Biomolecules

Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in the maintenance
and metabolic processes of living organisms.

There are four major classes of Biomolecules – Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic acids and
Lipids.

Properties and applications of carbohydrates

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that serve as essential macronutrients and
biomolecules in living organisms. They consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, typically
in a ratio of 1:2:1, respectively. The term "carbohydrate" chemical formula Cn(H2O)n.

Properties of Carbohydrates
Properties Monosaccharaides Polysaccharides
Chemical composition CnH2nOn (C6H10O5)n
Solubility Soluble in water Insoluble in water & soluble
in organic solvents
They are hydrophilic in They are hydrophobic in
nature. nature
Crystallization They forms crystals They do not form crystals on
desiccation.
Molecular Weight They are low molecular They are high molecular
weight weight
Taste They are taste They are taste less
Colour They are colour less They are colour less
Stored as Glycogen in animal.
Stored as starch in plants.
State They are solid at room They are solid at room
temperature. temperature.
Reducing sugar ( Free -CHO, Non reducing sugar ( NO free
C=O, leads to reduction) –CHO, C=O,)
Cellulose has a high tensile strength (like steel) resulting from an alternate arrangement of
glucose molecules in its structure.

Functions
 They are the energy sources.
 Carbohydrates are stored in the body as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
 When energy demand increases, glycogen is broken down into glucose and maintaining blood
glucose level.
 Carbohydrates on cell surfaces play a crucial role in cell recognition and communication.
 They form structural and protective components,(cell wall of plants(Cellulose) and Structural
elements in the cell walls of bacteria (peptidoglycan or murein)).
 Carbohydrates get associated with lipids and proteins to form surface antigens, receptor
molecules, vitamins, and antibiotics.
 Formation of the structural framework of RNA and DNA (ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic
acid).

PROTIENS
Properties
 They are generally colourless
 They are taste less.
 They are homogeneous.
 They are Dexorotatory.
 They are crystalline.
 They have definite shape & size.
 They have three dimension structure.
 They are high molecular weight
 Surface hydrophobicity.
Functions
Protiens as antibodies
 Proteins as enzymes. Ex: Amylase help in breaking of large starch molecules.
 Proteins as hormones. Ex: Insulin convert excess glucose molecule into glycogen.
 Proteins as energy sources
 Proteins as transportation of O2 & CO2. Ex Hemoglobin. (Which carry oxygen from lungs lungs
to different parts of body. CO2 from different parts of body to lungs).
 Proteins as structural materials. Ex: nails are made from a protein known as keratin, unlike
bones, which are made mostly of collagen. Keratin protects nails from damage by making them
strong and resilient. Keratin forms the cells of your hair and skin,
 Storage proteins : Storage proteins serve as biological reserves of metal ions and amino acids,
used by organisms. They are found in plant seeds, egg whites, and milk. Ferritin is an example of
a storage protein that stores iron.
 Proteins as antibodies.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Nucleic acids are the vital components of all living organisms, which store and transmit genetic
information.
 Properties
 Nucleic acids sparingly soluble in water.
 Capable of forming hydrogen bond. ( Adenine double bond with Thymine, Guanine triple bond
with Cytosine). Which gives stability in DNA.
 Acidic Nature: Nucleic acids are acidic molecules due to the presence of phosphate groups in
their structure.
 Under extreme PH & Temperature, nucleic acid is completely hydrolyzed into bases, ribose or
deoxyribose and phosphoric acid.
 Viscosity: DNA's aqueous solution highly viscous.
 Polarity: Nucleic acids exhibit polarity. (This polarity arises from the orientation of the sugar-
phosphate backbone, where the5' end contains a phosphate group attached to the 5' carbon of the
sugar molecule, andthe 3' end terminates with a hydroxyl group on the 3' carbon.)
Functions:
 It is involved in Cell creation.
 It involved in storage & processing of genetic information.
 It plays a main role in protein synthesis.
 Energy storage: ATP molecules store and transfer energy generated during cellular
metabolism & providing the necessary energy for cellular activities.
 Catalysis: Ribozymes exhibit catalytic in biochemical reactions with in the cell
 Chemical Signal: Certain nucleic acids, such as small non-coding RNAs, are involved in
chemical signalling pathways within cells
 Immune Response: Nucleic acids, both DNA and RNA, can trigger immune responses when
recognized as foreign molecules by the immune system.

HORMONES

Hormones are chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body by carrying messages
through your blood to your organs,skin, muscles and other tissues.
Produced by endocrine glands or tissues in the body that regulate various physiological processes
and maintain homeostasis.

Gland Hormone Function

Pituitary Growth hormone It regulate the growth of an organism.

Thyroid Thyroxine Control the metabolism rates

Pancreas Insulin Control glucose level in blood

Pancreas Glucogon Control glucose level in blood
Testes Testosterone Control growth & development of
male reproductive system
Ovaries Estrogen Control growth & development of
female reproductive system
Adrenal Adrenalin Takes care of emergency functions of
glands the body during fear, fight, and flight.
Oxytocine Pituitary Helps with lactation, Child birth &
Mother child bonding
Properties:
 They have low molecular weight.
 Hormones always act in low concentration.

 They are soluble in water so that they can be transported via blood.

 The importance of hormones is that they are non-antigenic.

 Hormonal activities are not hereditary.
 Hormones are secreted from their source (an endocrine glad) directly into the blood.
 Hormones produced in one species usually show similar influence in other species.
 Their excess (hypersecretion) or deficiency (hyposecretion), both may lead to serious health
issue.
 Hormones are not stored in the body and are excreted from the body.
 They act on target organs or cells usually away from the source.
 They regulate the physiological processes by chemical means.
ENZYMES
Enzymes can be defined as biological polymers that catalyze biochemical reactions.”
Properties
 They catalyze biochemical reactions in a cell.
 They are colloidal molecules.
 Enzymes do not start a reaction. However, they help in acceleration.
 Enzymes affect the rate of biochemical reaction.
 Enzymes are specific in action.
 Enzymatic activity decreases with increase in temperature.
 They show maximum activity at an optimum pH of 6 – 8.
 The velocity of enzyme increases with an increase in substrate concentration and then, ultimately
reaches maximum velocity.
 Enzymes are very unstable compounds mostly soluble in water
Functions:

 Lipases: This group of enzymes help digest fats in the gut.

 Amylase: In the saliva, amylase helps change starches into sugars.
 Maltase: This also occurs in the saliva, and breaks the sugar maltose into glucose.
 Pepsin: Which break down proteins into aminoacids.
 Trypsin: These enzymes break proteins down into amino acids in the small intestine.
 Lactase: Lactase breaks lactose, the sugar in milk, into glucose and galactose.
 Acetylcholinesterase: These enzymes break down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in nerves
and muscles.
 Helicase: Helicase enzymes unravel DNA.
 DNA polymerase: These enzymes synthesize DNA from deoxyribonucleotides.

VITAMINS

Vitamins are organic compounds, found in natural foods which are required for normal growth
and maintenance of the normal body functions.

Properties

 They are organic molecules.

 They are low molecular weight.
 They have key role in metabolism.
 Some vitamins are fat soluble
 Some vitamins are water soluble.

Functions:

Types of Vitamins Deficiency Function

Diseases
A (Retinol) Night blindness Essential for vision
B1 (Thiamine) Beri-beri Energy metabolism, nerve function and
carbohydrate

B2 (Riboflavin) Retarded growth, Energy metabolism, nerve function and

bad skin carbohydrate

B3 DNA Repair

B6 It plays a crucial role in brain development and

function, immune & health.
B12 (Cyanocobalamin) Anaemia DNA synthesis, red blood cell
C (Ascorbic acid) Scurvy Antioxidant that supports immune function,
D (Calciferol) Rickets Essential for calcium absorption, bone health, and
immune function.
K (Phylloquinone) Deficiency can Vitamin K is also known as coagulation vitamin
contribute to
significant bleeding,
poor bone
development,
E An antioxidant that protects cell membranes from
oxidative damage.

LIPIDS

Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds which include fats, waxes. Essential roles in
cellular structure & energy.

Properties

 Energy rich organic molecules

 Lipids are non-polar.
 Lipids are Soluble in nonpolar solvent.
 Lipids are Insoluble in water.
 They have Greasy in texture.
 Either liquid or non-crystalline solid at room temperature.
 Hydrophobic or amphiphilic in nature.
 Present either in saturated or unsaturated structural form.
 Stored in adipose tissues in the body.

Functions

 It helps in the absorption of vitamins/fat soluble nutrients

 Storing and providing energy.
 Chemical messengers.
 Cholesterol formation.
 Regulating body temperature.
 Formation of Prostaglandin and its role in inflammation.
 Membrane lipid layer formation.
 It helps in the synthesis of hormones.
 Transmit nerve impels.

STEM CELL
 Stem cells are cells with the potential to develop into many different types of cells in the body.
They serve as a repair system for the body.
 They are also called blank cells.
 They have the ability of self-renewal.
There are two main types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.
Embryonic stem cells
Embryonic stem cells are self-replicating pluripotent cells that are potentially immortal. They are
derived from embryos at a developmental stage before the time of implantation would normally
occur in the uterus.
Adult Stem Cells
These stem cells are obtained from developed organs and tissues. They can repair and replace the
damaged tissues in the region where they are located. For eg., hematopoietic stem cells are found
in the bone marrow.
They are classified as Totipotent, multipotent & pluripotent.
Totipotent stem cells are embryonic stem cells that are present during the first few cell divisions
post fertilization and can form any of the different types of cells in the body. Or
Totipotent that are able to develop into any type of cell found in the body. Totipotent stem cells
come from an early embryo
 Pluripotent stem cells are a particularly potent type of stem cell that normally only exists during
early embryonic development.
Multipotent stem cells are adult stem cells that can form other types of cell , but have limited
potency.
Disadvantages
Risk of rejection by the body's immune system & may turning into cancer cells.
Advantages/Functions
 They serve as a repair system for the body.
 Stem cells can also treat diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s. These can help to
replace the damaged brain cells.
 The adult hematopoietic stem cells are used to sickle cell anaemia, and other immunodeficiency
diseases.
 These stem cells can be used to produce red blood cells and white blood cells in the body.
 The stem cells can be used to grow a specific type of tissue or organ. This can be helpful in
kidney and liver transplants.
 Stem cells use to develop skin tissue that can repair severe burns or other injuries by tissue
grafting.
 These stem cells are used in bone marrow transplants to treat specific types of cancers.
 Meat can grow in laboratory using stem cells.
 Plants can grow using stem cell.
CELL: The smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms and the
tissues of the body.
The smallest Basic structural unit in a living organism.
Unicellular organisms are capable of independent existence and performing the essential
functions of life.
Cell are building blocks of multi cellular organism.Multicellular organisms are consist of more
than one cell.

STRUCTURE OF CELL

The basic components of a cell are cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.

Cell membrane:

The cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane. It is a biological membrane that
separates and protects the interior of a cell from the outside environment. The cell membrane
 consists of a lipid bilayer that is semipermeable. The plasma membrane allows or permits the
entry and exit of some materials in and out of the cell. It also prevents movement of some other
materials. The cell membrane, therefore, is called a selectively permeable membrane.
Nucleus: Houses genetic material (DNA), controlling cell activities
Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is defined as a jelly-like substance present within a cell and is
located between the cell membrane and the nucleus.

Functions:

1. Respiration: Converts glucose into ATP for energy.

2. Protein Synthesis: Translates genetic information into proteins.
3. Storage and Processing: Synthesizes, modifies, and transports molecules.
4. Cellular Communication: Signals between cells via various molecules.
5. Waste Management: Breaks down and recycles cellular waste.
6. Cell Division: Replicates cells for growth, repair, and reproduction.
7. Movement: Supports cell movement and shape changes.

PROKARYOTIC CELL: The term “prokaryote” is derived from the Greek word “pro“,
(meaning: before) and “karyon” (meaning: kernel). It translates to “before nuclei.
Prokaryotes are one of the most ancient groups of living organisms on earth (fossil records
dating back to almost 3.5 billion years ago.)
The single-celled organisms such as Bacteria and Archaea.

EUKARYOTIC CELL

The term “Eukaryotes” is derived from the Greek word “eu“, (meaning: good) and “karyon”
(meaning: kernel), therefore, translating to “good or true nuclei.”
Eukaryotes are more complex and much larger than prokaryotes.
The multicellular organisms such as Animal cells & plant cells,

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotes

Size Small size Large size

Genetic Naked DNA dispersed in the Enclosed within a nuclear

materials cytoplasm envelope
Nucleus Absent Present

Nucleolus Absent Present

Chromosome Contains single chromosome Contains more than one chromosome
Ribosomes 70S type 80S type
Cell They are unicellular Multicellular
Mitochondria Absent Present
Cell division Cell division occur at mitosis Cell division occur at mitosis and
meiosis
Example Bacteria, blue green algae Fungi, Plant & animal cell.

CELL:

Animal cell: Animal cells are eukaryotic cells with a membrane-bound nucleus. Animal are in
range of size between 1 and 100 micrometers and are thus visible under microscope. Animal
cells are generally smaller than plant cells. Cell wall is absent & irregular shape.
Animal cells are made up of several parts called organelles that work together and enable the cell
to function.
Cell membrane: The cell membrane is also called the plasma membrane. It is found in all cells
and separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment. The cell membrane consists
of a lipid bilayer that is semipermeable. The plasma membrane allows or permits the entry and
exit of some materials in and out of the cell. It also prevents movement of some other materials.
Mitochondria are sub-cellular organelles responsible for producing the majority of cellular
energy. The function of mitochondria is to take nutrients and produce the energy needed to
power the biochemical reactions of the cell. This energy takes the form of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) They are the powerhouse of a cell. The human body has 1,00,000 to 6,00,000
mitochondria in each cell. which can produce 90% of the energy in the body to perform daily
tasks.
Nucleus: It is called the brain of the cell. The nucleus is found in the middle of the cells and it
contains genetic information(DNA arranged in chromosomes). It is surrounded by the nuclear
envelope, a double nuclear membrane (outer and inner), which separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm. It coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism,
protein, synthesis and reproduction (cell division).
Nuclear Membrane
It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also called as nuclear
envelope.
Cytoplasm is the gelatinous liquid that fills the inside of a cell. It is composed of water, salts,
and various organic molecules. Some intracellular organelles such the nucleus and mitochondria
are enclosed by membranes that separate them from the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm holds the internal
components of cells in place and protects them from damage.
Lysosomes: The lysosome is the “waste disposal and recycling center” for the cell. Lysosomes
break down cellular waste products and debris from outside the cell into simple compounds,
which are transferred to the cytoplasm as new cell-building materials.
Ribosomes- Ribosomes help in the process of creating proteins. Their attachment is either to the
endoplasmic reticulum or they float freely in the cell’s cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large, dynamic structure that
serves many roles in the cell including calcium storage, protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.
Its function is to produce proteins for the rest of the cell to function.
Only for plant cells
Plasmodesmata: are microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells and some
algal cells, enabling transport and communication between them. It is absent in animal cell.
Cell Wall: It is absent in animal cell & leads to flexibility and mobility.
The lack of a rigid cell wall allows animal cells to change shape, move, and interact with their
environment. It allowed animals to develop a greater diversity of cell types, tissues, and organs.
Specialized cells that formed nerves and muscles tissues.
This flexibility is essential for various cellular functions including cell migration, muscle
contraction and immune responses.
The lack of a rigid cell wall. The ability to move about by the use of specialized muscle tissues is
a hallmark of the animal world.
This additional layer surrounding the cell membrane is required by the plants for protection.
Plant cells need protection against variations in temperature, high wind speed, atmospheric
moisture, it is impossible for plants to show mobility.
Chloroplast is an organelle that contains the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll that captures
sunlight and converts it into useful energy, thereby, releasing oxygen from water. Present in
plant cell.

Organelle Animal Plant cell

Cell Membrane Present present
Nucleus Present Present
Mitochondria Present Present
Endoplasmic Present Present
Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus Present Present
Lysosomes Present Rarely present
Ribosomes Present Present
 Chloroplasts Present Absent
Cell Wall Absent Present
Plasmodesmata Absent Present

Sl.No Questions
1. Define Biomolecule. Classify the Biomolecules.
2 Explain the structure, properties & applications of cellulose as micron filter.
3 Discuss the properties & functions of proteins, enzymes, vitamins, lipids &
hormones.
4 Define stem cell. Discuss the types & applications of stem cells.
5 Define cell. Discuss Plant & animal cell with neat diagram or Compare plant
& animal cell.