio files,
images, and other large objects in the database. Here are the three data types
that can be used for this purpose.
Date and Time Data Types
The date and time data types in PL/SQL have the same purpose as those in
ANSI/ISO SQL, although they have a different range when compared to the
latter and a different exhibition structure. Here are the time and date data
types that can be used with Oracle:
Large Object (LOB) Data Types
These data types are used to store large objects within the database or in a
place external to it. Is applicable for alphanumeric characters, Unicode
characters, or binary objects. Here are the data types that should be used for
objects with each of these characteristics:
ROWID Data Types
When you use the ROWID data types, the request that is being made is to
identify the logical or unique address of the data in the database rows. In
this case, the column will be named according to the data type you want it
to return, which can be one of two:
As you have seen in this section, although there are some data types that
have the same name in the PL/SQL dialect as in the ANSI/ISO standard,
they have some differences in syntax, size, or application. These built-in
data types provide additional features than when only applying ANSI/ISO
SQL. However, there are also Oracle-supplied types that can be used as
interfaces when those in ANSI/ISO are not enough. As you will see in the
next section, they are composed of three subcategories and several different
data types.

Oracle-Supplied Data Types

Oracle-supplied data types are those that can be implemented in other

languages, and the structure to make the data work in the database will be
provided by the company. When considering these interfaces, one of the
most common applications is to create objects defined by the user, although
they "are also used by Oracle to create some commonly useful data types.
Several such data types are supplied with the server, and they serve both
broad horizontal application areas (for example, the Any types) and specific
vertical ones" (Oracle Help Centers, n.d.).
These data types are divided into three categories:

Any types: Used to model parameters and columns when the tables
do not have a known type. Adds versatility to the RDBMS and can
also be used to convert other SQL dialects to work in the database.
The four data types of this category are ANYTYPE, ANYDATA,
and ANYDATASET.
Spatial types: These data types will be used to store related to
geometric figures and spatial objects that are required to be in the
database. It is usually used in association with another Oracle
program named Graph and will enable the user to develop
applications that access locations and a geographic information
system.
XML types: Similar to the XML data type in ANSI/ISO SQL, this
type of modeling is used to store and query data contained in XML
formats in a database. It can also be used to adapt the XML data in
the file to the tables you are going to use in the database.
 ○ URL data types: Used for the specific application of adding XML
files that are in the format of a URL. These can have or not have a
direct link to the external web page or file which is accessed by the
database by using a HTTP address.

ANSI/ISO and PL/SQL Data Type Conversion

When comparing the different data types between Oracle PL/SQL and
ANSI/ISO SQL, there are a few that are accepted but converted when
inserted into the database table. This is the case for the data types we will
see below, which are supplied in Oracle Help Center (n.d.).

As you have seen, there are some similarities between the Oracle PL/SQL
data types and those that can be found in ANSI/ISO SQL. However, it is
likely you have also noticed that there are several different expansion
features that give the user more flexibility and managing capabilities to
administer the database. But this is not the only dialect that has significant
differences and enhancements when compared to the standard. Next, we
will move on to learn more about the MySQL data types and dialects, which
you will see have more similarities than differences when compared to
ANSI/ISO SQL.

MySQL Data Types

When we talk about the MySQL dialect, the main thing you should keep in
mind is that this is the dialect with the most similarities when compared to
ANSI/ISO SQL. This means that many of the data types are the same and
have the same name as the one found in the standard. In this section, you
are going to learn about the data types in MySQL, which can be divided
into the following categories:

numeric data types

date and time data types
string data types
spatial data types
JSON data types

All the information you will see in this section was extracted from the
MySQL official documentation available on the website, more specifically
in the MySQL 8.0 Reference Manual in MySQL (n.d.) and the links
associated with it. Without further delay, let's look into the data types in
MySQL that are different from ANSI/ISO SQL while briefly mentioning
those that are the same.

Numeric Data Types

According to MySQL (n.d.), all the ANSI/SQL data types are supported by
MySQL. This means that there is no difference in syntax and use for the
following data types: BOOLEAN (BOOL), SMALLINT, NUMERIC,
FLOAT, REAL, DOUBLE PRECISION (DOUBLE), INTEGER (INT), and
DECIMAL (DEC or FIXED). In addition to this, "MySQL also treats
REAL as a synonym for DOUBLE PRECISION (a nonstandard variation),
unless the REAL_AS_FLOAT SQL mode is enabled" (MySQL, n.d.).
Nevertheless, there are a few numeric data types that have a few differences
in syntax or application. Here is a table with the data types that are
additional in MySQL and their definitions:

In the above cases, there are a few details that should be noted. The first is
that when using any of these data types, the keyword will be followed by
the size allowed in the column, which means the maximum length of the
number that can be displayed, which is 255 for all of the above-mentioned.
The other is that you might have noticed that there are two different types of
ranges, one for signed and one for unsigned.
When you have an unsigned integer (adding the word after the data type
keyword), this means that the number in the column will not accept
negative numbers. This means that the range applicable to the field will be
reduced from the negative to the maximum number to 0 and the maximum
number. There is, however, no need to declare that the file should be signed,
as this is the default in the database. Finally, please note that if you add the
ZEROFILL keyword to describe a column, it will immediately attribute the
UNSIGNED characteristic to it.

Date and Time Data Types

MySQL has five data types available for time and date, of which some have
minor differences from ANSI/ISO SQL:
 DATE: adopts the format YYYY-MM-DD and ranges from 1000-
01-01 to 9999-12-31.
TIME: used to register a time in the format HH:MM:SS with a
supported range from -838:59:59 to 838:59:59.
DATETIME: applies the format YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS with
a range from 1000-01-01 00:00:00 to 9999-12-31 23:59:59. An extra
feature provided by this datatype is the possibility to add ON
UPDATE or DEFAULT to the column definition so that the
information is updated to the current time and date.
TIMESTAMP: uses the format YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS with
a range from 1970-01-01 00:00:01 UTC to 2038-01-09 03:14:07
UTC. To set the column for the present date and time, it is possible
to add the DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP or ON UPDATE
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP words in the column definition.
YEAR: will transform the data into a four-digit year format that can
range from 1901 to 2155. Although it is permitted in older versions
of MySQL, two-digit years are not available in MySQL 8.0.

If you are wondering about the changes in time zones and how this can be
applied in the database, MySQL (n.d.) states that TIMESTAMP is usually
converted by MySQL "from the current time zone to UTC for storage, and
back from UTC to the current time zone for retrieval. By default, the
current time zone for each connection is the server's time. The time zone
can be set on a per-connection basis." This logic does not apply to other
structures, such as the DATETIME data type.

String Data Types

Although most of the data types in MySQL for string structures are the
same for CHAR, VARCHAR, BINARY, BINARY VARYING
(VARBINARY), and BLOB, there are a few variations of these that should
be considered when using the RDBMS. They are the following:
Please note that when you are using MySQL there is no specific keyword
when you want to apply the Unicode characters in the database, just as it
happens in the ANSI/ISO SQL standard. On the other hand, when
considering the miscellaneous data types, MySQL will support only spatial
and JSON data types in common with ANSI/ISO SQL. While it has
expansion packs that can be used to enhance the use of data with these
characteristics, they have the same basic characteristics as those that can be
found in the standard SQL dialect.

MS SQL Server Data Types

MS SQL Server has its own SQL dialect known as T-SQL, which can be
used for all Microsoft applications except Access. Just as we have seen
before with other dialects, T-SQL also has data types divided into numeric,
string, date and time, and miscellaneous categories. While once again there
are the same data types as you have already seen in ANSI/ISO SQL, there
are also some keywords that have the same spelling but different meanings
or applications.
For this section in T-SQL, the same logic applied to the previous dialects
will be used. When speaking about the data types that are similar to
ANSI/ISO SQL, they will be briefly mentioned and named. However, when
referring to those that are different in some capability, they will be
explained. Finally, at the end of the section, you will be provided with a
table with the equivalent ANSI/ISO SQL data types with those of T-SQL.
Once again, it is important to mention that all the information in this section
was obtained from the official documentation on the Microsoft Learn
(2023) website in the "Transact-SQL" section and related links.

String Data Types

In T-SQL, the string data types have three different subcategories: character
string, Unicode character string, and binary. Read on to discover the main
characteristics of each.
Character String
The data types belonging to this category have a maximum length that can
be fixed or variable and do not accept Unicode characters.

Unicode Character String

Used for Unicode characters with a maximum length established for each of
the data types, although the length can be fixed or variable.

Binary String
This data type is used to store binary data in the database with maximum
lengths that can be fixed or varied. They are divided into the following:

Numeric Data Types

In T-SQL, these data types are composed of eleven classifications including

the possibility to store exact, approximate, integral, or decimal numbers.
Date and Time Data Types

Here are the six data types that can be used to store date and time in T-SQL:

Miscellaneous Data Types

One of the main characteristics of T-SQL is that it has the ability to store
not only spatial data types with geometric characteristics but also those with
geographical characteristics. In addition to this, it can also store information
in XML format and provides the user with unique data types such as
CURSOR, SQL_VARIANT, TABLE, ROWVERSION, and
UNIQUEIDENTIFIER.

Compatibility Between ANSI/ISO SQL and T-SQL

According to Microsoft Learn (2023), this is a table that can be used to

translate the ANSI/ISO SQL data types into T-SQL and the synonyms that
can be applied.
PostgreSQL Data Types
The last of the data types we are going to look at are those belonging to
PostgreSQL or the PL/PgSQL dialect. Different from most of the other SQL
dialects, when looking at the official documentation in PostgreSQL (2022),
you will see that the data types for the language are classified into 15
different categories. This is because there is a separation between the
INTEGER and the MONEY types, for example, in which both refer to
numbers but are classified differently.
In this section, you are going to see each of the data types according to the
classification provided by the official documentation. In addition to this,
you will notice that there are some of the ANSI/ISO SQL standards that are
mentioned and have the same spelling within the lists. Although they are
compatible, they have different storage characteristics when compared to
other databases and, therefore, they will be detailed accordingly for better
understanding.
One important observation regarding PL/PgSQL is that, differently from the
other dialects we have seen so far and the ANSI/ISO SQL standard, this
dialect is case-sensitive. This means that while other RDBMSs use these
data type keywords to describe the column in upper or lowercase letters,
there is no difference; in PostgreSQL, this does not apply. Therefore,
differently from what you have seen in the previous sections, you will see
all the data type keywords expressed in lowercase, since this is the standard
applied by the dialect.
All the information in this section was obtained from PostgreSQL (2022),
including the tables and explanations.

Numeric Data Types

Monetary Data Types

Character Data Types

For these data types, PostgreSQL (2022), explains that "there is no

performance difference among these [data] three types, apart from increased
storage space when using the blank-padded type, and a few extra CPU
cycles to check the length when storing into a length-constrained column."
Binary Data Types

Date and Time Data Types

Miscellaneous Data Types

Enumerated data types: used for ordered and static values.

Geometric: used to represent two-dimensional spatial objects.
Network address: used to store IPv4, IPv6, and MAC addresses.
 Text search: used to carry out full-text searches through a collection
of natural-language documents. By using this data type, it will be
possible to locate the text that best matches a query.
JSON: used to store data in JSON format.

Compatibility Between ANSI/ISO SQL and PL/pgSQL

These are the data types that have the same spelling and function in both
ANSI/ISO SQL and PL/pgSQL (keeping in mind the use of lowercase
letters):

bigint
bit
bit varying
boolean
char
character varying
character
varchar
date
double precision
integer
interval
numeric
decimal
real
smallint
time (with or without time zone)
timestamp (with or without time zone)
xml

SQL Data Structures

In the previous section of this chapter, you have learned data can be stored
in different formats in the database. However, just having these
characteristics applied to it is not enough. The database needs to have a
structure to ensure that the user can perform the queries and operations they
need to. These "rules," as they can be referred to, will allow the database to
understand the different instructions it is given because the information will
be organized. SQL has several different data structures, and their
application will depend on the type of data you are storing and how you are
going to manage it.
Let's put this into a practical application. When you go grocery shopping,
the supermarket offers different types of products for purchase. We could
say that we have fresh products, such as fruit and vegetables, cleaning
products, and pantry items, each with their own characteristics. If we were
to make a comparison between these items and SQL dialects, it is possible
to say that the supermarket is the database, "fruits" and "vegetables" are
data types, and "apples" and "pears" are keywords of these specific data
types. In addition to this, it is possible to infer that "apples" in its general
sense would be ANSI/ISO SQL and their different varieties are each of the
SQL dialects.
Now, what would happen if you went to the supermarket and all the fruits,
vegetables, cleaning products, and pantry items were placed together,
without separate aisles dedicated to a certain product category and stored
without distinction of brand, type, or taking into consideration the best
exposure format? In this case, finding what you want would not be
impossible, but it would take a lot more time and effort to identify
everything you need. The same logic can be applied to SQL data structures.
If we compared the SQL data structures to the supermarket, we could say
that in addition to the consideration of the database and the data types, this
information needs to be stored in an organized manner, so it is quick and
easy to process and store. Just like in the supermarket, we have different
aisles and areas dedicated to certain product categories, and they are each
exposed in a way that they can be easily seen, the same will happen with
databases.
This means that you will have an easier time managing and viewing
different information when carrying out queries in an efficient manner,
without the need for additional features or programs to organize what you
are seeing. This provides the user with enhanced resource and service
management capabilities, especially if data exchange is needed.
Furthermore, organizing the data into structures gives it a reusability
characteristic, saving time if you need to use the same information without
the need to reorganize it. Finally, applying data structures will enable you to
up or downscale the data with less effort, as well as decrease the program's
processing time.
However, differently from a supermarket and its products, the data
structures can be described with more than one characteristic. According to
Biswal (2023), these include the following:

Static (with fixed formats and/or sizes) or dynamic structures.

Linear (arranging the structure in a sequential format) or nonlinear
structures (in which there is no sequence).
How much space (memory) they occupy in the database and in the
device in which it is being stored.
How much time it takes to run the queries and execute processes in
the program.
How accurately the structure information is depicted in the interface
for the database being used.

As you will see further along in this section, there are several data
structures the user can choose from. Deciding the best one will depend on
the answer to five important questions:

1. What is the type of information (data type) you are going to store?
2. How is the information going to be used?
3. Where is the data going to be stored?
4. What is the most efficient way to organize this data so it is easily
understood?
5. What data structure will provide the optimal storage in the device so
that the processing is not time-consuming?

In addition to answering these questions, it is essential to identify the

operations that will be carried out and check if these are supported by the
selected structure. Suppose you are going to use arithmetic operations with
the data such as adding and subtracting numbers. In this case, the data types
need to be numeric, and the selected structure must support the operations,
as opposed to being stored as a graph, for example.
Now that you know what to look for in a data structure, let's see what the
different structures are available in SQL, what they can be used for, and
their main characteristics.

Data Structure Types

Data structures can be classified into three different categories: static or
dynamic, linear or nonlinear, and homogeneous or heterogeneous. While
there is a clear difference between the first two categories, the last can be
applied to all of them, in which the homogeneous structures will consist of
values that have the same data type and heterogeneous of those that have
varied data types. For a clear understanding, the different SQL structures
have been divided in this section into linear, nonlinear, and table data
structure types.

Linear Data Structures

When you have a linear data structure, this means that the data will be
arranged in a sequence that links the element to the one that comes before
and after it. In these data structures, there is no hierarchy between the data
and the relationship between them has only one form. In SQL, the linear
data structures are divided as follows:

Array: The simplest of the data structure forms, consists of

elements that have the same data type grouped.
Linked list: Stores the elements of a list (collection) in a linear
order, in which each item is linked to the subsequent one belonging
to the same list.
Queue: This data structure organizes the elements in a collection in
a linear order, in which the concept of first-in, first-out (FIFO) is
applied to the operations.
 Stack: Similar to a queue data structure, in a stack the collection is
placed in a linear order in which both the concepts FIFO and last-in,
first-out (LIFO) can be applied to the operations.

Nonlinear Data Structures

In nonlinear data structures, the elements do not have a linear sequence but
are linked in a hierarchical manner to one or more items. This means they
can have several layers that connect to each other. The two types of
nonlinear data structures available in SQL are:

Graph: In this data structure, the database tables will be represented

in an image by using a variety of nodes and edges. SQL supports
different types of graphs to visualize the data.
Tree: When using trees to structure data, you will have a single root
value that will be divided into leaf nodes, each associated with a
specific value. This is an ideal approach to visualize data with
multiple levels and a specific hierarchy. Similarly to the graphs,
there are different varieties of trees that can be applied to the
database.

Table Data Structures

As the name suggests, when you have these types of data structures, they
will be visualized in a table format. These are the different table structure
types available in SQL:

Hash table: This is a table that stores data in a key-value format in

which the key acts as an index for the elements stored.
Heap table: In this type of table, no index is used, which means that
the data is randomly stored and considers the first available space to
enter new data.
Partitioned table: The data in these tables will be divided into
small groups or files that enable the user to easily manage the
information.
 System table: This table is generally used for metadata storage that
will be applied server-wide.
Temporary table: When the user wants to share data for a short
time, this is the table that can be used with connections that can be
local or global.
Wide table: Consists of a table that can have up to 30,000 columns.
Each column will have a definition and a variable assigned to it.

SQL Operators
Once you have the SQL data types and structures learned and
acknowledged, it is time to see how these can interact with each other. In
the case of SQL, it has what are called "operators," which are a list of
symbols that will help the user perform computations with the data in the
database. These operations are mainly mathematical and logical, and are
usually divided into three categories:

arithmetic operators
comparison operators
logical operators.

These operators can be used to have different data values interact with each
other. Here are three lists with the operators belonging to each of the
categories and their applications.

Arithmetic Operators
Comparison Operators

Logical Operators
SQL still has other operators that are not considered to be a part of any of
these categories. They include ALL, ANY, and, BETWEEN, for example,
among others. The use of these operators is not as usual as the ones you
have just seen and can be replaced by using a longer syntax.

Quick Overview
To make your understanding and referencing easier when comparing each
of the SQL dialects for the mentioned databases, here is a list that compares
the data types and their application in each RDBMS by category:

Character Data Types

Numeric Data Types
Date and Time Data Types
Now that you know all the data types that can be used for each of the most
used RDBMS, it is time to learn how to manage the database. In the next
chapter, you will be introduced to the basic SQL techniques to carry out
queries and commands and understand functionalities. These will be the
base of your learning and will enable you to understand the subsequent
chapters, in which you will be taught intermediate and advanced
techniques. All of these will be applied in the end, when you will develop
your own project and put your knowledge to use.
Chapter 4
Basic SQL Techniques

For the last three chapters, you have read about SQL basic structures,
information, characteristics, operators, and applications. While having a
foundation in the language is the best place to start, it is useless if you do
not know how to use it. Therefore, starting with this chapter and for the
following two, you will be taught some of the basic, intermediate, and
advanced SQL techniques that can be applied to your own program. This
first chapter will provide the basic commands you should know before
advancing to more complex or intricate techniques.
Regardless of how the database will be used, knowing the basic SQL
commands will help prepare you to perform more complex operations. This
knowledge will be applied to the most diverse industries, from data science
and healthcare to marketing and financial businesses—sometimes, the most
basic instruction will bring you the results you need. At the end of the
chapter, you will be given 10 exercises to practice and test your knowledge
of the information provided in this chapter.

Command vs. Query

The first thing that is essential to learn is that there are two different actions
that can be carried out in SQL databases: commands and queries. Although
they have the same performance and one does not have an advantage over
the other, the main difference between these is that in the query, you will
not be modifying the database structure or status, while in commands, this
is possible. To put it simply, when you carry out a command, it will modify
the state of the database while when you carry out a query, you will be
reading the information it contains.

SQL Commands and Syntax

SQL commands are used to create tables, add, modify, or delete

information, and manage users who will have access to it. These can be
classified into the following five categories, each with its own set of
commands:
1. DDL—Data Definition Language: The commands in this category are
used to create or modify the structure of a database and the elements it
contains. These are the commands belonging to this category:

Alter: used to modify the structure of a database.

Comment: used to add comments to the database.
Create: used to create a database, table, or its elements.
Drop: used to delete a database, table, or its elements.
Rename: used to rename an element in the database.
Truncate: used to delete all the data and elements from a table in
the database.

One interesting fact about these commands is that four of them make up the
CRUD acronym, which represents the commands CREATE, READ
(SELECT), UPDATE, and DELETE and is frequently adopted in the SQL
community.
2. DQL—Data Query Language: The command in this category is used to
perform queries on the data contained in the database. Is composed of only
one command, "select."
3. DML—Data Manipulation Language: The commands in this category
are used to manipulate the data and elements contained in the database and
are usually applied together with those belonging to the DCL statements.
The commands belonging to this category are:

Call: used to call a subprogram belonging to Java or PL/SQL.

 Delete: used to delete all the records from the database table.
Explain plan: used to describe what the access path to the data is.
Insert: used to add new tables to the database.
Lock: used to create table control in the database.

4. DCL—Data Control Language: These commands are used to control

access to the database, including the application of restrictions, permissions,
and other control features. The two commands belonging to this category
are:

Grant: used to give access and privileges to the database.

Revoke: used to withdraw access and privileges to the database.

5. TCL—Transaction Control Language: These last set of commands are

used to group different tasks into one and are used to control how the
transaction will be executed. These are the commands part of this category:

Begin: used to start a transaction.

Commit: used to commit a transaction.
Rollback: used to undo a transaction in case there are any errors.
Savepoint: used to save a certain action in a transaction.

You might be wondering how these are used and the syntax that should be
applied, and that is understandable. However, you should not worry, since
their syntax structure and applications will be given further along in this
chapter. In the meantime, let's take a look into what SQL queries and what
they can do.

SQL Queries

When you carry out a query in SQL, it means that you are looking to obtain
the data contained in the database according to a certain specification. This
means you can ask it to perform a calculation, answer a question, combine
data, or several other possibilities. It is important to remember that when
queries are carried out, there will be no modification in the database
structure or data.
Using queries enables you to easily find information within a database,
especially when there is a lot of information to manage and sort through.
This means that instead of having to scroll through a list, you can use the
statements provided by SQL to ask the database to perform an action. This
is such a powerful way of finding and managing data that major companies
such as Spotify, Facebook, Google, and Amazon use it to manage their
databases.

Basic SQL Commands and Queries

Now that you have read about commands and queries, let's see how and
when they can be used, their syntax, and examples. Three tables have been
created for you to use as reference and for a better understanding of the
examples.

"Goodie Supermarket" Database

"Employee" table

"Fruit" table

Here are the commands and queries you should apply to this database and
its tables:
Create database: Used to create a new database.

Syntax:

CREATE DATABASE db_name;

Example: Create a database for a candy store.

CREATE DATABASE candy_store;

Use database: Used to define the database you will use.

 Syntax:

USE db_name;

Example: Write a syntax for using the supermarket database.

USE supermarket;

Drop database: Used to delete a database.

Syntax:

DROP DATABASE db_name;

Example: Delete the auto_shop database.

DROP DATABASE auto_shop

Exhibit database: Used to show all the available databases.

Syntax:

SHOW DATABASES

Show tables in database: Used to show all the tables contained in a certain
database.

Syntax:

SHOW TABLES

Create table: Used to create a table in a database.

 Syntax:

CREATE TABLE table_name (

Column_1 datatype,
Column_2 datatype,
);

Example: Create a table in the supermarket database that will

include the total earned per day.

CREATE TABLE income (

Day DATE,
Total MONEY,
);

Delete from table: Used to delete all the records from the table in the
database. Should be used with WHERE to specify what you want to delete.

Syntax:

DELETE FROM table_name;

Example: Delete the evening shift from the employee table.

DELETE FROM employee

WHERE shift = 'evening';

Alter table: Used to change the structure of a table.

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name;

ADD column_name datatype;
 Example: Insert an extra column in the employees' table with the
name "salary."

ALTER TABLE employees

ADD salary MONEY;

Drop table: Used to delete a table in the database.

Syntax:

DROP TABLE table_name;

Example: Exclude the vegetable table from the database and ask the
program to show all available tables.

DROP TABLE vegetables;

SHOW TABLES

Select: Used to select the information you want from a database. Used in
association with "FROM" to indicate the table in which it can be found.
Will be used with other queries in more advanced coding.

Syntax:

SELECT items
FROM table;

Example: In this example, we want to select the fruit and their

prices from the fruit table.

SELECT name, price

FROM Fruit;
Another syntax that can be used with SELECT, but will be applied when
you want to select all the data in the table is to use the syntax with an
asterisk (*):

SELECT * FROM fruit;

Where: Is used to determine the location while limiting the number of rows
you want this information from. Can be used with the keywords LIKE,
BETWEEN, AND, IN, or OR.

Syntax:

SELECT items
FROM table
WHERE place;

Example: In this example, we want to select only apples and pears

and their prices from the fruit table.

SELECT name, price

FROM Fruit
WHERE (ID = 1405 AND 1407);

Order by: Used to place the elements of a table in ascending (default) or

descending order.

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2,

FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1, column2, ASC;

Example: Order the names of the employees in the employee table

in descending alphabetical order.
 SELECT *,
FROM employee
ORDER BY name DESC;

In this case, we will need to select the whole table so all the data is equally
ordered.
Insert into: Used to insert information into a database table.

Syntax:

INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...);

Example: Insert into the table "fruit" a new product ID, name, and
price.

INSERT INTO fruit

VALUES (1409, 'lemon', 0.21);

Update: Used to update an element in a specific table. Should be used in

association with "WHERE" to determine the location of the element that
will be modified.

Syntax:

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1,
column2 = value2, …
WHERE condition;

Example: In this example, we want to modify the shift that Sam

Davidson, with ID number 07 works in from the afternoon to the
evening. This information is located in the employee table.
 UPDATE Employee
SET Shift= "Evening"
WHERE Id = 7;

Comments: Used to explain part of the statements or the query that is being
made. If placed in this format, it will not be processed along with the code.

Syntax:

One-line comment:
- place your comment
(code)
- place another comment
(code)
Multiline comment:
(code)
/*start the comment here
and finish it or add another here*/
(Code)
In-line comment:
(code) /*write a comment here*/

There you have it! These are the basic commands and queries that you
should know how to use in SQL to start managing your database. To ensure
that you have learned them and to practice your new skill, you will find in
the next section of this chapter a list of exercises you should apply to the
provided tables.

Exercises

Tables

Databases
"Class" Database

"Chemistry" table
"Teacher" table

Questions

1. Create a database to store the information of all the students in the

school and ask the program to show you all available databases.
2. Add a table to the "class" database with the name "active_students"
with the following information: first name, middle name, last name,
date of birth, age, and address.
3. Add a column to the teacher table to include their salary.
4. Select the grades from all the students who have chemistry.
5. Select all the information available in the "teacher" table.
6. Order all the students attending chemistry in alphabetical order.
 7. Insert in the teacher table a new art teacher with the name of Gary
Ford, ID number 1600.
8. Update the chemistry grade for Summer Scott from an F to a B-.
9. Delete Gabriela Santos as the Spanish teacher.
10. Select all the students who attend chemistry after 1st period and
before 6th period.

Answer Key

1.

CREATE DATABASE students;

SHOW DATABASES;

2.

CREATE TABLE active_students (

first_name CHAR,
middle_name CHAR,
last_name CHAR,
dob DATE,
age INT,
address CHAR
);

3.

ALTER TABLE employees

ADD salary MONEY;

4.

SELECT grade
FROM chemistry;
5.

SELECT * FROM teachers;

6.

SELECT *
FROM chemistry
ORDER BY last_name ASC;

7.

INSERT INTO teacher

VALUES (1600, 'Gary Ford', 'Art')

8.

UPDATE chemistry
SET grade = 'B-'
WHERE id = 9

9.

DELETE FROM teachers

WHERE name = 'Gabriela Santos'

10.

SELECT first_name, last name

FROM chemistry
WHERE period > 1 AND period < 6;

Did you get them right? If not, please feel encouraged to go back and look
for clarification in the explanation to see what you might have missed. If
you have gotten all the answers correct, congratulations! You are now ready
to move on to more elaborate SQL techniques, which will be seen in the
next chapter. If you are ready, read on!
 Take a Brief Pause

“Put knowledge where people trip over it.”

​— ​Carla O’Dell

At this stage of your reading journey, you’re steeped in knowledge about

the pillars upon which SQL stands—from the characteristics that make this
language so useful for databases to dialects, databases, and data types. I
hope you are feeling more confident about SQL and agree that it’s a far
more graspable language than its fame would indicate.
SQL certainly isn’t going anywhere. Despite being developed in the 1970s
as a means to retrieve information from relational databases, it is still the
pillar upon which modern data management and interpretation is based.
New languages may come and go, but SQL is currently the most widely
used and dependable. If you are keen on furthering your career in database
management, analysis, or development (to name just a few areas), it should
definitely be high on your priority list.
In this book, I aim to provide clear, concise explanations of the SQL
language and its many applications so that you can effectively cope with
issues that crop up when you create or manage databases. As intricate as
SQL can seem, even someone with little to no experience in languages can
retrieve and understand data and pose the right queries.
If this book inspires and motivates you to deepen your knowledge of SQL, I
hope you can provide hope and a sense of direction for other readers who
fear that SQL is too inherently complex to master.
By leaving a review of this book on Amazon, you can show others
where to find the information they seek in an easy-to-understand,
logical format.
Simply by telling them how this book has shaped your understanding of
SQL, you’ll help them discover that SQL isn’t the exclusive realm of
computer engineers or those who are already tech whizzes.
Thank you for your support. Let’s move on and immerse ourselves more
deeply into SQL techniques.
Chapter 5
Intermediate SQL Techniques

After you have mastered the basics of SQL, it is time to move forward and
learn some techniques that can be classified as "intermediate." While it is
essential to know how to create a database and tables and modify the
information available, SQL provides the user with many more features than
what you have seen so far. Some of these techniques include joining tables
and information, creating indexes, and aggregating information.
This chapter provides you with intermediate command and query
techniques you should know before advancing to the final step of the
process, which is learning advanced techniques in SQL. As you read the
content available in the following sections, you will see that SQL provides
features that will make managing and using RDBMS versatile and flexible,
adjusting to your business needs. As usual, once you are done with the
content, you will be provided with exercises to ensure you have retained the
knowledge and that you can put these techniques into practice.

Intermediate SQL Commands and Queries

Although learning more complex techniques of using SQL in RDBMS
might sound intimidating, you will notice that all the information that has
been provided to you so far will be a great support to help you develop this
skill. In this section, you are going to learn intermediate commands and
queries that can be used in all types of databases. To enhance the learning
process, as was done in the previous chapter, you will be provided with the
application, syntax, and example of how these can be used. To illustrate the
given examples, three tables will be provided to be used as reference.
"Quantity" table

"Destination" table
"Origin" Table
"Produced" table
Create index: Used to create an index on the table, making the information
easier to find.

Syntax:

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name);

Example: Create an index for the weight of products imported per

year.

CREATE INDEX weight

ON quantity (kilograms);

Drop index: Used to delete an index on the table.

Syntax:
 DROP INDEX index_name;

Example: Drop an index for the weight of products imported per year.

DROP INDEX weight;

Aggregate function: Works as an aggregate function that uses COUNT,

MIN, MAX, AVG, and SUM to group the results of a data set in a table.

Syntax:

SELECT function (column_name) AS

"new_column_name"
FROM table_name;

Example 1: Add the total weight of all the products imported

between the years of 2019 and 2022.

SELECT SUM (kilograms) AS "Total_Imported"

FROM quantity;

Example 2: Find the maximum product weight imported between

the years of 2019 and 2022.

SELECT MAX (kilograms) AS "Maximum_weight"

FROM quantity;

Count: Is an aggregate function used to count the number of times that a

record appears in a table.

Syntax:

SELECT COUNT (*) AS "new_column_name"

FROM table_name
 WHERE column_name = what_you_want_to_count;

Example: Count for how many years the product "maize" has been
imported.

SELECT COUNT (*) AS "Years_Importing"

FROM countries
WHERE product = 'Maize'

Distinct: Is a clause that can be added to your statement so that the only
records that are returned to you are those that are unique. It can be used as a
stand-alone clause or in association with "COUNT."

Syntax:

SELECT DISTINCT column_name

FROM table_name;

Example 1: Count how many distinct destination combinations are

in the table.

SELECT DISTINCT AS "Destination"

FROM destination;

Example 2: Count how many distinct products have been imported.

SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT product) AS

"Different_Products"
FROM destination;

Group by: Works as an aggregate function to group the data set into
different records by using functions.

Syntax:
 SELECT column
FUNCTION (column_name) AS new_column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE specify condition
GROUP BY category;

Example: Calculate the average, maximum, and minimum weights

per type of product imported since 2019.

SELECT product
MAX (weight) AS "Maximum_Quantity",
MIN (weight) AS "Minimum_Quantity",
AVG (weight) AS "Average_Quantity"
FROM quantity
WHERE year >= 2019
GROUP BY product;

Having: When you apply the having clause, you are using an extra filter to
sort the information that has been given to you in the GROUP BY feature. It
is usually used to substitute the WHERE clause, since they are not allowed
in this instance.

Syntax:

SELECT column
FUNCTION (column_name) AS new_column_name
FROM table_name
GROUP BY category
HAVING FUNCTION (column name) clause;

Example: Suppose you want to identify the years in which less than
10,000,000 kilos of products was bought. For this calculation, you
would use "HAVING" since you are going to apply a condition to
the quantity you want.
 SELECT year
SUM (weight) AS Total_imported
FROM quantity
GROUP BY year
HAVING SUM (weight) < 10000000;

Inner join: Is used when you want to combine rows from two tables with
identical column names, even if the data is different. An important detail to
notice is that this feature only supports one column. The common column
will be specified by using the "ON" clause. Only the rows with an exact
match will bring a result.

Syntax:

SELECT comma_separated_column_names
FROM table_1
INNER JOIN table_2 ON condition
table1.common_column = table_2 common_column;

Example: Suppose you want to join the information in the

"Destination" table with the data in the "Origin" table to create a
single table displaying both the origin and destination of products.
In this example, the "year" and "product" columns are common to
both tables.

/*Notice that for this code you will need to add the column names in the
tables because the columns have the same name*/

SELECT destination.year, destination.product,

origin.place AS origin, destination.countries
AS destination
FROM destination
INNER JOIN origin ON destination.year =
origin.year AND destination.product =
origin.product;
Left outer join: Known as a variety of the "outer join" function, will return
as a result from the query only the rows that do not match from the left table
and the rows that match from both tables. If there is no match, the value
will be filled in the table as NULL.

Syntax:

SELECT comma_separated_column_names
FROM table1
LEFT OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.common_column
= table2.common_column;

Example: Using LEFT OUTER JOIN, write the code for the
products that were produced in a specific year (e.g., 2021) but not
exported in that same year. Additionally, for each of these products,
determine the country where they were produced.

/*Since the columns have the same names, we will once again distinguish
between them as you can see in the code*/

--"p" is being used to identify the produced

table
-- "q" is being used to identify the quantity
table
SELECT p.Product, p.Year, p.Country
FROM Produced AS p
/* use LEFT OUTER JOIN to combine both tables
based on the similar columns*/
LEFT OUTER JOIN Quantity AS q ON p.Product =
q.Product AND p.Year = q.Year
-- use WHERE to filter the results for the
rows that do not match quantity
WHERE q.Kilograms IS NULL;
Once this query is performed, it will return the desired result: products
produced in a specific year but not exported in the same year, along with
their corresponding product, year, and country of production.
Right outer join: Also known as a variety of the "outer join" function, will
return as a result from the query only the rows that do not match from the
right table and the rows that match from both tables.

Syntax:

SELECT comma_separated_column_names
FROM table1
RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2 ON
table1.common_column = table2.common_column;

Example: Using the "Quantity" and "Produced" tables, retrieve the

products that were produced in a specific year (2021) but not
exported in that same year. Additionally, for each of these products,
determine the country where they were produced.

SELECT p.Product, p.Year, p.Country

FROM Quantity AS q
RIGHT OUTER JOIN Produced AS p
ON q.Product = p.Product AND q.Year = p.Year
WHERE q.Kilograms IS NULL;

Here, you might believe that there is no difference between what you have
seen in the LEFT and the RIGHT OUTER JOIN. However, you should note
that there is a significant difference between these techniques.
In the first example, using LEFT OUTER JOIN, all records from the
"Produced" table were preserved and added to the "Quantity" table the
matching records. If any of the records in the "Produced" table do not match
the ones in the "Quantity" table, they will have as an output the NULL
result.
On the other hand, when we consider the second example using the RIGHT
OUTER JOIN, all records from the "Quantity" table were used and included
the records that matched with those in the "Produced" table. All the records
in the "Quantity" table that do not have a match in the "Produced" table will
present NULL values in the columns from the "Produced" table.
Essentially speaking, this means that the difference between both
techniques is that in a LEFT OUTER JOIN, you keep all records from the
left table and matching records from the right table, while in a RIGHT
OUTER JOIN, you keep all records from the right table and matching
records from the left table. When you are carrying out a SQL query, your
choice between LEFT and RIGHT OUTER JOIN will depend on which
table's records you want to ensure are present in the result set, despite the
matches that might be presented in the output.
Full outer join: The other variety of the "outer join" function, will return as
a result of the query all the rows that do not match and those that match
from both tables.

Syntax:

SELECT comma_separated_column_names
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2 ON table1.common_column
= table2.common_column;

Example: Identify a combined list of products and their

corresponding quantities from the "Quantity" table and products
with their production years from the "Produced" table. The new
tables must show the product name, kilograms (from "Quantity"),
and production year (from "Produced") and all rows should be
included in the output.

SELECT Product, Kilograms, Year_produced

FROM Quantity
FULL OUTER JOIN Produced ON Quantity.Product =
Produced.Product;
Multiple join: As the name might suggest, when you use the "MULTIPLE
JOIN" query, you are going to combine two or more tables that have the
same information. This type of join will normally be used when you have
information that is used more than once in different tables.

Syntax:

SELECT comma_separated_column_names
FROM first_table_alias
JOIN second_table_alias ON
join_condition_for_second_table
JOIN third_table_alias ON
join_condition_for_third_table
-- Include as many JOIN clauses as needed
WHERE condition;

Example: You want to join all the information that is available in

the tables for the year 2021. Join the information about products,
their production, export, and destination countries for this year.

SELECT p.Product, o.Place AS "Production

Country", q.Kilograms AS "Exported Kilograms",
d.Countries AS "Destination Countries"
FROM Produced AS p
JOIN Quantity AS q ON p.Product = q.Product
AND p.Year = q.Year
JOIN Destination AS d ON p.Product = d.Product
AND p.Year = d.Year
JOIN Origin AS o ON p.Product = o.Product AND
p.Year = o.Year
WHERE p.Year = 2021;

Views: When the developer uses the "VIEWS" feature, they are using a
form of virtual table that shows the full table that is on the database or only
a partial image of what is there. There are three types of VIEW that can be
used in SQL: CREATE VIEW, DROP VIEW, and ALTER VIEW. This item
will explore these three uses subsequently for easier comprehension.

Syntax CREATE VIEW:

-- view_name will be the name you want to give

to the view
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2.....
– table_name is the table that will provide
the data
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Syntax DROP VIEW:

DROP VIEW view_name;

Syntax ALTER VIEW:

ALTER VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column1, column2.....
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Example: Suppose you only want to look into the information of

the exported quantity of product for the year 2021. You should use
the quantity table to obtain this information and then change it to
2020. You should create the view, alter it, and then drop it after you
are no longer using it.

CREATE VIEW
CREATE VIEW ExportedQuantity AS
SELECT Product, Kilograms
FROM Quantity
 WHERE Year = 2021;

ALTER VIEW
ALTER VIEW ExportedQuantity AS
SELECT Product, Kilograms
FROM Quantity
WHERE Year = 2020;

DROP VIEW
DROP VIEW ExportedQuantity;

UNION (ALL): Differently from the JOIN functions, which are used to
combine two different data sets belonging to different tables, SQL also has
the "UNION" function, which enables the user to combine the results from
different SELECT statements. In this case, there are options that can be
used: "UNION" and "UNION ALL." The main difference between both of
these queries is that in the UNION statement, all the duplicates will be
eliminated while in the UNION ALL statement, the duplicates will be
maintained.

Syntax UNION: SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table2;

UNION ALL: SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table1
UNION ALL
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table2;

Example: Suppose you want to create a list of all unique products

that were either exported (from "Quantity" table) or produced (from
 "Produced" table) in 2021, but also include products produced in
2021 according to the "Origin" table. For these cases, you would use
either UNION or UNION ALL, depending on if you wanted or not
the information to be duplicated.

UNION:
SELECT Product
FROM Quantity
WHERE Year = 2021
UNION
SELECT Product
FROM Produced
WHERE Year = 2021
UNION
SELECT Product
FROM Origin
WHERE Year = 2021;

UNION ALL:
SELECT Product
FROM Quantity
WHERE Year = 2021
UNION ALL
SELECT Product
FROM Produced
WHERE Year = 2021
UNION ALL
SELECT Product
FROM Origin
WHERE Year = 2021;

Minus (Except): When you use the "MINUS" operator (in PL/SQL) or
"EXCEPT" (in other databases), you are going to subtract the result of a
second table from a first table. This means that the statement will only bring
back to the user the rows that are unique between the selected table and the
table to which it is being compared.
 Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2, ... columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE condition
EXCEPT
SELECT column1, column2, ... columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Example: Let's use as an illustration of this technique a situation in

which you are going to find products that were produced in 2021
(from the "Produced" table) but were not exported in the same year
(from the "Quantity" table).

SELECT Product
FROM Produced
WHERE Year = 2021
EXCEPT
SELECT Product
FROM Quantity
WHERE Year = 2021;

A Few Words
As you learn new skills and techniques to use SQL in an RDBMS, you will
see that there are different solutions that can be applied to the same
problem. However, using the best approach will depend on how you
structure your question and what are the results you are looking for. To
ensure that you have the best results, here are a few things you should keep
in mind to make the best use of your database.

Be clear on what is the question that you want to answer.

Understand how the database and the data are structured.
 Identify if you have the appropriate data to answer the question
efficiently.
Study the queries you want to carry out and understand the rationale
before applying it.
Look into different ways that you can query the available data to
extract the most useful information possible.
Map your query possibilities according to the data you have.
Once you start applying queries, test as many variations as possible
to ensure you have a complete view of all the outcome possibilities.
Study new ways to apply SQL and learn different techniques.
Practice as much as you can!

By following these few tips, you will very likely enhance your abilities in
applying the SQL skills you have learned so far and those you will still
learn in this book. Now, to ensure that you have understood and retained
what was taught in this chapter, continue to the next section to practice your
intermediate SQL techniques with a few exercises.

Exercises
Here are 10 practice exercises to help you train your intermediate SQL
techniques. Please use the three available tables as references for the query
and command statement construction.

Tables

"Model" table
"Produced" table
"Origin" table
"Year" table
Questions

1. Create a view named "CarDetails" that combines model, color,

origin, and production year for cars produced in 2022.
2. Create a list of all unique models sold or produced in 2019.
3. Find the total number of cars sold for each model in 2021.
4. Calculate the average number of units produced in 2020 for each
model.
5. List models that sold more than 200 units in 2021.
6. Show the models and colors of cars that were sold, including those
not produced.
7. Find the models and colors of cars that were produced but not sold.
8. List all models and their production years, including those with no
sales data.
9. Retrieve the models, colors, and origins of cars sold in 2021.
10. Combine sales and production data for all models and colors.

Answer Key

1.

-- Create the view

CREATE VIEW CarDetails AS
SELECT m.Model, m.Color, o.Origin,
y.Year_Produced
FROM Model m
JOIN Origin o ON m.Model = o.Model AND m.Color
= o.Color
JOIN Year y ON m.Model = y.Model AND m.Color =
y.Color
WHERE y.Year_Produced = 2022;
-- Alter the view (change the year)
CREATE VIEW CarDetails AS
SELECT m.Model, m.Color, o.Origin,
y.Year_Produced
FROM Model m
JOIN Origin o ON m.Model = o.Model AND m.Color
= o.Color
JOIN Year y ON m.Model = y.Model AND m.Color =
y.Color
WHERE y.Year_Produced = 2021;
-- Drop the view
DROP VIEW CarDetails;

2.

-- Using UNION (to eliminate duplicates)

SELECT DISTINCT Model
FROM (
 SELECT Model FROM Model WHERE Model IN
(SELECT Model FROM Year WHERE Year_Produced =
2019)
UNION
SELECT Model FROM Produced WHERE Model IN
(SELECT Model FROM Year WHERE Year_Produced =
2019)
) AS UniqueModels;

3.

SELECT m.Model, SUM(m.Units_Sold) AS

Total_Sold
FROM Model m
JOIN Year y ON m.Model = y.Model AND m.Color =
y.Color
WHERE y.Year_Produced = 2021
GROUP BY m.Model;

4.

SELECT p.Model, AVG(p.Units_Produced) AS

Avg_Produced
FROM Produced p
JOIN Year y ON p.Model = y.Model AND p.Color =
y.Color
WHERE y.Year_Produced = 2020
GROUP BY p.Model;

5.

SELECT m.Model
FROM Model m
JOIN Year y ON m.Model = y.Model AND m.Color =
y.Color
 WHERE y.Year_Produced = 2021 AND m.Units_Sold
> 200;

6.

SELECT Model, Color FROM Model

UNION
SELECT Model, Color FROM Produced;

7.

SELECT p.Model, p.Color

FROM Produced p
LEFT JOIN Model m ON p.Model = m.Model AND
p.Color = m.Color
WHERE m.Units_Sold IS NULL;

8.

SELECT m.Model, y.Year_Produced

FROM Model m
FULL JOIN Year y ON m.Model = y.Model AND
m.Color = y.Color;

9.

SELECT m.Model, m.Color, o.Origin

FROM Model m
JOIN Origin o ON m.Model = o.Model AND m.Color
= o.Color
JOIN Year y ON m.Model = y.Model AND m.Color =
y.Color
WHERE y.Year_Produced = 2021;

10.
 SELECT m.Model, m.Color,
COALESCE(m.Units_Sold, 0) AS Units_Sold,
COALESCE(p.Units_Produced, 0) AS
Units_Produced
FROM Model m
LEFT JOIN Produced p ON m.Model = p.Model AND
m.Color = p.Color;

How did you do with these exercises? I can bet that you did really well!
Good job! Now that you have mastered the intermediate skills for querying
in SQL, it is time to take the last step and move on to the most challenging
use of the language. As you move on to the next chapter, you are going to
learn useful advanced techniques to apply to your database using SQL and
finally master its use.
Chapter 6
Advanced SQL Techniques

In the previous chapters, we have seen the basic and intermediate uses of
SQL in databases. However, when you are dealing with RDBMS that
contains too many tables, repeated information, or needs a more complex
analysis of the data, some of the techniques you have previously seen might
not be enough. For this reason, in this last chapter of SQL techniques, I
want to provide you with some of the advanced features of SQL that can be
applied to carry out analyses that require more processing or even dealing
with exceptions.
You will see that with the advanced techniques and concepts taught in this
chapter, you will be able to build complex projects to showcase your
abilities in your portfolio. Once you are done reading and learning the
concepts taught here, you will master manipulating and analyzing data
using SQL, which will be reinforced with the exercises in this chapter.
If you are ready to embark on this last part of the book before starting to
build your own project, join me in learning some concepts that will help
take you to the next level as a data analyst and help propel you in your
career.

Advanced SQL Techniques

To learn more about the advanced techniques in this section, you will notice
that there are a few more tables than you have seen in the previous parts of
this book. While these are just examples created using fictional data, when
you are working on your own project it will help you have an idea of what
should be collected to ensure that your capabilities are shown to their
utmost potential. Here are the tables you will need to use for these
exercises. (Please note that additional tables will be provided on some of
the exercises for optimal comprehension).
Employee information table

Project information table

Customer information table

Order information table

Product information table

Employees' skills table

Sales history table

Common table expressions (CTEs): These are tables that enable the user
to carry out complex queries without the need to create complex SQL
structures or subqueries in the code. One of the great advantages of these
tables is that it makes grouping data and carrying out calculations easier, as
well as joining information that is contained in different tables. Shin (2022)
compares these temporary tables to writing essays, in which you are going
to break the content into paragraphs so the information is easier to
understand.

Syntax:
 WITH cte_name (column1, column2, ...) AS (
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition -- Optional filter
GROUP BY -- Optional GROUP BY clause
HAVING-- Optional HAVING clause
ORDER BY -- Optional ORDER BY clause
)
SELECT column1, column2, …
FROM cte_name;

Example: Using the "Salaries" table, create a CTE to filter

employees with salaries above $50,000.

WITH HighSalaryEmployees AS (
SELECT FirstName, LastName
FROM Salaries
WHERE Salary > 50000
)
SELECT * FROM HighSalaryEmployees;

Recursive CTEs: This resource uses CTEs but, instead of referencing

another table, it references itself. This means it can be used to create a
hierarchy structure, for example, between employees and managers, with
the data contained within a table. Here, the key is to use the "UNION ALL"
feature to reference it to the original table from which you are extracting the
data.

Syntax:

WITH RecursiveCTE AS (
SELECT column1, column2, …
FROM table_name
WHERE condition -- Optional filter
UNION ALL
SELECT column1, column2, …
 FROM table_name
WHERE related_condition -- Optional filter
)
SELECT column1, column2, …
FROM RecursiveCTE;

Example: Suppose that you have the database table, and you want
to create an organogram to show the hierarchy structure of the
company. By using the table "employees," create a self-referencing
relationship that will represent the information.

WITH RecursiveCTE AS (
SELECT employee_id, first_name, last_name,
manager_id
FROM Employees
WHERE manager_id IS NULL
UNION ALL
SELECT E.employee_id, E.first_name,
E.last_name, E.manager_id
FROM Employees E
INNER JOIN RecursiveCTE R
ON E.manager_id = R.employee_id
)
SELECT employee_id, first_name, last_name,
manager_id
FROM
RecursiveCTE;

Join CTE: In this case, you are once again using CTEs, but using the
"JOIN" feature to associate different tables within the database. This can be
used when you want to join columns from different tables to create another
table without building complex subqueries to the code.

Syntax:

WITH JoinCTE AS (
SELECT column1, column2,
--Replace with the name of your first table or
subquery
FROM table1
--Replace with the name of your second table
or subquery
INNER JOIN table2
--Replace with the join condition that
connects the tables
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_nam
)
-- Additional SELECT statements and joins if
needed
--Replace with the columns you want to select
in your final result set
SELECT column1, column2,
--Reference the Join CTE you defined earlier
FROM
JoinCTE;

Example: Now, we want to create a Join CTE to retrieve

information about employees, their salaries, and positions using the
employees, salaries, and positions table.

WITH JoinCTE AS (
SELECT E.first_name, E.last_name, S.salary,
P.position
FROM Employees E
INNER JOIN Salaries S
ON E.employee_id = S.employee_id
INNER JOIN Positions P
ON E.employee_id = P.employee_id
)
SELECT first_name, last_name, salary, position
FROM
JoinCTE;
Creating roles: While this feature is relatively easy, not all users know how
to apply it. When you create a role within an RDBMS using SQL, you are
assigning privileges to a certain group or person to access a part of this
database. You will use this feature to maintain the structure and security of
the original table by determining if the access will be granted by using
"CONNECT," "RESOURCE," and, "DBA," depending on the permission
you want the person or group to have. This is a more sophisticated
alternative to granting or revoking privileges in a database that can become
a complex process when there are too many users accessing the same data.

Syntax:

CREATE ROLE role_name;

GRANT privilege_name TO role_name;

Example: Suppose you want to create a role to have access to "HR"

and grant them permission to access employee data. The code
should create an "HR" role and grant it permission to select data
from the "Employees" table.

CREATE ROLE HR;

GRANT SELECT ON Employees TO HR;

Triggers: The function of a trigger can be defined as establishing that a

certain action should be carried out when an event happens in the database.
These triggers could be applied in several different instances, such as
updating the date and time or the name and department of an employee if
there is a change in a connected table within the database. These triggers are
automatic, which means that they cannot be carried out manually. However,
much like updating the date of a database to "today" so it matches the date
of when you open it, these transactions cannot be rolled back or canceled
after a trigger has been invoked.

Syntax:
 CREATE TRIGGER trigger_name
ON table_name
FOR [INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE]
AS
BEGIN
-- Enter trigger logic here
END;

Example: Suppose you want to create a trigger in the employee

information table. This trigger should automatically update the
"LastModified" timestamp whenever a record in the table is
updated.

CREATE TRIGGER UpdateTimestamp

ON EmployeeInformation
FOR UPDATE
AS
BEGIN
UPDATE EmployeeInformation
SET LastModified = GETDATE()
WHERE EmployeeID IN (SELECT EmployeeID FROM
inserted);
END;

Transaction layers: When you establish a transaction layer in a database,

this means that you will write a code that will carry out a specific task. This,
or these, tasks, when happening, will have two results: The first is that the
database will become unavailable while it is being carried out, and the
second is that with the "COMMIT" command, once the transaction is
finished, the database will be available again. It is important to note that, as
we have seen previously, this command of applying transaction layers will
ensure that the database maintains its ACID characteristics.

Syntax:

BEGIN TRANSACTION;
 -- Insert here the SQL statements within the
transaction
COMMIT;

Example: Suppose you have a database that stores employee

information, and you need to perform two operations atomically:
updating an employee's salary in the "Salaries" table and recording
the transaction in the "TransactionLog" table.

BEGIN TRANSACTION;
-- Step 1: Update the employee's salary in the
"Salaries" table
UPDATE Salaries
SET Salary = 60000
WHERE FirstName = 'Gary' AND LastName =
'Oleman';
-- Step 2: Insert a log entry in the
"TransactionLog" table
INSERT INTO TransactionLog (EmployeeID,
TransactionType, TransactionDate)
VALUES ( (SELECT EmployeeID FROM Employees
WHERE FirstName = 'Gary' AND LastName =
'Oleman'), 'Salary Update',
GETDATE() );
-- If any step fails, the entire transaction
will be rolled back
COMMIT;

Distributed transactions: Similarly to a transaction you have just read

about, when you carry out distributed transactions you are going to have the
action be carried out among two or more different databases. While in the
previous example, the situation will be applied within one RDBMS, in this
case, you are "distributing" the action among other databases. In the final
part of the code, you will notice that it is able to "COMMIT" the changes if
there is no error or the possibility to "ROLLBACK" if any errors are
identified.
Syntax:

-- Begin distributed transaction

BEGIN DISTRIBUTED TRANSACTION;
-- SQL statements for distributed operations
-- Commit or Rollback the distributed
transaction
COMMIT DISTRIBUTED TRANSACTION;
-- or ROLLBACK DISTRIBUTED TRANSACTION;

Example: For this example, you are not going to use the tables
provided because we are talking about different databases.
Therefore, in this situation, we will use hypothetical databases
("Database A" and "Database B") to illustrate what the syntax will
be. The idea here is to transfer the data between them in a
distributed transaction.

BEGIN DISTRIBUTED TRANSACTION;

INSERT INTO DatabaseA.dbo.TableA (column1,
column2)
VALUES ('Value1', 'Value2');
INSERT INTO DatabaseB.dbo.TableB (column3,
column4)
VALUES ('Value3', 'Value4');
COMMIT DISTRIBUTED TRANSACTION;

Temporary functions: As the name suggests, when you are carrying out a
temporary function, you are asking the database to bring you a query result
that will later be discarded and does not need to be stored. This makes the
query that is being carried out simpler and easier to read since the code is
cleaner, and can be broken down into parts.

Syntax:

CREATE TEMPORARY FUNCTION

 function_name (parameter1 data_type,
parameter2 data_type)
RETURNS return_data_type
BEGIN
END;

Example: Suppose you would like to know the average salary of a

certain team or department, but that this information does not need
to be stored.

CREATE TEMPORARY FUNCTION

CalculateAvgSalary(department_id INT)
RETURNS DECIMAL(10, 2)
BEGIN
DECLARE avg_salary DECIMAL(10, 2);
SELECT AVG(salary) INTO avg_salary
FROM Salaries
WHERE department_id = department_id;
RETURN avg_salary;
END;

Pivoting data using case when: According to Shin (2022), although

"CASE WHEN" is a common function in SQL, few people know that this
function can be used to pivot data in tables as well. This means that when
you apply these statements, you will be able to divide the information and
have a better visualization of the data if needed.

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2,

CASE
WHEN condition1 THEN result1
WHEN condition2 THEN result2
ELSE result3
END AS new_column
FROM table_name;
 Example: Suppose you want to rank the employees based on how
much they earn. You will need to create a new table that will
determine if their salary is within the ranges of low, medium, and
high.

SELECT first_name, last_name, salary,

CASE
WHEN salary < 30000 THEN 'Low'
WHEN salary >= 30000 AND salary < 60000 THEN
'Medium'
ELSE 'High'
END AS salary_category
FROM Salaries;

Except versus not in: Many SQL developers confuse both of these
concepts because they are so similar. While they are not wrong, since they
both function in almost the same way, the main difference between using
the "EXCEPT" code and the one for "NOT IN" is that in the first the
duplicates will be filtered from the results, something that will not happen if
you are using the latter. One important remark that should be made here is
that when you use EXCEPT, the number of columns in the tables should be
the same to enable comparing more than one column, in NOT IN, you will
be able to compare only one column at a time.

Syntax (except):

SELECT column1, column2

FROM table1
EXCEPT
SELECT column3, column4
FROM table2;

Syntax (not in):SELECT column1, column2

FROM table1
 WHERE (column1, column2) NOT IN (SELECT
column1, column2 FROM table2);

Example: Suppose you want to carry out a query to find the

information to regain employees who have not received any
promotions by using tables "employees" and "promotions." Either
query form could be used, although they would be structured
differently.

-- Using EXCEPT
SELECT first_name, last_name
FROM employees
EXCEPT
SELECT first_name, last_name
FROM promotions;
-- Using NOT IN
SELECT first_name, last_name
FROM employees
WHERE (first_name, last_name) NOT IN (SELECT
first_name, last_name FROM promotions);

Self joins: The concept of being able to join a table with itself, as the name
expresses, might be confusing to some users. This is because it theoretically
would not make sense to join information in a table with something it
already contains. However, if you think about a table in which there are
many columns and rows with data, this might be an alternative to having a
better view of specific information it contains and is not immediately
visible.

Syntax:

SELECT t1.column_name, t2.column_name

FROM table_name t1
INNER JOIN table_name t2 ON t1.related_column
= t2.related_column;
 Example: Use the "employees" table to find pairs of employees
who share the same department.

SELECT e1.first_name, e1.last_name,

e2.first_name, e2.last_name
FROM Employees e1
INNER JOIN Employees e2 ON e1.department =
e2.department
WHERE e1.employee_id < e2.employee_id;

Row number and dense rank: One of the most common queries carried
out in database tables is ranking information according to certain criteria.
While the concept of "ranking" information is well understood, there are
variations to it, such as assigning characteristics to a row and applying a
dense rank to order the information. The difference between these is that
while the dense rank does not contemplate duplicate information, when you
apply the rank duplicates are considered, and in the row number they are
assigned specific numbers according to the data used.
Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2,

RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY partition_column
ORDER BY order_column) AS rank_result,
DENSE_RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY
partition_column ORDER BY order_column) AS
dense_rank_result,
ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION BY
partition_column ORDER BY order_column) AS
row_number_result
FROM table_name;

Example: Create an employee list by ranking them according to the

salaries.
 SELECT first_name, last_name, department,
salary,
RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY department ORDER BY
salary DESC) AS rank_result,
DENSE_RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY department
ORDER BY salary DESC) AS dense_rank_result,
ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION BY department
ORDER BY salary DESC) AS row_number_result
FROM Employees;

Calculating delta values: This is a calculation code used for dealing

usually with large numbers and identifying the delta variation between two
or more data sources.

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2,

column_value - LAG(column_value) OVER (ORDER
BY order_column) AS delta
FROM table_name;

Example: For this example, we are not going to use any of the
previously seen tables. You are going to imagine that you want to
analyze the change in the stock prices in a specific table (Stock
Prices). The query should create a list of the stock process and
changes that it has undergone, and reflect the values of the price
change.

SELECT date, stock_price,

stock_price - LAG(stock_price) OVER (ORDER BY
date) AS price_change
FROM StockPrices;

Calculating running totals: As the name suggests, this function will bring
you the cumulative results of a specific column by considering all the
information it contains. For example, you can have a column with the
monthly revenue of a company, and you will create a running total column
for which these values will be added on a monthly basis to bring a total that
considers the previous months as well.

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2,

SUM(column_value) OVER (ORDER BY order_column)
AS running_total
FROM table_name;

Example: Calculate what is the total revenue for a specific period

from the "sales" table.

SELECT date, revenue,

SUM(revenue) OVER (ORDER BY date) AS
cumulative_revenue
FROM Sales;

Repeated and nested data: SQL has two advanced functions that allow
users to join and separate data. When you use the "NESTED" function, you
are going to aggregate the information from two different tables (in the
same column or not), while there is also the UNNEST function, that will
divide the information, for the cases in which you have more than one
information in a column. At the same time, with the repeated function, you
will be able to duplicate information to one or more columns that need to
have the same information.

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2,

FROM
`project_id.dataset_id._table_id`,
 UNNEST(your_nested_field) AS
unnested_field_alias
WHERE condition1 AND condition2
ORDER BY column1, column2,
LIMIT limit_value;

Example: Suppose the employee skills table was structured as

below, and you wanted to create a table in which the separate skills
would be divided each into a different row.

SELECT EmployeeID, SkillName

FROM
`your_project.your_dataset.employee_skills`,
UNNEST(Skills) AS SkillName
WHERE condition1
ORDER BY EmployeeID, SkillName
LIMIT limit_value;

String functions: These are advanced SQL queries that can be used to
manage data with STRING content. Here, there is no specific syntax to be
applied because it will depend on which technique you are going to apply.
These can include features such as "LOWER," "CONCAT," and others. You
can apply these to one or more tables, columns, and databases. As a
refresher, here is a list of some string functions that can be applied to SQL:
 Example: To generate a report, unite the first and last names of the
employees that are in different columns to create a list with their full
names.

SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS

full_name
FROM Employees;

Subqueries: Similarly to the string functions, these will depend on the

subqueries you want to carry out and the items you want to find. A subquery
is a query that is carried out with a query. While they are constantly used to
make the database bring back the information you need, having too many of
these might make the processing time slower and the query less efficient. It
will also make the code harder to read and, thus, should be applied with
caution. To carry out a subquery, you can use the different statements and
functions listed below:

Example: Use the tables given as an example to find the average

salary of all the IT team members.

SELECT department, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM Employees
 WHERE department = 'IT';

Date time functions: As the name suggests, date time functions will be
applied to carry out queries that involve data within the database that have
these characteristics. Much like the previous functions we have seen there is
no specific syntax that can be used. It will depend on the type of
information you want to express and if they are composed of time, date, and
time or date. Can be used with different statements and functions,
including:
Example: Use the employees' table to calculate the age of all the
company's employees.

SELECT first_name, last_name, birthdate,

DATEDIFF(YEAR, birthdate, GETDATE()) AS age
FROM Employees;
Since in this chapter we have talked about advanced SQL queries, one of
the topics that should be mentioned before you start the exercises and build
your own project is the performance of the analysis you will carry out.
Performance is an essential component of dealing with SQL databases
because it can significantly impact the time and quality of the information
you are going to receive. Therefore, in the next section, you are going to
learn some tips and tricks to enhance the database and query performance.

Optimizing Performance
When you are dealing with a database, it is always important to take into
consideration the size of the tables you are going to apply the query to and
what you are going to select for the analysis to take place. Several factors
impact the database performance and can lead to slower processing times
and more difficulty in obtaining the information you want within an
adequate time. Here are the most common factors that affect database
performance:

The database has too many tables.

The size of the table you are using (if it contains too much data, for
example).
Hardware limitations.
Software updates.
Running multiple queries at the same time.
Multiple users running queries simultaneously.
Using too many subqueries and aggregations.
Complex querying that requires more processing rather than using
simple code.
Lack of indexes.
Having too many "join" commands in a table.
Using too many or too complicated "join" commands at a time.
Selecting too much information to carry out the query (such as using
SELECT * when you only want to access a few columns).

If you want to ensure that you have optimal performance and that the
queries are as efficient as possible, here are some items you should consider
when writing code or managing tables:

Select for the query only the data you are going to use (the specific
columns and items you want it to consider).
Reduce the size of the table(s) or optimize their information
structure.
Monitor performance by using the code show_time_to_run() to
identify how long it will take a query to run.
Avoid using subqueries with too many statements or conditions.
Ensure that all the data in the table has the correct data type.
Invest in database design to ensure that the structure that it will be
built with will provide optimal processing times.
Establish a plan to run the queries if you are using more than one.
Divide the processing into smaller sets of data to make the
processing more efficient.

By using these techniques when managing the database for queries, it is

likely that you will achieve a better processing time. You should remember
that the more statements your code has, the more complicated it will be, and
it is likely that the query will take more time to process. If you apply these
simple best practices to your code, you will certainly achieve the results you
desire.

Exercises

Tables

Destinations
Clients

Flights
Employees

Bookings
Questions

1. Create a new database role named "TravelAgents" and grant

SELECT privileges on the "Clients" and "Flights" tables to this role.
2. Create a trigger that automatically updates the "BookingDate" to the
current date when a new booking is added to the "Bookings" table.
3. Set in place a transaction layer that inserts a new client into the
"Clients" table and a corresponding booking into the "Bookings"
table. Ensure that both insertions are successful or rolled back
together.
4. Implement a distributed transaction that updates the "Salary" of an
employee in the "Employees" table and deducts the corresponding
amount from the "TotalAmount" in the 'Bookings' table for the same
client.
5. Write a query using CTE to retrieve the client names and the
number of bookings they have made.
6. Write a query to pivot data that displays the total number of
bookings for each status ("Confirmed" and "Pending") separately.
7. Find clients who have not made bookings using both the EXCEPT
and NOT IN operators.
8. Calculate the running total of the "TotalAmount" in the "Bookings"
table for each client, ordered by booking date.
9. Write a query to retrieve the names of clients who have booked
flights, along with the destination names of those flights.
10. Create a list of clients with email addresses starting with "michael."
11. Find the clients who have made the highest number of bookings.
12. Obtain a list of flights that will depart after September 1, 2023, and
display the mentioned dates in a human-readable format.

Answer Key

1.

CREATE ROLE TravelAgents;

GRANT SELECT ON Clients TO TravelAgents;
GRANT SELECT ON Flights TO TravelAgents;
2.

CREATE TRIGGER update_booking_date_trigger

BEFORE INSERT ON Bookings
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
SET NEW.BookingDate = CURRENT_DATE;
END;

3.

BEGIN;
SAVEPOINT savepoint1;
INSERT INTO Clients (FirstName, LastName,
Email, Phone)
VALUES ('Sophie, 'Lake',
'[email protected]', '+1234567890');
INSERT INTO Bookings (ClientID, FlightID,
BookingDate, Status)
VALUES
(currval(pg_get_serial_sequence('Clients',
'ClientID')), 501, CURRENT_DATE, 'Confirmed');
COMMIT;

4.

BEGIN;
UPDATE Employees
SET Salary = Salary + 5000
WHERE EmployeeID = 201;
UPDATE Bookings
SET Status = 'Confirmed'
WHERE BookingID = 301;
COMMIT;

5.
 WITH ClientBookings AS (
SELECT c.FirstName, c.LastName,
COUNT(b.BookingID) AS BookingCount
FROM Clients c
LEFT JOIN Bookings b ON c.ClientID =
b.ClientID
GROUP BY c.FirstName, c.LastName
)
SELECT * FROM ClientBookings;

6.

SELECT
COUNT(CASE WHEN Status = 'Confirmed' THEN 1
ELSE NULL END) AS ConfirmedCount,
COUNT(CASE WHEN Status = 'Pending' THEN 1 ELSE
NULL END) AS PendingCount
FROM Bookings;

7.

– Using EXCEPT
SELECT FirstName, LastName
FROM Clients
EXCEPT
SELECT c.FirstName, c.LastName
FROM Clients c
JOIN Bookings b ON c.ClientID = b.ClientID;ç
-- Using NOT IN
SELECT FirstName, LastName
FROM

8.

SELECT ClientID, BookingDate,

 SUM(TotalAmount) OVER (PARTITION BY ClientID
ORDER BY BookingDate) AS RunningTotal
FROM Bookings
ORDER BY ClientID, BookingDate;

9.

SELECT FirstName || ' ' || LastName AS

ClientName,
ARRAY_AGG(
STRUCT(
DestinationName AS DestinationName,
DepartureDate AS DepartureDate,
ReturnDate AS ReturnDate
)
) AS BookedDestinations
FROM Clients
LEFT JOIN Bookings ON Clients.ClientID =
Bookings.ClientID
LEFT JOIN Flights ON Bookings.FlightID =
Flights.FlightID
WHERE Bookings.ClientID IS NOT NULL
GROUP BY Clients.ClientID, Clients.FirstName,
Clients.LastName;

10.

SELECT FirstName, LastName, Email

FROM Clients
WHERE LOWER(Email) LIKE 'michael%';

11.

SELECT FirstName, LastName, Email

FROM Clients
WHERE ClientID = (
 SELECT ClientID
FROM Bookings
GROUP BY ClientID
ORDER BY COUNT(*) DESC
LIMIT 1
);

12.

SELECT FlightID, DestinationID,

TO_DATE(DepartureDate) AS DepartureDate
FROM Flights
WHERE DepartureDate > '2023-09-01';

How did you do? Remember that you should use this book as a guide, and it
should help you identify potential examples in case you want to practice
any additional queries. Continuously testing your skills and working on
different techniques to manage data will be an incredible asset, especially
when you need to answer interview questions. You can create your own
questions and business problems to determine what the skills you would
like to focus on are and even look online for potential examples. As a matter
of fact, you should know that if you do not yet have the hardware capacity
to download all the data and programs you will need, there are several
websites that can help you practice online. These include LeetCode, Hacker
Rank, DataLemur, SQLZoo, and SQLPad for practicing interview questions
for SQL.
Chapter 7
Putting It All Together

Are you excited to start putting together your one project? I can bet you are!
You have learned so far the most important SQL techniques, and they will
give you the ability and skills to start building your own projects and
manage databases you might have to deal with at work. If your goal is to
use the knowledge you have acquired to change professions, then you are
also on a great path to do so.
In this chapter, you are going to see some of the areas and industries that
might require this knowledge and how it can be applied. In addition to this,
you will also learn more about the profession of a data analyst. If you are
ready to uncover the final details about this profession and start building
your own project, join me in reading the last chapter of this book that will
prepare you for the market.

Finding Your Niche

All of the techniques you have seen so far can be used by a professional
interested in data analytics. According to Simplilearn (2023b), data
analytics is "the process of cleaning, analyzing, interpreting, and displaying
data using different approaches and business intelligence tools is known as
data analysis. Data analysis tools assist you in uncovering key insights that
lead to better informed and successful decision-making." This data will be
used and transformed into visual material, explanations, and statistics that
can be interpreted by a company's shareholders to aid in the decision-
making process.
However, a data analyst does more than just managing and querying the
database or inputting information into it. They are also responsible for their
maintenance, organization, correcting incorrect data, and ensuring that the
results are trustworthy for patterns, predictions, and trends to be discovered.
The data analyst will also be in charge of ensuring that the query code is
correct to obtain the desired result and to grant or restrict permission to
other people or groups.
The analysis can vary according to the purpose for which it will be used.
They could, for example, make a statistical analysis to understand the
reasons for a certain problem or perform a predictive analysis to identify
trends. Other types of analysis include transforming text into usable data in
a database, called text analysis, run diagnostics on why a certain event is
happening and its causes in the diagnostic analysis, or even help a
company's management decide the best course of action by performing a
prescriptive analysis.
One of the ways to determine in which field you would like to work is to
build some projects of your own. By practicing with the data sets available
in repositories and in several online sources, you will be able to look into
the different manners of managing data and identifying the one that fits
your interests the best. Additionally, working on these projects will help you
build a steady portfolio to showcase your skills and abilities with SQL.
Many companies ask for this information to analyze the candidate and how
they put their rationale into action.

Why Do You Need a Portfolio?

While you might be new to data analytics and, therefore, you have no
specific work experience to account for, this does not mean that you cannot
create a portfolio. In fact, it is so common to have professionals create and
work on personal projects on their own time that there are platforms that
host these publicly for anyone who wants to see your work. The two main
places to have your project posted and attract the attention of potential
recruiters in the market are Kaggle and GitHub.
Both of these websites have an incredibly large community that will give
you visibility and help you in case you need troubleshooting for a specific
subject. In addition to this, you should not forget the ability of social media.
In this case, the specific reference is LinkedIn, where you will be able not
to only post a link to your online projects, but also post presentations,
images, and other results of the data analysis project you are working on.
The most important part of your portfolio is certainly the code and the skills
you demonstrate, but there are also a few details that should not be
forgotten. These skills include not only the code you are using to query the
database, but also your ability to clean the data, obtain data from online
sources, identify a clear problem you are trying to solve, the way you
communicate the results, and the tools you are using to carry out all these
processes. To demonstrate these abilities, remember that most resources are
acceptable: video, screenshots, demonstrations, step-by-step guides, and
other solutions you might think are appropriate.
You must remember that the more information you have on the project, the
more details the recruiter will have on your skills. This means you should
focus on the project and the code rather than your previous work
experiences if they are not relevant or too much detail on your personal
information. One of the great things about the internet is that you can look
at other developers' portfolios and information to see what they did and
didn't do to guide you on developing ours.
Of course, it should also be mentioned that you should only include projects
that show the best of your abilities. If you are unsure about posting
something, you can ask someone from the community to take a look and
give their opinion on what needs work and what can be improved. If you
are just starting to build your portfolio, remember to look into subjects that
interest you. This way, you will be motivated to carry out the analysis and
the passion will be conveyed to those looking at the project.
Determining the topic of your first project and the ones to come is not as
difficult as it seems. You might find out that it is more difficult to find
quality and reliable data than the analysis itself. For this reason, it is
important that you look into the raw data before starting and identify if it
contains all the information you need to answer the question you are
working on. After this is done, all you will need to do is prepare the data, so
you can start querying. Some ideas you can explore for this purpose include
analyzing:

statistics for your favorite sports team

metrics on social media for your favorite band
information on books you have read and their details
sales and revenue data for a specific company or market
numbers and trends for the stock market
information regarding the students in your class
government-released data

There are several data set sources on the internet that you can choose from,
varying from official websites (government, police, etc.) to fictional
databases provided by platforms such as Kaggle, which are used just for
showcasing skills. Another good source to obtain this information are the
online repositories that provide the data without cost for users who are
learning and practicing. You can also create your own data set by creating a
table with data from different sources.
Regardless of the data set you are going to use or the business problem you
are going to solve, the essential matter is to put to use code that will show
you can manage simple, intermediate, and advanced SQL techniques. This
being said, let's move on to the exciting part, in which you are going to
learn how to build your own project!

Crafting Your Portfolio Project

Although GitHub and Kaggle were previously mentioned as platforms to
host your portfolio, there are several others that can also be used for this
purpose. These include SQLZoo, LeetCode, DataLemur, SQLPad, Mode,
and DataCamp Workspace. Determining the best one for your projects will
depend on the job you are pursuing and the focus you want to give it. One
of the best ways to determine if the online platform is the best for you is to
scroll through some projects and see what is being posted and the language
being used as well as the data set availability for uses if it is paid, and what
the advantages it presents are.
 Creating Your Project in Kaggle

For this project example, I am going to use Kaggle and provide you with
the step-by-step process of starting your project. Are you ready?
The first thing you will need to do is identify the subject of the project you
are going to work on. Although not crucial since you are just starting to use
and get familiarized with SQL, you should establish the dialect you want to
use, as this will make a difference when establishing the data types. Next,
you need to identify the question you are going to answer, the information
you need to carry out this analysis, and what is the objective of the project.
Essentially speaking, you want to answer the questions: What question am I
trying to answer? or, What problem am I trying to solve?
Once you have done this, you need to find a data set that can be applied to
the project and analyzed accordingly. In Kaggle, under the "datasets" tab,
you will find several different options to choose from. They are all
separated by themes and applications, including those for computer science
and education divided into sports, health, finance, and data on social issues.
You can use the search bar to find more information.
Next, you will establish the metrics and goals you are trying to achieve and
what is the data you need to find to do this. You will then collect and clean
the data before starting to work with it. Once this is done, all that is left is to
analyze it, reach the conclusions that will answer your answer, and place the
results in a visual manner that will be understandable to those looking at it.
Here is a quick overview of the process:

Step 1: Define your goals and the question you need to answer.
Step 2: Determine how to measure set goals.
Step 3: Collect your data.
Step 4: Clean the data.
Step 5: Analyze your data by using the SQL techniques you have
learned.
Step 6: Interpret results and draw conclusions.
This process will usually be the standard applied to most of the matters that
require a data analysis process. There will eventually be some differences
according to the database used and the source for the collected data.
However, if you follow the process that has been shown herein, you will
certainly achieve the results you are looking for.
 Spread the Word

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Conclusion

Congratulations on making it to the end of this guide! With the information

you have learned in this book, you are now able to carry out queries that
range from the simplest to the most complex in RDBMS using SQL. In
addition to this, know all the steps and possibilities for creating your own
project with SQL and start showcasing everything you know.
In this book, you read about the basics concerning data, databases, and
ANSI/SQL and the different dialects that can be used with the most popular
database providers. You were taught about the basics of SQL such as its
syntax, data types, and even comparison symbols that can be used in your
code. Understanding this information is essential to ensure that your
journey in learning SQL has the most benefits.
You have also seen some of the differences between ANSI/SQL, MySQL,
PL/SQL, PL/pgSQL, and T-SQL. Remember that while you will likely learn
in more depth one of these dialects, it will be essential to have a general
idea of each of them in case you are exposed to databases using a dialect
different from what you are used to. If you have any donuts, remember that
at the end of Chapter 3, there are three tables that contain most of the data
types and the languages that support them. Use this information to your
advantage.
Now that you are able to create your own projects and manage them with
everything you have learned, the keyword will be: practice! Even if you are
not currently using this in your workplace at the moment, the more you
practice, the better you will be at writing queries. In addition to this,
remember that this will also enable you to completely change professional
directions if you so wish to. Data analysts are in high demand in the market
and companies are always looking for people who can provide efficient and
applicable data analysis.
Lastly, I wish you the best of luck in your new journey and I hope you feel
motivated to continue learning and understanding SQL techniques to help
you manage RDBMS you work with and create efficiently. Remember to
use this as a reference guide if you need to! The information you have here
can be applied to different situations and is only the beginning of the path
you will trail in this area.
If you feel this book has somehow helped you, please leave a review, so
other readers can know what to expect and the information available herein.
Enjoy your new skills and happy SQLing!
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